LESSON 1: NATURE, GOAL, AND PERSPECTIVE IN ANTHROPOLOGY, SOCIOLOGY,

AND POLITICAL SCIENCE.

ROOT WORD
ANTHROPOLOGY SOCIOLOGY

Anthropos (Greek word) – Socius (Latin word) – means

means human being companion

Logos (Greek word) – speech Sociology – Science or study

or reason / study or science of society

Logy – the study of

Anthropology – the study of

humanity

ANTHROPOLOGY VS. SOCIOLOGY

ANTHROPOLOGY SOCIOLOGY

- What does it mean to be - How do we study society? What

human? Who are you?
Where do you come from?
- study of human culture. It uses
a special research method
known as ethnography in which
anthropologists are required to
live with their subject of study
for a long period of time in
order to make their writings
more reliable and credible.
are the things that you think
influence your life? What is life
to people living in places with
different culture and behavior?
- study of society, patterns of
social interactions, and culture
of everyday life.

SUBJECT OF INQUIRY
ANTHROPOLOGY SOCIOLOGY

- Biological anthropology refers to the - Anything in a society that influences

study of human origins (genetics, race, people’s lives can be subjects of inquiry,
evolutions, fossils, primates). like different social phenomena, issues,
and problems.
- Cultural anthropology is the study of
living people (religion, social system,
language, clothing, foods, beliefs,
traditions, etc).
- Linguistics is the study of language, its beliefs, traditions, norms, among others.
evolution, its connection to other
languages, and others.
- Archeology refers to the study of dead
culture (religion, social system,
language, how they dress, foods, beliefs,
traditions, etc)
WHO STARTED THE FIELD
ANTHROPOLOGY
Franz Boas –considered as the father of
modern American anthropology. His
study led to the doctrine of “historical
particularism,” where he stated that each
society is considered as having a unique
form of culture that cannot be understood
under an overall definition of general
culture.
ANTHROPOLOGY
- See the commonalities among people
(tradition, language, kinship, etc).
- Look at what makes us the same to
understand more about human
nature.
- Sociologists can also look into things
that influence life like family
background, socio-economic status,
ethnicity, social classes, religion, gender,
- Some fields are social organization,
social psychology, applied sociology, and
human ecology.
SOCIOLOGY
Auguste Comte – French philosopher and
mathematician. He coined the term
sociology. He saw the need for a
systematic science of studying society and
in dealing with the solution of its basic
problems.
GOALS
SOCIOLOGY
- Obtain possible theories and
principles about society as well as
various aspects of social life.
- Study the nature of humanity to
further examine our roles within a
 - Discover what makes people different
from each other in order to
understand and preserve diversity.
- Produce new knowledge and new
theories about mankind and
behavior.
society.
- Appreciate that all things in society
are interdependent.
- Expose our minds to different
perspectives in attaining truth.

- Look at one’s own culture more

objectively.

Sociology and anthropology are social science disciplines that focus on studying
the behavior of humans within their societies. The main difference between the two
concepts is that sociology concentrates on society (social institutions/structures) while
anthropology focuses on culture.

Political Science - Politics impacts our lives directly or indirectly, whether we are aware
of its effects or not. If there is a crime that took place, we call the police, and this scheme
is part of the government. If there was a fire that occurred, we call the fire department,
and that’s also a part of the government. Military is the government as well, let alone
our civil liberty and our rights which have influences on us daily. In school, you were
asked to read by heart the Constitution. When you are apprehended by an authority,
you question your violation and insisted on your legal rights. Even inside your house,
there are still a set of rules that are being enforced and followed. All these things are
related to a field called Political Science.

POLITICAL SCIENCE

Lesson 2: CONCEPTS, ASPECTS, AND CHANGES OF CULTURE AND SOCIETY

Culture and Society as a Complex Whole

 Edward Taylor, one of the founders of modern anthropology, characterizes culture
as a “complex whole” which emphasizes beliefs, practices, traits, values, attitudes,
laws, norms (usual typical or standard in a society), artifacts, symbols, knowledge, and
everything that a person learns and shares as a member of the society.

The “complex whole” above suggests that culture cannot be simply broken down
into a set of characteristics. It mean that an understanding of a part can only be
achieved in relation to other parts of the system. This requires an approach where all
at once, one can get an appreciation of what culture is all about without being bothered
by its complexity or by any definition that attempts to capture such complexity.

A society cannot exist apart from culture. A society may refer to a group of people
that follows or shares the same cultures. People, as members of the society, possess,
produce, and also transmit culture but they cannot consider themselves as culture. No
culture can exist without social interaction in society; meanwhile, society cannot exist
in the absence of people who have learned to live and work together.

Characteristics of Culture

1. Culture is social because it is the product of behavior

- Culture does not exist in isolation. It is a product of society. It develops
through social interaction. No man can acquire culture without
association with others.
2. Culture varies from society to society
- Every society has a culture of its own that differs from other societies. The
culture of every society is unique by itself. Cultures are not uniform.
Cultural elements like customs, traditions, morals, values, and beliefs are
not constant.
3. Culture is shared
- Culture is not something that an individual alone can possess. Culture, in
sociological sense, is shared. Fro example, people of a society share all
customs, traditions, beliefs, ideas, values, morals, etc.
4. Culture is learned
- Culture is not inborn. It is learned. Unlearned behavior is not culture.
Shaking hands, saying thanks, etc. are cultural behaviors. Not all
behaviors are learned, but most of these can be. Combing hair, standing
in line, telling jokes, criticizing the president, and going to movies all
constitute behaviors that need to be learned.
5. Culture us transmitted among members of society
- Cultural ways are learned by people from others. Many of these ways are
handed down from elders, parents, teachers, and others (most likely
individuals of the older generation), while other cultural behaviors are
 handed up to elders. Transmission of culture is made possible by
language. Language is the main vehicle of culture. Transmission of culture
may take place also through imitation as well as through instruction.
6. Culture is continuous and cumulative
- Culture exists as a continuous process. In its historical growth, it tends to
become cumulative. Ralph Linton called culture “the social heritage” of
man. No culture ever remains constant or permanent. It is subject to slow
but constant variation. Likewise, culture is responsive to the changing
conditions of the physical world; hence, it is dynamic.
7. Culture us gratifying and idealistic
- Culture provides proper opportunities for the satisfaction of our needs and
desires. Our needs, both biological and social, are fulfilled in cultural
ways. Culture consists of the intellectual, artistic, and social ideals, and
institutions where members of the society profess and strive to confirm.

Lesson 3:

ME AND MY CULTURE
“Them” and Their Culture “Me” and My Culture

Marriage: A man can have multiple Marriage

wives. He can share his wife to his
brothers and visitors as a sign of
hospitality. (Eskimos)

Behavior: When entering a nearly empty Behavior

movie theater or public vehicle, you are
rude when you do not sit beside the only
person in the theater or public vehicle.
(South Africa)

Hand Gesture: The V- hand gesture is an Hand Gesture

offensive sign in United Kingdom,
Australia, and South Africa. In Japan,
China, and South Korea, using this
symbol with the palm facing the person
means he/she is looking cute in picture.

Child-rearing: In order to control their Child-rearing

population in difficult environments,
Eskimos sometimes kill their children if
 they can not take care of them. They also
kill females more than males.
(Infanticide)

Religion: Individuals practicing Hinduism Religion

believe in many gods and goddesses. All
are responsible for governing their lives,
destiny, and fate.

Reading text: Hebrew and Arabic books Reading text

are read from right to left.

Table Manners: Europeans and Table Manners

Americans use spoon and fork in eating,
while Chinese and Koreans use
chopsticks.

Cultural Relativism and Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is a belief that one’s own culture is better than others.
● They tend to compare, evaluate, and even judge other people’s ways based on the
values and standards set in one’s own culture.
● Their worldview is based on the beliefs, assumptions, expectations, and values
shaped by one’s language, behavior, customs, values, religions and other aspects.
● Due to ethnocentric beliefs, many people are blinded from seeing things in
another perspective.
● Ethnocentric people tend to dislike or make false judgment on other cultures.
● They are bias and they judge another culture as bad and wrong.
● Even though we deny it, most of us are ethnocentric at some point in our lives.
Some do not even realize that they are being ethnocentric at that moment.
Xenocentrism
● It is the opposite of ethnocentrism.
● It is a belief that another culture is more superior than your own culture.

Cultural Relativism
Cultural relativism is a belief that cultures are equally complex.
● There is no such thing as superior or inferior culture.
● It is very important in studying the culture of other people.
● It is a way of viewing the beliefs, values, and practices of a culture from its own
viewpoint. Another way to say this is that others should understand an
individual’s beliefs and activities in terms of that person’s own culture.
 ● Cultural relativism promotes greater appreciation of the cultures that an
individual might encounter along the way.
● Cultural relativism is a good way to rehearse the norms and values of a society –
-- a requirement that one must subscribe to, regardless of his/her cultural origin.
● It means that the function and meaning of a trait are relative to its cultural
setting.

Lesson 4: SIGNIFICANCE OF CULTURAL, SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECONOMIC

SYMBOLS AND PRACTICES

Human Culture Evolution - It is a 1. Paleolithic Age - It happened 2.5

saying that “humans have no million million years ago. The
contentment”. As the environment term “paleolithic” was coined by
changes, we continuously grow and find archaeologist John Lubbock in
ways to adapt to our changing 1865. This is also known as the
environment. It is very evident in the Old Stone Age. Paleos - Old
different stages of human cultural Lithos - Stone
evolution: Paleolithic Period, Neolithic During these times, Earth was
Period, and Age of Metal. extremely cold, much of this age
was also called the “Ice Age”.
There are three Pre-historic Ages:
1. Paleolithic Age
2. Neolithic Age Ocean levels were much lower
3. Metal Age than they are now, people were
 nomads and they used simple
tools and weapons made of
unpolished stone. Caves served
as their shelter and people
discovered fire through the use of
stone for their protection against
the cold temperature and for
cooking their food. The people
were grouped together in small
societies and it was subsisted by:
gathering plants, fishing, and
hunting or scavenging wild
animals. Individual prowess
(expertise) and ability are
recognized. No leaders that could
be said above everybody else. In
some cases, one who is known for
good decisions is consulted when
a problem arises; like a well-
known hunter will be asked to
lead a hunting group.
3. Metal Age - This period was
2. Neolithic Age - It Happened
about 10,000 B.C. “Neolithic” was
also coined by archeologist John
Lubbock in 1865. It is also called
the New Stone Age.
Neo - New
Lithos - Stone
Cro Magnon or the first early
modern humans disappeared,
New people who are considered
the modern man appeared.
Neolithic Revolution - Neolithic
Revolution is also called the First
Agricultural Revolution. During
this period, there was a wide-
scale transition of many human
cultures from a lifestyle of
hunting and gathering to
agriculture and settlement, which
eventually led to population
increase. People depend on
domesticated plants and animals.
They learned to create such crafts
as pottery and weaving. They
likewise developed boats as
means of transportation and for
fishing as well. From being
nomads during the early stage,
humans began to develop a
sedentary type of society of which
they built-up villages and towns.
Furthermore, they were
never content with their
accomplishments. They kept on
discovering things for their own
convenience. So, they discovered
metals, and they gradually
abandoned stone as the basic
element for their instrument and
tools.
known as Age of Metals (4000 B.C
– 1500 B.C). They used metal
such as bronze, copper, and iron;
and produced a new historical
development from the cradle
civilization of Egypt,
Mesopotamia, Persia including
India, and China which later
spread throughout Asia. During
this age, agricultural tools were
developed with bronze, such as
plows and sickles, military
weapons like swords, spears and
shields, as well as household
utensils like jars, bowls and cups.
Likewise, a more developed
social, cultural, political, and
economic system were improved.
Tribes, empires, and states were
recognized at this point. There are
3 stages of Metal Age:
 1. Copper Age
2. Bronze Age
3. Iron Age
Copper was the first known
metal. It is of a low hardness and
was used to make ornaments.
Bronze is an alloy of copper and
tin, and it is harder and stronger
than copper.
weapons like swords, spears and
shields, as well as household
utensils like jars, bowls and cups.
Likewise, a more developed
social, cultural, political, and
economic system were improved.
Tribes, empires, and states were
recognized at this point.

During this age, agricultural tools

were developed with bronze, such
as plows and sickles, military

Prehistoric Ages (Summary)

Paleolithic Age Neolithic Age Metal Age

Unpolished stone tools Polished stone tools Use of metals

Hunting and gathering Domestication of plants Tribes, empires and

and animals state

Nomadic way of living Living in permanent Civilization

places

Early Civilization and Rise of the State

1. Ancient State and Civilization
1.1 Mesopotamian civilization
1.2 Egyptian Civilization
2. Modern State and Civilization
3. State of the People: Democratic
State
1. Ancient State and Civilization
Mesopotamian Civilization - one
of the earliest civilizations
- region of the Western Asia located
between Tigris and Euphrates
Rivers
- known as the Fertile Crescent
where the first evidence of
agriculture was also found.
- first human civilizations were
taking the earliest steps from
hunter-gatherer society into
settled community

- Mesopotamia (now Iraq) is the Mesopotamian Civilization -

Greek word for “land between two History writing appeared as early
rivers” as over 5,000 years ago. This
- Cradle of civilization invention was so important that it
marks the end of the Prehistory,
and the beginning of history.
Every city in Mesopotamia had its
own government, rulers,
warriors, patron god, and
functioned like an independent
country. Mesopotamian cities
were Ur, Uruk, Kish, Lagesh.
There is a temple at the center of
each city called a ziggurat (a
massive, tiered, pyramid-shaped
structure). There were also what
we called Mesopotamian warrior-
gods (2,500-2,400 B.C.) who
governed and protected the
people under its government.
Military commanders eventually
became monarch creating a new
structure of government called a
Dynasty. It is a series of rulers
descending from a single-family
line. The Akkadian Empire lasted
about 200 years. In the year
2350–2150 B.C, Babylonian
Empire overtook Sumerians
around 2000 B.C., and they built
the capital, Babylon, on the
Euphrates River.
Cuneiform - One of the first
writing systems and also one of
the most important civilizations
in the history of Mesopotamian
culture.
Egyptian Civilization - emerged
more than 5,000 years ago along
the Nile River in the north-east of
Africa. lived near the Nile River
because of its fertile land suitable
for growing crops and
domestication of animals. Each
year, water from the Nile rose and
flooded the area. When the water
went back, it left mud that made
the fields fertile. Their king was
called Paroah, who was very
powerful
Paraoh - Passed laws, ruled the
country, owned most of the land,
controlled trade, led the armies,
and was believed by the
Egyptians as God.
2. Modern State and Civilization
1500s in England - most people
lived in small villages, paid tithes
or 10 percent of their earnings to
their feudal lords, Henry VII won
the War of the Roses in England,
which led into what is known as
the Tudor dynasty, and begun the
development of the English
nation-state.
1492 Spain - Spanish monarchs
Ferdinand and Isabella took
Spain back from the Muslim. It
became the era of Spain as a
global power.
1643-1715 France - King Louis
XIV reigned as the King who
created an absolute monarchy.
King Louis XIV, also known as
“Louis the Great” and “The Sun
King” made France the dominant
power in Europe. When The
French Revolution broke out in
1789 during the reign of King
Louis XVI, it created the modern
French nation-state, which
sparked nationalism around
Europe.
 1914-1918 World War 1 or The
Great War - various nation-states
started to claim their power and
superiority over all the nations in
the world. Treaty of Versailles
ended World War I. It divided
several multinational empires
that led to the creation of several
new nation-states.
1939-1945 World War II
Axis Powers - Bulgaria, Croatia,
Hungary, Romania and Slovakia.
Rome-Berlin- Tokyo Axis (Italy,
Germany and Japan).
Allied Forces - Great Britain,
Soviet Union, United States,
France, China. The end of World
War II led to the formation of the
United Nations in 1945.
3. The State of the People:
Democratic State - In the recent
decade after the two World Wars,
people are becoming more active
LESSON 5: SOCIALIZATION
Socialization
It is the process of learning
one’s society and its culture. It is
moreover the same as interacting
mingling and being with other
people or groups within/outside
your society.
Through socialization, one
learns the culture’s language,
their roles in life, and what is
expected from them. Without
socialization, a person will
develop different physical and
mental disabilities.
in their government and state
affairs, in which people become
the source of political power and
government rules. This evolution
in the government is known as
the process of democratization, or
simply democracy – the rule of the
people. Democratization is the
transition to a more democratic
political regime, including
substantive political changes
moving in a democratic direction.
It may be the transition from an
authoritarian regime to a full
democracy, a transition from an
authoritarian political system to a
semi-democracy or transition
from a semi-authoritarian
political system to a democratic
political system. What is a
democracy? Moreover, a
democracy is a form of
government where the citizens
of the nation have the power to
vote.
AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
These agents play a crucial role
in developing yourself as a person
and a member of the society.
The following are the people that
influence your orientations and
perspectives to life:
• Family
• School
• Peer Group
• Social Media
• Other Socialization Agents
Family
- Most of the habits, manners,
beliefs and the way we think are
develop in the family. A huge part
of your personality is molded by
your family because this is where part in your personal
you spent your childhood. Your development.
family influence on the way you
behave and act as a person. This OTHER SOCIALIZATION
is when the socialization process AGENTS
is crucial and intense. - There are other socialization
agents who are also important in
Schools moulding you as a person: the
- Here, you interact or socialize community, the church and the
with other people, your government.
classmates, teachers,
administrators, and others
which are outside your family Enculturation
within a society. Your - Enculturation is the process by
socialization with them has made which people learn the
a lot of experiences in you. It is in requirements of their
the school that your behavior and surrounding culture (own
attitude are shape to become a culture) and acquire values and
better member of society. So, a behaviors appropriate or
part of your personality is necessary in that culture.
developed by this agent.
Acculturation
Peer - Acculturation is a process
- Your circle of friends is called through which a person or group
peer group. Your peers usually from one culture comes to adopt
have similar ages, social status the practices and values of
and share interests. Your peer another culture, while still
group influences you on the way retaining their own distinct
you can accept yourself. It is with culture.
your peer group that you find
yourself belong society and its LESSON 6: SOCIAL GROUPS
culture. AND ORGANIZATION

Social Media Organization

- As agent of socialization, it plays
a crucial role in shaping your
personality as well. Majority of us,
young and old, are connected
through social media. Much of
our waking time is spent on using
social media. This agent of
socialization influences your way
of life intensively thus doing large
- is an organized body of people
with a particular purpose like
business, institution,
association, etc.
Ougburn and Nimkoff defined
organization as an articulation of
different parts which perform
various functions; it is an active
group device for getting 5. Reference Groups
something done”. 6. Network

Duncan Mitchell explained 1. Primary Groups

social organization as “the -Primary groups are marked by
interdependence of parts, which concern for one another, shared
is an essential characteristics of activities and culture, and long
all enduring collective entities: periods of time spent together.
groups, communities and -They are influential in developing
societies.” an individual’s personal identity.
-The goal of primary groups is the
Eliott and Merrill defined relationships themselves rather
organization, “as a state of being, than achieving some other
a condition in which the various purpose. The examples of a
institutions in a society are primary group are, but not
functioning in accordance with limited to, family and close
their recognized or implied friends.
purposes”.
2. Secondary Groups -
Social Group Secondary relationships involve
- A social group is composed of weak emotional ties and little
two or more persons interacting personal knowledge of one
with each other and guided by a another.
set of norms. -In contrast to primary groups,
- defined as specified number of secondary groups don’t have the
individuals where each goal of maintaining and
recognizes members as distinct developing the relationships
from non-members. themselves.
- Everyone belongs to a group; -These groups are based on usual
your race, gender, favorite sports or habitual interests or affairs.
team, etc. Sometimes groupings It includes groups in which one
are determined by factors related exchanges explicit commodities,
to who we are (sex, age, such as labor for wages, services
race/ethnicity) but in many other for payments, and such.
cases, they arrive in a somewhat
arbitrary fashion. Examples: Nation, Church,
Professional Association,
BASIC CLASSIFICATION OF Corporation, University classes,
SOCIAL GROUPS Athletic teams, And groups of co-
1. Primary Groups workers.
2. Secondary Groups
3. In-groups 3. In-group
4. Out-groups
- Belonging to the same group, connections. They can be
as those who share the same characterized by the number of
common bond and interests and people involved, as in the dyad (by
who are more likely to twos) and triad (by threes), but
understand each other, refers to also in terms of their structures
an in- group. (who is connected to whom) and
Sample Groups: Sports team, functions (what flows across ties).
Unions, Fraternities and -can do more things
Sororities -gather information and socialize

4. Out-group
- Those who do not belong to the
in-group are part of the out-
group, which exist in the
perceptions of the in-group
members. Sometimes they are
those who are being used as a
negative point of reference by the
in-group.

5. Reference groups
-A collection of people that we use
as a standard of comparison for
ourselves regardless of whether
we are part of that group or not.

6. Network
-It is a collection of people tied
together by a specific pattern of