NPTEL – Mechanical Engineering – Continuum Mechanics

Module-5: Constitutive Relations

Lecture-38: Thermomechanics of Fluids

In this lecture, we discuss the implications of second law of thermodynamics on simple

fluids (i.e., the fluid with assumption of simple material). The short-range time history is
accounted along with the assumption of simple fluid while ignoring the long-range time
history. In particular, we consider the constitutive relations such that they are functions
of rate of deformation gradient Ḟ and not higher time derivatives of deformation gradi-
ent, i.e., F̈ , · · · . Furthermore, the Eulerian framework is convenient for fluid mechanics.
Hence, constitutive relations for Cauchy stress, heat flux, internal energy and entropy are
given by

τ = τ̂ (X, F , θ, g, Ḟ ),
q = q̂(X, F , θ, g, Ḟ ),
e = ê(X, F , θ, g, Ḟ ),
η = η̂(X, F , θ, g, Ḟ ),

where g is temperature gradient, i.e., g = ∇X θ and X represents the material point or

particle. We use the terminology ‘viscous fluid’ to indicate the simple fluid without long-
range memory effects. As mentioned in Lecture-35, fluids known to exhibit all possible
symmetries. Hence, we have

τ̂ (X, F , θ, g, Ḟ ) = τ̂ (X, F H, θ, g, Ḟ H),

q̂(X, F , θ, g, Ḟ ) = q̂(X, F H, θ, g, Ḟ H),
ê(X, F , θ, g, Ḟ ) = ê(X, F H, θ, g, Ḟ H),
η̂(X, F , θ, g, Ḟ ) = η̂(X, F H, θ, g, Ḟ H),

for every unimodular tensor H, i.e., for every H such that det(H) = 1. Let L and ρ be
velocity gradient and density field, respectively. Then, choosing H = J 1/3 F −1 , we get

τ̂ (X, F , θ, g, Ḟ ) = τ̂ (X, J 1/3 I, θ, g, J 1/3 L) = τ̃ (X, ρ, θ, g, L)

q̂(X, F , θ, g, Ḟ ) = q̂(X, J 1/3 I, θ, g, J 1/3 L) = q̃(X, ρ, θ, g, L)
ê(X, F , θ, g, Ḟ ) = ê(X, J 1/3 I, θ, g, J 1/3 L) = ẽ(X, ρ, θ, g, L)
η̂(X, F , θ, g, Ḟ ) = η̂(X, J 1/3 I, θ, g, J 1/3 L) = η̃(X, ρ, θ, g, L), (1)

since ρ0 = ρJ.

Problem 1. The constitutive relation τ = τ̃ (X, ρ, θ, g, L) is isotropic and follows the

principle of material frame-indifference if and only if τ̃ (X, ρ, θ, g, L) = τ̃ (X, ρ, θ, g, D),
where D is symmetric part of L.

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Proof. The given constitutive relation τ = τ̃ (X, ρ, θ, g, L). Let F ∗ and F be fixed and
moving frames as discussed in the principle of material frame-indifference (see Lecture-34).
Then
τ̃ (X ∗ , ρ∗ , θ∗ , g ∗ , L∗ ) = Qτ̃ (X, ρ, θ, g, L)QT ,
where Q(t) is relative rotation between frames. Since X ∗ = X, ρ∗ = ρ, θ∗ = θ, g ∗ = g and
L∗ = QLQT + Q̇QT (see Lectures 31, 32 and 35) and the velocity gradient L = D + W
where D is symmetric part and W is skew symmetric part, above equation can be written
as
τ̃ (X, ρ, θ, g, QDQT + QW QT + Q̇QT ) = Qτ̃ (X, ρ, θ, g, L)QT , (2)
where Q is arbitrary rotation tensor. For any given skewsymmetric tensor W , we can
choose an orthogonal tensor such that
Q(0) = I and Q̇(0) = −W .
Substituting these relations in Eq. (2), we get
τ̃ (X, ρ, θ, g, L) = τ̃ (X, ρ, θ, g, D).
Thus, the principle of material frame-indifference implies above relation. Since the given
function is isotropic, the converse is trivial.

Applying similar steps that are discussed in Problem-1 to other constitutive relations,
we can show that they are also function of rate of deformation. In summary, we have
τ = τ̃ (X, ρ, θ, g, D)
q = q̃(X, ρ, θ, g, D)
e = ẽ(X, ρ, θ, g, D)
η = η̃(X, ρ, θ, g, D), (3)
The following Clausius-Duhem inequality (second law of thermodynamics) in terms of
internal energy e and entropy η can be obtained from Eqs. (10) and (13) of Lecture-30.
De Dη 1 q·g
−θ − τ :D+ ≤ 0. (4)
Dt Dt ρ ρθ
Since the constitutive relations are not direct function of time, we have
De ∂e ∂e ∂e ∂e Dη ∂η ∂η ∂η ∂η
= ρ̇ + θ̇ + · ġ + : Ḋ and = ρ̇ + θ̇ + · ġ + : Ḋ.
Dt ∂ρ ∂θ ∂g ∂D Dt ∂ρ ∂θ ∂g ∂D
Substituting these relations in above Clausius-Duhem inequality, we get
! ! !
∂e ∂η ∂e ∂η ∂e ∂η
−θ ρ̇ + −θ θ̇ + −θ · ġ
∂ρ ∂ρ ∂θ ∂θ ∂g ∂g
!
∂e ∂η 1 q·g
+ −θ : Ḋ − τ :D+ ≤ 0.
∂D ∂D ρ ρθ
Let v be a spatial velocity field. Then the conservation of mass can be written as ρ̇ =
−ρ ∇x · v = −ρ tr(L) = −ρ I : L. Substitution of this relation yields
! ! !
∂e ∂η ∂e ∂η ∂e ∂η
−θ θ̇ + −θ · ġ + −θ : Ḋ
∂θ ∂θ ∂g ∂g ∂D ∂D
! !
∂e ∂η 1 q·g
+ − ρ − ρθ I− τ :D+ ≤ 0. (5)
∂ρ ∂ρ ρ ρθ

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Clearly, the constitutive relations are not function of θ̇, ġ and Ḋ as shown in Eq. (3).
Since θ̇, ġ and Ḋ are arbitrary, we get
∂e ∂η ∂e ∂η ∂e ∂η
−θ = 0, −θ = 0, and −θ =O (6)
∂θ ∂θ ∂g ∂g ∂D ∂D
! !
∂e ∂η 1 q·g
ρ − ρθ I+ τ :D− ≥0 (7)
∂ρ ∂ρ ρ ρθ

Differentiating Eq. (6)1 with g and Eq. (6)2 with θ, we can write

∂ 2e ∂ 2η ∂ 2e ∂ 2η ∂η
−θ = 0 and −θ − = 0.
∂g∂θ ∂g∂θ ∂θ∂g ∂θ∂g ∂g
Combining these two equations yield
∂η
= 0. (8)
∂g

Substitution of this relation in Eq. (6)2 give rise to

∂e
= 0. (9)
∂g
Thus, the internal energy and entropy are independent of temperature gradient g. Similar
steps applied to Eq. (6)1 and Eq. (6)3 , we get

∂η ∂e
= O and =O (10)
∂D ∂D
In conclusion, constitutive relation to internal energy and entropy reduces to

e = ẽ(X, ρ, θ) and η = η̃(X, ρ, θ). (11)

We now consider the dissipation inequality (see Eq. (7))

δ(ρ, θ, g, D) ≥ 0 (12)

where the dissipation function

! !
∂e ∂η q·g
δ(ρ, θ, g, D) = ρ2 −θ I +τ :D− (13)
∂ρ ∂ρ θ

The thermodynamic equilibrium is defined as the process that is independent of time and
also uniform. Physically, the thermodynamic equilibrium refers to mechanical equilibrium
(force balance), thermal equilibrium (no heat transfer between system and surroundings)
and chemical equilibrium (no change in reactants and products with time). For the
thermodynamic equilibrium, we have the following velocity and temperature fields.

v(x, t) = constant and θ(x, t) = constant, ∀x = Ω. (14)

The velocity and temperature field imply

D = O and g = 0. (15)

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Therefore, at thermodynamic equilibrium, Eq. (13) shows zero dissipation, i.e,

δ(ρ, θ, 0, O) = 0. (16)

It is clear from Eqs. (12) and (16) that the dissipation function δ is minimum at thermody-
namic equilibrium. In order to have minimum dissipation at thermodynamic equilibrium,
we need to have the necessary condition
∂δ ∂δ
= O and =0 (17)
∂D ∂g
and positive definite Hessian (second derivative of dissipation) for sufficiency condition.
The Hessian of dissipation function is given by
∂ 2δ ∂ 2δ
 

 ∂D∂D ∂D∂g 
 
H=  
. (18)
 ∂ 2δ ∂ 2δ 
∂D∂g ∂g∂g
Taking derivatives to the dissipation function (see Eq. (13)), we get
!
∂δ ∂e ∂η ∂τ 1 ∂q
= τ + ρ2 −θ I+ :D− · g, (19)
∂D ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂D θ ∂D
∂δ ∂τ q 1 ∂q
= :D− − · g, (20)
∂g ∂g θ θ ∂g
where
! !
∂τ ∂τkl ∂q ∂qk
:D = Dkl , ·g = gk ,
∂D ij
∂Dij ∂D ij
∂Dij
! !
∂τ ∂τjk ∂q ∂qj
:D = Djk , and ·g = gj .
∂g i
∂gi ∂g i
∂gi

The derivatives at thermodynamic equilibrium, i.e., the evaluation of derivatives at D =

O and g = 0, yield
 ! 
∂δ  ∂e ∂η ∂δ  q
 = τ + ρ2 −θ I, and  =− . (21)
∂D T .E. ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂g T .E. θ

In above relations the subscript T .E. represents thermodynamic equilibrium. Since the
derivatives should vanish at thermodynamic equilibrium (see Eq. (17)), we have
 
 
τ = −pI and q = 0, (22)
 
 
T .E. T .E.

where thermodynamic pressure

!
∂e ∂η
p = ρ2 −θ . (23)
∂ρ ∂ρ

Since the free energy ψ = e − ηθ (see Lecture-30), the thermodynamic pressure can be
written as
∂ψ
p = ρ2 . (24)
∂ρ

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In conclusion, at thermodynamic equilibrium the state of stress is isotropic and it is

determined by the free energy. In addition, the heat flux vanishes at the thermodynamic
equilibrium.
In general (including for non-equilibrium processes) the constitutive relations for stress
and heat flux are given by

τ = τ̃ (X, ρ, θ, g, D) and q = q̃(X, ρ, θ, g, D). (25)

We now define the viscous stress

σ = σ̃(X, ρ, θ, g, D) = τ̃ (X, ρ, θ, g, D) − τ̃ (X, ρ, θ, 0, O). (26)

In other words, the stress tensor can be decomposed into two parts: (i) thermodynamic
equilibrium stress (ii) viscous stress. Therefore, the stress tensor

τ = −pI + σ. (27)

Substituting this relation in dissipation inequality (i.e., in Eq. (12)), we get

1
σ : D − q · g ≥ 0. (28)
θ

Summary of the relations:

In summary, we have the following relations

• The constitutive relations for internal energy and entropy are given by

e = ẽ(X, ρ, θ) and η = η̃(X, ρ, θ).

• The thermodynamic equilibrium stress



τ  = τ̃ (X, ρ, θ, 0, O) = −pI

T .E

where !
2 ∂e ∂η
p=ρ −θ .
∂ρ ∂ρ
• Let σ = σ̃(X, ρ, θ, g, D) be viscous stress then the total stress is given by

τ = −pI + σ.

• The dissipation inequality

1
σ : D − q · g ≥ 0.
θ

The momentum balance and energy balance:

The following momentum and energy balance equations can be obtained with the substi-
tution of the stress decomposition, i.e., decomposition of viscous stress and equilibrium
stress, into previously stated momentum and energy balances.
!
∂v
ρ + (∇v)v = −∇p + ∇ · σ + ρb, (29)
∂t
∂e
ρ = −p∇ · v + σ : D − ∇ · q + ρQh , (30)
∂t

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where v is velocity field. The term σ : D is known as mechanical dissipation as it

appears in the dissipation function. Physically the term σ : D represents the conversion
of mechanical energy into thermal energy due to viscous effects.
Viscous heat-conducting fluids:
It is reasonable to assume the isotropic constitutive relations for fluids as they exhibit all
possible material symmetries. In particular, the constitutive relations for Cauchy stress,
heat flux, internal energy and entropy are isotropic. The isotropy of constitutive relation
for Cauchy stress implies the isotropy of viscous stress as the thermodynamic pressure is
an isotropic tensor. In result, we have the following isotropic functions.

σ = σ̃(ρ, θ, g, D),
q = q̃(ρ, θ, g, D),
e = ẽ(ρ, θ),
η = η̃(ρ, θ).

The isotropic functions of viscous stress and heat flux have the following representation1

σ = γ0 I + γ1 D + γ2 D 2 + γ3 g ⊗ g + γ4 (Dg ⊗ g + g ⊗ Dg) + γ5 (Dg ⊗ Dg),

q = (β0 I + β1 D + β2 D 2 )g, (31)

where the scalars γi are isotropic functions of ρ, θ, g and D, i.e.,

γi = γ̃i (ρ, θ, tr(D), tr(D 2 ), tr(D 3 ), g · g, g · Dg, g · D 2 g).

It is clear that both the viscous stress σ and also the heat flux q are dependent on rate
of deformation D and temperature gradient g.
Uncoupled viscous heat-conducting fluids:
In case of uncoupled system, we assume that viscous stress is independent of temperature
gradient and the heat flux is independent of rate of deformation. The constitutive relations
for uncoupled system can be written as

σ = γ0 (ρ, θ, 0, ID )I + γ1 (ρ, θ, 0, ID )D + γ2 (ρ, θ, 0, ID )D 2 ,

q = β0 (ρ, θ, g · g, O)g,

where ID represents set of three invariants of D. We can have two special cases: (i) rate
of deformation is zero (D = O) and temperature gradient is non-zero (g 6= 0) (ii) rate
of deformation is non-zero (D 6= O) and temperature gradient is zero (g = 0). We note
that later case is also known as Reiner-Rivlin fluid.
Heat conducting fluid:
Since the rate of deformation is zero (D = O), we only have heat conduction inequality

q · g ≤ 0 =⇒ β0 (ρ, θ, g · g, O) g · g ≤ 0. (32)

Since g · g ≥ 0, we have β0 ≤ 0. We now define the conductivity

k = −β0 . (33)
1
Liu, I-S., Continuum Mechanics, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 2002.

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Therefore, the heat flux relation can be written as

q = −kg. (34)

This relation is known as Fourier law of heat conduction for fluids. Furthermore, the
Fourier law is similar to both solids and also for fluids. Through this law is important for
fluids, there are many instances where convective heat transfer is more than conduction.
Thus, in many practical problems involving fluids the conduction can be ignored. There
are few problems where the conduction is important. For example if the fluid does not have
sufficient space (thin fluid layer between walls) to convect then conduction is important.

Reiner-Rivlin fluids:
In this case, we assume that the temperature gradient is zero (g = 0). The constitutive
relation for the viscous stress can be written as

σ = γ0 (ρ, θ, 0, ID )I + γ1 (ρ, θ, 0, ID )D + γ2 (ρ, θ, 0, ID )D 2 , (35)

subjected to the (Clausius-Duhem) inequality

σ : D ≥ 0. (36)

References

1. C. S. Jog, Continuum Mechanics: Foundations and Applications of Mechanics, Vol-

ume I, Third edition, 2015, Cambridge University Press.

2. Z. Martinec, Lecture Notes on Continuum Mechanics

(Link: http://geo.mff.cuni.cz/vyuka/Martinec-ContinuumMechanics.pdf)

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