University of Mosul

College of Engineering
Architectural Department
Lecturer: Tuqa Waleed Ahmed

* Strain:
* Simple Strain:
Strain (ϵ) is the ratio of the change in length caused by the applied force,
to the original length.(Also known as unit deformation).
𝛅
𝛜= … 𝟑
𝐋
where δ is the deformation and L is the original length, thus ϵ is
dimensionless.

Fig. 7 Deformation of a prismatic bar.

* Stress-Strain Diagram:
Suppose that a metal specimen be placed in tension-compression testing
machine. As the axial load is gradually increased in increments, the total
elongation over the gage length is measured at each increment of the load
and this is continued until failure of the specimen takes place. Knowing the
original cross-sectional area and length of the specimen, the normal stress σ
and the strain ϵ can be
obtained. The graph of these
quantities with the stress σ
along the y-axis and the
strain ϵ along the x-axis is
called the stress-strain
diagram.
The stress-strain diagram
differs in form for various
materials. The diagram
shown here is that for a
Fig. 8 Stress-strain diagram obtained
medium carbon structural from the standard tension test on a
steel. structural steel specimen.
 University of Mosul
College of Engineering
Architectural Department
Lecturer: Tuqa Waleed Ahmed

* Stress-Strain Diagram:
Metallic engineering materials are classified as either ductile or brittle
materials. A ductile material is one having relatively large tensile strains up
to the point of rupture like structural steel and aluminum,
whereas brittle materials has a relatively small strain up to the point of
rupture like cast iron and concrete. An arbitrary strain of 0.05 mm/mm is
frequently taken as the dividing line between these two classes.

Fig. 9 Stress-strain diagram for various Fig. 8 Stress-strain diagram obtained

materials that fail without significant from the standard tension test on a
yielding. structural steel specimen.

* Stress-Strain Diagram:
* Proportional Limit (Hooke's Law):
The stress-strain diagram is a straight line from the origin O to a point
called the proportional limit. This plot is a manifestation of Hooke’s law:
Stress is proportional to strain; that is:
𝛔 = 𝐄𝛜 … 𝟒
where E is a material property
known as the modulus of
elasticity or Young’s modulus.
The units of E are the same as
the units of stress—that is, Pa or
psi. For steel, E = 29 ∗ 106 psi,
or 200 GPa, approximately.
Note that Hooke’s law does not
apply to the entire diagram; its
validity ends at the proportional
limit. Beyond this point, stress is Fig. 8 Stress-strain diagram obtained
no longer proportional to strain. from the standard tension test on a
structural steel specimen.
 University of Mosul
College of Engineering
Architectural Department
Lecturer: Tuqa Waleed Ahmed

* Elastic Limit: A material is said to be elastic if, after being loaded, the
material returns to its original shape when the load is removed. The elastic
limit is, as its name implies, the stress beyond which the material is no
longer elastic. The permanent deformation that remains after the removal of
the load is called the permanent set.
* Yield Point: The point where
the stress-strain diagram
becomes almost horizontal is
called the yield point, and the
corresponding stress is known
as the yield stress or yield
strength. Beyond the yield point
there is an appreciable
elongation, or yielding, of the
material without a
corresponding increase in load. Fig. 8 Stress-strain diagram obtained
Indeed, the load may actually from the standard tension test on a
decrease while the yielding structural steel specimen.
occurs.

* Ultimate Stress: The ultimate stress or ultimate strength, as it is often

called, is the highest stress on the stress-strain curve.
* Rupture Stress: The rupture stress or rupture strength is the stress at
which failure occurs.
* Working stress and factor of
safety: The working stress 𝜎𝑤 , also
called the allowable stress, is the
maximum safe axial stress used in
design. In most designs, the working
stress should be limited to values not
exceeding the proportional limit so that
the stresses remain in the elastic range.
However, because the proportional limit is difficult to determine
accurately, it is customary to base the working stress on either the yield
stress σyp or the ultimate stress σult , divided by a suitable number N,
called the factor of safety. Thus,
𝛔𝐲𝐩 𝛔𝐮𝐥𝐭
𝛔𝐰 = 𝐨𝐫 𝛔𝐰 = … (𝟓)
𝐍 𝐍
 University of Mosul
College of Engineering
Architectural Department
Lecturer: Tuqa Waleed Ahmed

* Axially Loaded Bars:

In the linear portion of the stress-strain diagram, the tress is proportional to
strain and is given by: σ = E ϵ
since σ = P / A and ϵ = δ / L,
then P / A = E δ / L.
Solving for δ:
𝐏𝐋 𝛔𝐋
𝛅= = … 𝟔
𝐀𝐄 𝐄
To use this formula, the load must be axial,
the bar must have a uniform cross sectional Fig. 9 Axially loaded uniform bar.
area, and the stress must not exceed
the proportional limit.
If however, the cross sectional area is not
uniform, the axial deformation can be
determined by considering a differential
length and applying integration.
𝐋
𝐏 𝐝𝐱
𝛅= … (𝟕)
𝐄 𝟎 𝐀
where: A = ty and y and t, if variable, must be Fig. 10 Axially loaded bar
with variable cross section.
expressed in terms of x.

* Example (1):
A steel rod having a cross-sectional area of 300 mm2 and a length of 150
m is suspended vertically from one end. It supports a tensile load of 20
kN at the lower end. Neglecting the weight of the rod to find the
elongation of the rod. use E = 200 × 103 MN/m2 .
* Solution:

PL
δ=
EA

20000(150000)
δ=
300(200000) δ

δ = 50 mm

due to the loading without considering rod selfweight.

 University of Mosul
College of Engineering
Architectural Department
Lecturer: Tuqa Waleed Ahmed

* Example (2):
The steel propeller shaft ABCD carries the axial loads shown in the
figure. Determine the change in the length of the shaft caused by these
loads. Use E = 29*106 psi for steel.
* Solution:
Fx = 0

PAB − 2000 = 0 → PAB = 2000 1b (T) = PBC

Fx = 0

−4000 + PCD = 0 → PCD = 4000 1b (C).

PL 1 PL PL PL
δ= = + +
EA E A AB A BC A CD

1 2000 5 ∗ 12 2000 4 ∗ 12 4000 4 ∗ 12

= + −
29∗106 π 0.5 2 π 0.75 2 π 0.75 2
4 4 4
= 0.01358 in. elongation .