The classification of rocks is based on their origin and characteristics.

Primary or Igneous rocks: They are formed by the solidification of molten magma and have
crystalline minerals interlocking with each other or set in a glass. These rocks are massive,
unsatisfied, and unfossiliferous.

Secondary or Sedimentary rocks: They are formed by the deposition of loose debris,
material in solution, or organic substances. They are often unconsolidated or are cemented
into a solid rock, and are distinguished by bedding, stratification, and fossils.

Metamorphic rocks: They are formed from preexisting igneous or sedimentary rocks that
have been subjected to heat and pressure. They often consist of interlocking crystals and
have more or less regular layers, folia, or banding. They retain traces of their original
structures.

The primary rocks are the oldest and are usually found in veins or fissures breaking across
other rocks. The secondary rocks are composed of second-hand materials, and the
metamorphic rocks are formed by the reconstitution of preexisting rocks.

Q. Explain about Concordant and Discordant igneous structures.

Igneous structures refer to the features and characteristics of rocks that have been formed
through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. Two main types of igneous
structures are concordant and discordant structures.

Concordant structures:

1. Concordant structures are those that form parallel to the layering or bedding of the
rock.
2. These structures result from the flow of magma along pre-existing layers or planes of
weakness in the surrounding rocks.
3. They are usually flat and sheet-like, with a consistent thickness throughout the rock.
4. Examples of concordant structures include sills, which are horizontal sheets of
solidified magma that intrude between existing rock layers, and laccoliths, which are
lens-shaped intrusions that push up the overlying rock layers.
5. Concordant structures are commonly found in sedimentary rocks, where they intrude
between the layers and can sometimes cause them to lift or warp.

Discordant structures:

1. Discordant structures are those that cut across the layering or bedding of the rock.
2. These structures result from the intrusion of magma into the surrounding rocks,
where it cools and solidifies to form a pluton.
3. They are usually irregular in shape and can vary in size from small veins to large
bodies of rock.
4. Examples of discordant structures include dikes, which are vertical or near-vertical
sheets of magma that cut across existing rock layers, and batholiths, which are large
 bodies of magma that solidify at depth and can be exposed at the surface through
erosion.
5. Discordant structures are commonly found in both igneous and metamorphic rocks,
where they can form as a result of tectonic forces or the intrusion of magma into the
surrounding rock.

In summary, concordant structures form parallel to the layering of the rock and result from
the flow of magma along pre-existing planes of weakness, while discordant structures cut
across the layering of the rock and result from the intrusion of magma into the surrounding
rocks.

Q. Explain Bowen's reaction series explaining crystallisation in Igneous rocks.

Q. Write difference in cleavage in feldspar and amphibole.

Cleavage refers to the way in which minerals break along specific planes of weakness.
Feldspar and amphibole are two types of minerals with different cleavage characteristics.
Feldspar has a perfect cleavage in two directions that are perpendicular to each other,
meaning it breaks into flat, rectangular-shaped pieces. Amphibole, on the other hand, has a
cleavage that is not as well-defined or predictable as feldspar. Amphibole cleavage tends to
be uneven and less perfect, resulting in irregularly shaped fragments when broken.

Q. Explain 2 types of chemical and mechanical weathering.

Chemical Weathering:
Chemical weathering is the process by which rocks and minerals break down through
chemical reactions. Two common types of chemical weathering are:

Oxidation: This is when oxygen combines with certain minerals in a rock, causing it to rust or
turn a reddish-brown colour. For example, iron in rocks can react with oxygen to form iron
oxide, which is commonly known as rust.

Carbonation: This is when carbon dioxide from the air dissolves in water to form carbonic
acid, which can react with minerals in rocks like limestone and marble, causing them to
dissolve or break down. This is what creates sinkholes and caves in some areas.

Mechanical Weathering:
Mechanical weathering is the process by which rocks and minerals break down through
physical forces. Two common types of mechanical weathering are:

Frost Wedging: This is when water seeps into cracks in rocks and freezes, causing the water
to expand and the rock to crack or break apart. This is especially common in areas where
the temperature fluctuates above and below freezing, such as in mountainous regions.

Abrasion: This is when rocks and minerals are broken down through friction caused by
forces like wind, water, or ice. For example, waves crashing against cliffs can gradually wear
them away, creating sea caves and other formations.

Q. Important table:

Silicate

Mineral General Chemical Silicate Crystal Characteristic

Family Composition Structure System Minerals Properties

Two cleavage

planes at

Orthoclase, nearly right

Feldspar KAlSi₃O₈ or NaAlSi₃O₈ Framework Triclinic
Plagioclase angles;

Hardness of 6

on Mohs scale
 Prismatic, two

cleavage

planes

intersecting at
AX₂Si₂O₆ (A = Ca, Na, Augite,
Pyroxene Single Chain Orthorhombic near right
Fe²⁺) Enstatite
angles;

Hardness of

5-6 on Mohs

scale

Prismatic, two

cleavage

planes

Double Hornblende, intersecting at

Amphibole AX₂Z₅-8Si₈O₂₂(OH,F,Cl)₂ Monoclinic
Chain Actinolite around 56° and

124°; Hardness

of 5-6 on Mohs

scale

Perfect basal

cleavage; Thin,

Muscovite, flexible sheets;

Mica KAl₂(AlSi₃O₁₀)(F,OH)₂ Sheet Monoclinic
Biotite Hardness of

2.5-3 on Mohs

scale

Hardness of 7

on Mohs scale;

Quartz SiO₂ Framework Hexagonal Quartz Conchoidal

fracture;

Vitreous luster
Q. Write formation and characteristics of plutonic and volcanic igneous rocks.

Igneous rocks are formed from molten magma or lava that cools and solidifies. The two main
types of igneous rocks are plutonic and volcanic.

Plutonic igneous rocks are formed when magma cools and solidifies slowly below the Earth's
surface. As the magma cools slowly, crystals have time to grow and develop a
coarse-grained texture. Examples of plutonic igneous rocks include granite and gabbro.

Volcanic igneous rocks are formed when lava cools and solidifies quickly on or near the
Earth's surface. As the lava cools rapidly, crystals have little time to grow, resulting in a
fine-grained texture. Examples of volcanic igneous rocks include basalt and pumice.

Characteristics of plutonic igneous rocks:

Coarse-grained texture due to slow cooling

Usually light-coloured
High in silica content
Usually found deep below the Earth's surface
Examples include granite and gabbro

Characteristics of volcanic igneous rocks:

Fine-grained texture due to rapid cooling

Usually dark-coloured
Low in silica content
Usually found near the Earth's surface
Examples include basalt and pumice.

Q.Explain these megascopic properties of minerals: Cleavage, Hardness, Fracture

and form.

Megascopic properties of minerals are characteristics that can be observed with the naked
eye or a hand lens. Here are some explanations of commonly used megascopic properties:

1. Cleavage: The way a mineral breaks along planes of weakness. Some minerals
break easily along flat surfaces, while others break irregularly. The number and angle
of these surfaces are constant for a given mineral and can be used to identify it.
2. Hardness: The resistance of a mineral to being scratched or otherwise deformed.
The hardness of a mineral is measured on the Mohs scale from 1 to 10, where 1 is
the softest mineral (talc) and 10 is the hardest mineral (diamond).
3. Fracture: The way a mineral breaks when it is not along planes of weakness. Some
minerals break in a smooth, flat manner (conchoidal fracture) while others break
unevenly and irregularly (irregular fracture).
4. Form: The shape or appearance of a mineral. Minerals can form in a variety of
shapes such as cubes, prisms, pyramids, and plates. The form of a mineral can be
influenced by its growth conditions.
Q. Write about textures of metamorphic rocks and type of metamorphism causing it.

Metamorphic rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks that have been changed by heat,
pressure, and/or chemical reactions. The texture of a metamorphic rock refers to the size,
shape, and arrangement of its grains or crystals. The texture can give clues about the type
of metamorphism that occurred.

Here are some common textures of metamorphic rocks and the type of metamorphism that
causes them:

1. Foliated texture: A texture in which minerals are aligned in parallel layers or bands.
This texture is caused by regional metamorphism, which occurs over a large area
due to high pressure and temperature, such as when rocks are buried deep below
the Earth's surface. Examples of foliated metamorphic rocks include slate, phyllite,
schist, and gneiss.

2. Non-foliated texture: A texture in which minerals are not aligned in parallel layers or
bands. This texture is caused by contact metamorphism, which occurs when rocks
are close to a heat source, such as magma or lava. The heat causes the minerals in
the rock to recrystallize, but there is not enough pressure for them to align in layers.
Examples of non-foliated metamorphic rocks include marble and quartzite.

Q. Explain the formation and types of clastic sedimentary rocks and cementing
materials.

Clastic sedimentary rocks are created when pieces of other rocks or minerals pile up and
become solid over time. The process of forming clastic sedimentary rocks involves four
steps:

1. Weathering: The process by which rocks and minerals are broken down into smaller
pieces by physical or chemical means, such as erosion or dissolution.

2. Erosion: The transport of weathered rock fragments by wind, water, or ice.

3. Deposition: The settling of the eroded rock fragments in a new location, such as a
riverbed, lake bottom, or ocean floor.

4. Lithification: The process by which loose sediment is compacted and cemented

together to form a solid rock.

Cementing materials are minerals that fill the spaces between the grains of sediment and
bind them together during lithification. There are several types of cementing materials:

1. Calcite: A mineral that forms from the precipitation of calcium carbonate in

groundwater. It is a common cementing material in limestone.

2. Silica: A mineral that forms from the precipitation of silicon dioxide in groundwater. It
is a common cementing material in sandstone.
 3. Iron oxide: A mineral that forms from the precipitation of iron oxide in groundwater. It
is a common cementing material in sandstone and shale.

4. Clay: A type of fine-grained sediment that can act as a cementing material in some
sedimentary rocks.

Q. Explain Bowen's reaction series of crystallisation in Igneous rocks and

crystallisation of magma.

Bowen's reaction series is a sequence of mineral crystallisation that occurs during the
cooling of magma. It was first proposed by geologist Norman Bowen in 1928. The series
describes the order in which different minerals crystallise from magma as it cools, based on
their melting points.

At high temperatures, minerals with high melting points, such as calcium-rich feldspar and
pyroxene, crystallise first. As the magma continues to cool, minerals with lower melting
points, such as sodium-rich feldspar and quartz, start to crystallise. This sequence of mineral
crystallisation is known as the continuous branch of the reaction series.

In addition to the continuous branch, there is also a discontinuous branch, which describes
the formation of different types of minerals that are not in a continuous sequence. These
minerals form due to changes in the chemical composition of the magma as it cools.

Q. Explain Plate Tectonic Theory. Explain 3 types of plate boundaries and activities on
these margins.

The Plate Tectonic Theory is a scientific theory that explains the movement of the Earth's
lithosphere, which is broken up into several large pieces called plates. These plates are
constantly moving and interacting with each other, resulting in various geological
phenomena such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and the formation of mountain ranges.

There are three main types of plate boundaries:

1. Divergent Boundaries: These are areas where two plates move away from each
other, creating a gap or rift in the Earth's crust. Magma from the mantle rises to fill the
gap, eventually solidifying and creating a new crust. This process is called as
seafloor spreading and can result in the formation of mid-ocean ridges.

2. Convergent Boundaries: These are areas where two plates collide, resulting in the
formation of mountain ranges, ocean trenches, and volcanic activity. Depending on
the types of plates involved, one plate may be forced below the other, causing
melting and magma generation.

3. Transform Boundaries: These are areas where two plates slide past each other in
opposite directions, resulting in horizontal movement rather than vertical. These
boundaries are characterised by frequent earthquakes but generally lack volcanic
activity.
The activities on these margins can include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and the
formation of mountain ranges. At divergent boundaries, new crust is created and magma
may erupt from fissures. At convergent boundaries, subduction can cause magma to rise
and create volcanic activity. At transform boundaries, the horizontal movement of plates can
result in frequent earthquakes but generally lack volcanic activity.

Q. Explain continental drift theory and provide 3 evidences in support of it.

The Continental Drift Theory was proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1912 and suggests that the
continents were once a single landmass called Pangaea that broke apart and drifted to their
current positions over millions of years.

Three pieces of evidence that support this theory are:

1. Fossil Evidence: Fossils of the same species have been found on different continents
that are now separated by oceans. For example, fossils of the reptile Mesosaurus
have been found in both Africa and South America, suggesting that these continents
were once joined.

2. Geologic Evidence: The geology of different continents, such as the Appalachian

Mountains in North America and the Caledonian Mountains in Europe, match up
when they are pieced together. This suggests that these landmasses were once
joined together and were part of a larger landmass.
 3. Paleoclimatic Evidence: The presence of glacial deposits in areas that are now too
warm for glaciers, such as India and Africa, suggest that these areas were once
located near the South Pole when they were part of a larger continent.

Overall, these pieces of evidence provide support for the Continental Drift Theory and
suggest that the Earth's landmasses have undergone significant movement and change over
time.

Q. How a seismic model justifies the internal structure of the earth.

Seismic models are used to study the internal structure of the Earth by analysing the
behaviour of seismic waves. Seismic waves are generated by earthquakes or explosions
and can travel through the Earth's layers, providing information about the properties of each
layer.

By studying the behaviour of seismic waves, scientists have been able to develop models of
the Earth's interior, which consist of several layers including the crust, mantle, outer core,
and inner core. These layers are characterised by different densities, temperatures, and
compositions, which affect the behaviour of seismic waves as they pass through them.

For example, seismic waves can travel faster through denser materials, such as the Earth's
mantle, and slower through less dense materials, such as the Earth's crust. This information
has been used to develop models of the Earth's interior that are consistent with other types
of data, such as measurements of the Earth's magnetic field and the distribution of
earthquakes.

Overall, seismic models provide a powerful tool for understanding the internal structure of
the Earth and the processes that shape it.

Q. Explain the model of the internal structure of the earth. Write general
characteristics of crust, mantle and core.

The model of the Earth's internal structure is based on various types of data, including
seismic waves and the behaviour of Earth's magnetic field. According to this model, the
Earth is composed of several layers, each with unique properties and characteristics. These
layers include the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core.

The crust is the outermost layer of the Earth and is the thinnest layer, ranging from 5 to 70
kilometres in thickness. It is composed of relatively lightweight materials, such as granite and
basalt, and is broken up into several large tectonic plates that move and interact with one
another.

The mantle is the layer below the crust and makes up the majority of the Earth's volume. It is
much thicker than the crust, ranging from 2900 to 29000 kilometres in thickness, and is
composed of denser materials such as silicate minerals. The mantle is divided into several
layers, including the upper mantle and the lower mantle, which differ in their physical and
chemical properties.
The outer core is a liquid layer located below the mantle, extending from about 2900 to 5100
kilometres in depth, whose temperature is around 4000 F to 9000 F. It is composed of iron
and nickel and is responsible for generating the Earth's magnetic field.

Inner core is the centre and the hottest layer of the Earth. The inner core is solid and made
up of iron and nickel with temperatures up to 5,500 C. Due to its immense heat energy, the
inner core is more like the engine room of the Earth.

Q. Discuss composition and structure of the Feldspar family of minerals.

The feldspar family of minerals is one of the most common mineral groups, consisting of
several different minerals including orthoclase, plagioclase, and microcline. These minerals
are composed of aluminium, silicon, and oxygen, with varying amounts of other elements
such as potassium, sodium, and calcium.

The structure of feldspar minerals is based on a framework of silicon-oxygen tetrahedra, with

aluminium or other elements occupying some of the tetrahedral sites. The structure also
contains large channels and cavities that can accommodate other ions or molecules, such
as potassium or sodium.

Orthoclase is the most common type of feldspar, and it typically has a pink, white, or grey
colour. Plagioclase is another type of feldspar, which ranges in colour from white to grey to
black. Microcline is a third type of feldspar that typically has a white, pink, or yellow colour

Q. What is discontinuity? List down the different discontinuities across the Earth
when we move from earth's crust to inner core. Also define each of them in line.

Earth’s layers are separated from each other through a transition zone. These transition
zones are called Discontinuities. They are also called seismic discontinuities.
There are several different types of discontinuities that are recognized by geologists and
seismologists. Some of the most important ones include:

1. Conrad Discontinuity: This is a discontinuity located at a depth of about 20-30 km

below the continents. It marks the boundary between the upper and lower crust, and
is characterised by a change in seismic velocity and density.

2. Mohorovicic Discontinuity (Moho): This is a major discontinuity that marks the

boundary between the Earth's crust and mantle. It is located at a depth of about 5-70
km beneath the Earth's surface and is characterised by a significant increase in
seismic velocity.

3. Gutenberg Discontinuity: This is a major discontinuity located at a depth of about

2900 km beneath the Earth's surface. It marks the boundary between the mantle and
core, and is characterised by a sharp increase in seismic velocity. At this depth, P
waves decrease in velocity and S waves disappear completely. S waves cannot
transmit through liquids, so it is believed that the unit above the discontinuity is solid,
while the unit below is in a liquid or molten form.
 4. Lehmann Discontinuity: This is a minor discontinuity located at a depth of about 220
km within the mantle. It marks the boundary between the upper and lower mantle,
and is characterised by a change in seismic velocity.

Q. Explain non silicate minerals.

Non-silicate minerals are minerals that do not contain silicon and oxygen as their primary
building blocks. They are not as common as silicate minerals, but they still play an important
role in geology and industry. Some examples of non-silicate minerals include carbonates,
sulphates, halides, oxides.

Q. Explain the magnitude of an earthquake.

The magnitude of an earthquake is a measure of the amount of energy released by the

earthquake. It is a numerical value that represents the seismic energy released by an
earthquake, calculated using a seismograph. Magnitude is expressed in whole numbers and
decimals, with each increase of one whole number representing a tenfold increase in the
size of the seismic waves and 30 times more energy released. For example, an earthquake
with a magnitude of 7.0 is 10 times stronger than one with a magnitude of 6.0, and 100 times
stronger than one with a magnitude of 5.0.

Q. Explain the focus and epicentre of an earthquake.

The focus of an earthquake is the point below the Earth's surface where the seismic energy
is released. The epicentre of an earthquake is the point on the Earth's surface directly above
the focus where the earthquake is felt the strongest.

Q. Explain parameters used for generating seismic zoning maps.

Seismic zoning maps are generated using various parameters such as historical seismic
activity, geological structures, soil types, and ground motion amplification. These maps help
identify areas that are prone to earthquakes and assist in developing building codes and
disaster mitigation strategies. In short, seismic zoning maps are created by analysing the
seismic hazard potential of a region using different factors that can affect earthquake activity
and ground shaking.

Q. Explain the shadow zone of P and S waves.

The shadow zone is a region on Earth's surface where seismic waves, specifically P and S
waves, are not detected during an earthquake. This occurs because the waves are either
absorbed or refracted as they pass through Earth's layers.

The P-wave shadow zone is the region between 103 and 142 degrees from the earthquake's
epicentre. In this zone, P-waves are completely absent, as they are refracted by Earth's
liquid outer core.
The S-wave shadow zone is the region beyond 103 degrees from the earthquake's
epicentre. In this zone, S-waves are absent, as they are unable to pass through Earth's
liquid outer core.

The presence of these shadow zones provides important information about the internal
structure of Earth, specifically the existence of a liquid outer core.

FILL IN THE BLANKS:

1. Flesh coloured mineral which has 2 directional cleavage and hardness value 6 is
feldspar.
2. Talc mineral has 3 directional cleavage with hardness value 3.
3. The most abundant mineral which is highly resistant to weathering is quartz.
4. Argillaceous composition indicates the presence of clay minerals.
5. Three dimensional complex silicate structures are exhibited by feldspar minerals
family of silicates.
6. Minerals which preserve magnetic orientation prevailing at the time of their formation
are known as magnetic minerals.
7. Intrusive igneous rocks show complete crystallisation while extrusive igneous rocks
have vesicles in them.
8. Augite is a dark coloured mineral.
9. Mohorovicic discontinuity is between Crust and Mantle.
10. Fluorite is the mineral which has 4 directional cleavages with hardness value of 4.
11. Discontinuity between Mantle and Core is known as Gutenberg discontinuity.
12. Rack inclusions derived from mantle which are found near Subduction zones are
termed as ophiolites.
13. Generally, minerals having hardness more than 7 do not yield streak.
14. The flesh-colored mineral which has 2 directional cleavage and hardness 6 is
feldspar.
15. The most abundant mineral which is highly resistant to weathering is quartz.
16. Argillaceous composition indicates the presence of clay minerals.
17. Three-dimensional complex silicate structures are exhibited by feldspar family of
silicates.
18. Limestone is an example of Non-clastic sedimentary rock.
19. Intrusive rocks show complete crystallisation while extrusive rocks have vesicles
(pores) in them.
20. Mineral talc has 3 directional cleavages with a hardness value of 3.
21. Discontinuity between Crust and the Mantle is known as Mohorovicic discontinuity.
22. Augite is a dark-coloured mineral.
23. One example of the type of inequigranular texture in igneous rocks is porphyritic
texture.
24. Air cavities found in extrusive igneous rocks are known as vesicles.
25. Mineral Quartz has a tetrahedral type of Silicate Structure.
26. Movements under the influence of gravity followed by weathering are known as mass
wasting movements.
27. Crystal system in which the three crystallographic axes are equal in length and
perpendicular to each other is known as cubic system.
 28. Phenomenon which explains the liquid state of the outer core is known as
geodynamo.
29. Example of one Silicate Family having dark-coloured Ferromagnesian mafic minerals
is pyroxene.
30. The discontinuity between the Earth's crust and the mantle due to the change in
velocity of seismological waves as they pass through changing densities of rock is
known as the Mohorovicic discontinuity.

Q. Explain mechanism of formation of types of faults.

A fault is a crack or break in the Earth's crust where rocks on either side move in different
directions. There are three main types of faults: normal faults, reverse faults, and strike-slip
faults.

Normal faults occur when the Earth's crust is pulled apart. This creates tension, and the
rocks above the fault move downwards relative to the rocks below the fault. Normal faults
are common in areas where the Earth's crust is being stretched, such as at divergent plate
boundaries.

Reverse faults occur when the Earth's crust is pushed together, creating compression. The
rocks above the fault move upwards relative to the rocks below the fault. Reverse faults are
common in areas where the Earth's crust is being squeezed together, such as at convergent
plate boundaries.

Strike-slip faults occur when rocks move past each other horizontally. There is no up or
down movement on a strike-slip fault. Strike-slip faults are common in areas where the
Earth's crust is being sheared, such as at transform plate boundaries.

The movement of rocks along a fault can cause earthquakes, as the sudden release of
energy can create seismic waves that travel through the Earth's crust.

Q. Explain joints in rocks and their classification.

Joints in rocks are natural cracks that form in the Earth's crust due to the stresses and
strains that the rocks are subjected to over time. Joints can be classified based on their
shape, orientation, and spacing.

Shape: Joints can be either planar, which means they have a flat or smooth surface, or
irregular, which means they have a rough or jagged surface.

Orientation: Joints can be vertical, horizontal, or inclined at various angles.

Spacing: Joints can be spaced closely together or widely spaced apart.

Joints can also be classified based on their mode of origin. Some joints are formed due to
the cooling and contraction of the rock, while others are formed due to the tectonic forces
that act on the Earth's crust. Joints can also be formed due to weathering and erosion.
Joints are important for many reasons, such as providing pathways for water and other fluids
to move through the rocks, and providing planes of weakness that can influence the way that
rocks break and deform under stress. Joints can also have economic significance, as they
can influence the way that minerals and other resources are distributed within the Earth's
crust.