FLUIDS AND FLUID FLOW 7799
Introduction
Oil hydraulics-the science of transmitting and controlling
energy through the medium of pressurised oil has several
advantages over other methods of energy control. Oil hydraulic
systems:
- pack high power in small light components,
— have flat load (torque)-speed characteristics,
— can operate continuously under stall conditions safely,
~ provide stepless variation of speeds and
- have longer life due to the lubricating properties of the
working medium and can withstand heavy duty cycles
without undue heating of the medium.
More important, oil hydraulic systems can be easily built, using
readily available standard elements together with electrical or/and
pneumatic interface to perform any complicated sequence of
operations. These merits, far outweighing the disadvantages of
contaminant sensitivity and noisy operation, have influenced the
machine tool designer to employ oil hydraulics for not only the basic
tool and work piece movements but also for auxiliary functions such
as tool indexing and clamping, loading/unloading of workpieces,
etc. They have found applications to varying degrees in grinding,
honing, broaching, shaping and planing machines. The use of
copying attachments on lathes and milling machines is well
established. The innovation of electrohydraulic servovalve which
could conveniently interface with electrical measuring and
signalling devices has led to the popular use of electrohydraulic
servodrives in tracer controlled machines, numerically controlled
machines, electrodischarge and electrochemical machines. The
latest is the application of electrohydraulic stepping motors-electric
stepping motors with hydraulic torque amplifiers for feed drives in
an open loop configuration.
HYDRAULIC FLUIDS AND FLUID FLOW
Hydraulic fluids meant primarily to effect energy transmission
also help in:
- lubricating the elements,
— carrying away the heat generated in the system,
— sealing of moving parts and
- inhibiting rust and corrosion.780 FLUIDS AND FLUID FLOW
Paraffin based mineral oils are generally used in machine tool
hydraulics. These are more stable and have a higher viscosity index
compared to aromatic or naphthanic based oils. However, where
high temperature and fire hazardous conditions prevail these oils
are not suitable. Under such conditions, invert emulsions
(water-in-oil), water glycols, phosphate esters and silicones are
used. .
Properties
VISCOSITY
Viscosity is the most important property of the oil. Viscosity of
the oil selected should be such as to yield optimum pump perfor-
mance, due consideration being given to the type of pump, its
operating speed and pressure. Use of an oil with too low a viscosity
increases leakage and may affect the life of the components because
of inadequate lubrication, while that with too high a viscosity can
cause inefficient operation due to large pressure drops and viscous
drag with subsequent overheating. Pressure losses may be so high as
to result in cavitation in pumps.
Viscosity changes with temperature and pressure. The effect of
pressure on viscosity can be neglected in machine tool hydraulics.
The effect of temperature on the oil is indicated by its viscosity
index. An oil with higher viscosity index exhibits less change in
viscosity for unit temperature change and is hence preferred. The
viscosity index of mineral oils is improved by certain additives.
BULK MODULUS/COMPRESSIBILITY
Bulk modulus which is the reciprocal of compressibility is de-
fined as change in pressure required to cause unit volumetric strain.
It is an important parameter in the system design, figuring in calcu-
lations of pump output, decompression volumes, pressure surges
due to sudden valve operations and drive stiffness resonance.
Two values of bulk moduli-the isothermal and the
isentropic-are admissible. Isothermal bulk modulus refers to the
value at constant temperature. The isentropic bulk modulus is ap-
plicable when pressure changes are rapid allowing no time for
entropy change and is also referred to as the dynamic bulk modulus.
These values are further defined as tangent and secant bulk
moduli. The isentropic tangent bulk modulus (Bsr) at pressure p and
temperature T is given by the relation:
Bs:= -V (dpidV)sFLUIDS AND FLUID FLOW 781
The isentropic secant bulk modulus (Bss) at pressure p and
temperature T is given by
-(_-#
a= Gi }
where dV change in volume,
dp change in pressure,
Vo initial volume at atmospheric pressure,
and subscript s refers to constant entropy.
At low pressures, the difference between the two values can be
ignored. The isentropic bulk modulus of oil under ideal conditions
may be as high as 20,000 kgficm?. However, presence of even small
quantities of free air and flexing of hoses, tubes and containers, etc.,
will considerably reduce the value. For general engineering calcula-
tions, a value of 7000 kgficm? is reckoned practical.
RESISTANCE TO FOAMING
Hydraulic oil contains about 8% of dissolved air by volume. The
dissolved air by itself has no harmful effect on the system. However,
Presence of air in free state does considerably reduce the bulk
modulus. The effect is less pronounced at high working pressures,
since the free air tends to dissolve in oil at high ,Pressures. On
reduction of pressure, the dissolved air is released, promoting the
formation of bubbles which may result in loss of drive control as well
possible breakdown of pump due to cavitation. Antifoam agents are
added to oils for increasing the rate of cottapse of the bubbles.
RESISTANCE TO OXIDATION
Hydraulic fluids being composed of hydrocarbons tend to ox-
idise. The rate of oxidation increases with high operating tempera-
ture, ingress of water and metallic particles which act as catalysts.
The products of oxidation which are acidic in nature can be either
soluble or insoluble in oil. Soluble oxidation products tend to thic-
ken the oil while the insoluble ones, generally known as sludge,
may clog lines, orifices and filters. The oil rapidly degrades with
oxidation leading to total breakdown. The extent of oxidation in a
fluid sample is assessed by measuring its neutralization number
which is the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide needed to
neutralise one gram of oil sample. The rate of increase of neutralisa-
tion number is a good measure of the Progress of oxidation. A
_ neutralisation number of 1 (a value of 1 mg Kou/gm) is considered as
the point for changing/reconditioning of oil. Certain inhibitors
added to the oil improve the oil resistance’ to oxidation.782 FLUIDS AND FLUID FLOW
Some of the properties of fluids used in machine tools are listed
in Table 343
Table 343 Properties of hydraulic oils used in machine tools
Properties
Base oil
Specific gravity
at 15°C
Kinematic viscosity
at 40°C
Viscosity index
Flash point (closed)
Pour point
Thermal conductivity
at 40°C
Specific heat
at 40°C
Neutralization number
Aniline point
Average isentropic
tangent bulk modulus
at presure 0-35 kgflcm?
(i) at 25°C
(ii) at 40°C
Average isentropic secant|
bulk modulus at
pressure 0-35 kgflem?
(i) at 25°C
(ii) at 40°C
°C
°C
Wim'c
Jikgf
°C
mg.KOH|gm|
°C
keflem*
kgficm?
keficm*
kegflem?
Paraffinic
0.865-
0.88
30-65
90-95 Min.
200 (Min.)
6
0.13
1966
O14
85
Operating temperature
Usually limited to 60°C to
have a long life.
‘Compatibility:
Bearing materials
Usually compatible with all
bearing materials. If Zinc
Dialkyl Dithiophosphate is
Present as antiwear additive
it reacts with white metal
and silver lining. Most hyd-
raulic oils react with zinc,
magnesium alloys and cop-
per.
Sealing materials
Compatible with many
synthetic rubbers like nit-
rile. neoprene, polyacrylic,
fluorocarbon rubbers etc.
Not compatible with natural
rubbers.
Paints and insulation
Oil resistant paint is re-
quired.FLUIDS AND FLUID FLOW 783
FLUID FLOW
Fluid flow is basically governed by a set of equations called the
Navier stokes equations and Equation of continuity. These are non
linear partial differential equations having complex boundary
conditions and hence have no general solutions. But for practical
applications certain approximations have been made to reduce the
complexities and make the solutions accurate enough for most of
the purposes. Calculations in hydraulics are generally based on (1)
Reynolds equations, (2) Hagen-Poiseuille equation for flow
through capillaries and (3) Bernoulli’s equation for steady state
flow. .
The flow of fluid in hydraulic systems may be either laminar,
being physically characterised by orderely, smooth, parallel line
motion, or turbulent being irregular, erratic and eddy-like motion.
The internal fluid friction (viscous) forces dominate in laminar flow,
whereas the inertia forces are predominant in turbulent flow. The
nature of flow is dependant on the velocity of flow (v), density of
fluid (p) viscosity (4) and the characteristic dimension of the
particular flow passage (J), and is expressed as a non-dimensional
number called Reynolds number (R-) being equal to PvD,/ #
Laminar or turbulent flow can be either steady or unsteady
depending on whether the velocities of fluid particles at a section is
independent or dependent on time. Generally the flow is assumed
to be steady, incompressible and one dimensional. Also the cubical
expansion coefficients for liquids are small and hence the effect of
temperature on fluid density and flow is negligible. Based on these
assumptions, equations for flow and pressure losses have been
derived for different flow passages. Table 344 gives the resistance
values (R) of different flow passages and the flow can be obtained
from the relation- Q’= A p/R. Table 345 gives the pressure loss
due to various pipe configurations for steady turbulent flow. For
steady laminar flow, coefficient of loss (K) is multiplied by a
correction factor b which increases with the decrease in Re.
Fig 230 gives the range of Reynolds number over which the flow is
laminar and turbulent and also the value of b as a function of Re.
Laminar flow, though desirable in systems to minimise: the
pressure losses, renders the system bulky. It prevails in leakage
paths as well in capillaries used for stabilization of valves, hydro-
static bearings and drive systems. A capillary is characterised by
a large length to diameter ratio (I/d 2 400) of the flow passage. The
capillaries are temperature sensitive and hence are unsuitable for
control of flow rates in hydraulic systems. Orifices associated with784, FLUIDS AND FLUID FLOW
turbulent flow are commonly used for this purpose... An orifice 1s
defined as an opening of short length causing sudden restriction
in a flow passage.
‘Table 344 Equations for laminar flow through different configurations
. | Configuration of |_| Cross sectional Resistance for flow R
.| Passage cross section i kgf sec | cm*
128 1
Capillary ndg
ot 4n L(a? +b?)
Elliptical nab?
Rectangular
wh
Square
wash
Between two parallel|
plates
(wv > >A)
7
[Right angled isoscel 155-5y L
S*
‘angle
[Concentric annular 12nL
ring (¢ <
eccentric annular riny 124 L
nda CX(1+1.58)FLUIDS AND FLUID FLOW 785
Table 345 Equations for pressure losses in pipe configurations
Cross Sectional
Gey Pressure loss kefiem>
Straight Pipe i
pKo?
Entry into pipe 2
1 for right angle entry edge.
0.1 for rounded inlet edge.
K
Reservior inlet
with a change
of velocity from
v to vo
For values of K refer Table 346
180°
For values of K refer Table 347786, FLUIDS AND FLUID FLOW
Table 345 Equations for pressure losses in pipe configurations (Conetd.)
Cross Sectional
Pr los: flem?
neal _Pressurs toss kgf