SANS 10160-3:2019: Basis of Structural Design and Actions For Buildings and Industrial Structures Part 3: Wind Actions

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ISBN 978-0-626-37622-2
SANS 10160-3:2019
Edition 2.1
SOUTH AFRICAN NATIONAL STANDARD
Basis of structural design and actions for buildings

and industrial structures
Part 3: Wind actions
WARNING
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documents normatively.
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SANS 10160-3:2019
Edition 2.1
Table of changes
Change No. Date Scope
Amdt 1 2019 Amended to update definitions and the table on recommended values of
effective slenderness (λ) for cylinders, polygonal sections, rectangular
sections, sharp-edged structural sections and lattice structures.
Acknowledgement
The South African Bureau of Standards wishes to acknowledge the valuable assistance derived
from the South African Institution of Civil Engineering (SAICE).
Foreword
This South African standard was prepared by National Committee SABS/TC 098/SC 01, Structural
and geo-technical design standards – Basis of structures design and actions (including earthquake
design), in accordance with procedures of the South African Bureau of Standards, in compliance
with annex 3 of the WTO/TBT agreement.
This document was approved for publication in September 2019.
This document supersedes SANS 10160-3:2018 (edition 2).
A vertical line in the margin shows where the text has been technically modified by amendment
No. 1.
Compliance with this document cannot confer immunity from legal obligations.
The SANS 10160 series consists of the following eight parts, under the general title Basis of
structural design and actions for buildings and industrial structures:
Part 1: Basis of structural design.
Part 2: Self-weight and imposed loads.
Part 3: Wind actions.
Part 4: Seismic actions and general requirements for buildings.
Part 5: Basis for geotechnical design and actions.

/
Part 6: Actions induced by cranes and machinery.
Part 7: Thermal actions.
Part 8: Actions during execution.
Annex A forms an integral part of this document. Annexes B, C and D are for information only.
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Contents
Page
Acknowledgement
Foreword
1 Scope....................................................................................................................................... 3
2 Normative references .............................................................................................................. 4
3 Definitions and symbols ......................................................................................................... 5
3.1 Definitions ..................................................................................................................... 5

3.2 Symbols ......................................................................................................................... 6
4 Application requirements ........................................................................................................ 8
5 Design situations ..................................................................................................................... 9
6 Modelling of wind action ........................................................................................................ 9
6.1 Nature of wind actions.................................................................................................... 9

6.2 Representation of wind actions ...................................................................................... 10
6.3 Classification of wind actions ........................................................................................ 10
6.4 Characteristic values ....................................................................................................... 10
6.5 Models ............................................................................................................................ 10
7 Wind speed and wind pressure ............................................................................................... 10
7.1 Basis for calculation ....................................................................................................... 10

7.2 Basic values .................................................................................................................... 11
7.3 Peak wind speed ............................................................................................................. 13
7.4 Peak wind speed pressure ............................................................................................... 17
7.5 Wind actions ................................................................................................................... 18
8 Pressure and force coefficients ............................................................................................... 22
8.1 Aerodynamic coefficient ................................................................................................ 22

8.2 Asymmetric and counteracting pressures and forces ..................................................... 23
8.3 Pressure coefficients for buildings ................................................................................. 24
8.4 Canopy roofs .................................................................................................................. 47
8.5 Free-standing walls, parapets, fences and signboards .................................................... 53
8.6 Friction forces................................................................................................................. 56
8.7 Structural elements with rectangular sections ................................................................ 57
8.8 Structural elements with sharp edged sections ............................................................... 59
8.9 Structural elements with regular polygonal sections ...................................................... 60
8.10 Circular cylinders ........................................................................................................... 62
8.11 Spheres ........................................................................................................................... 68
8.12 Lattice structures and scaffoldings ................................................................................. 70
8.13 Effective slenderness and end-effect factor ................................................................... 73
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Contents (concluded)
Page
Annex A (normative) Geographical locality ............................................................................ 76
Annex B (informative) Effects of the terrain on wind speed ................................................... 80
Annex C (informative) Design of buildings and structures which fall outside the
scope of this part of SANS 10160 ......................................................... 89
Annex D (informative) Wind tunnel testing as a design tool................................................... 90
Bibliography .............................................................................................................................. 91
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Basis of structural design and actions for buildings and industrial

structures
Part 3:
Wind actions
1 Scope
1.1 Scope of application
The scope of application of this part of SANS 10160 falls within the general scope of application as
given in SANS 10160-1.
1.2 Scope of SANS 10160-3
1.2.1 This part of SANS 10160 gives guidance on the determination of natural wind actions for the
structural design of buildings and industrial structures including the entire structure, part of the
structure, or elements attached to the structure.
1.2.2 This part of SANS 10160 is intended to predict characteristic wind actions on land-based
structures and includes the following:
a) buildings and structures with an overall height of up to 100 m;
b) elements of buildings and structures having a natural frequency greater than 5 Hz; and
c) chimneys with circular cross-sections, with heights of less than 60 m and a height to diameter
ratio of less than 6,5.
1.2.3 This part of SANS 10160 does not cover the following structures:
a) structures and buildings higher than 100 m;
b) dynamic effects and design of dynamically sensitive structures (for example slender chimneys);
c) off-shore structures;
d) bridge structures;
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e) structures and buildings of unusual shapes;
f) structures, or their components, which are not fixed permanently but are designed to
accommodate movement (for example, revolving antennas, telescope dishes and movable roofs);
g) high-risk structures (for example, those containing nuclear or biological material); or
h) transmission lines.
1.2.4 This part of SANS 10160 does not cover wind loads and wind effects due to high intensity
winds for example, tornadoes or micro-bursts.
NOTE The high intensity winds are particularly rare and localized events, therefore, having a very small
probability of occurrence at a specific geographical location. However, wind forces generated by short
duration gusts can be significantly greater than those considered in the international standard design practice.
1.2.5 This part of SANS 10160 does not cover designs assisted by testing and measurements where
wind tunnel tests or properly validated numerical methods (or both), are used to obtain the load and
response information, based on appropriate models of the structure, topography and the boundary-
layer wind conditions.
NOTE Design standards are not able to consider the infinite permutations and combinations of building
forms used in the modern design. The degree of applicability of the generic information included in the
loading code to specific cases of structures to be designed needs to be assessed. In cases in which the
agreement between the loading code information and the structure to be designed is poor, it is advisable to
seek expert advice or design by testing (or both).
1.2.6 This part of SANS 10160 does not cover designs where the wind parameters appropriate to
the specific site (for example a site which is significantly influenced by topography), as well as load
response data have to be obtained from appropriate full-scale measurements.
NOTE In these cases the designer could consult appropriate standards such as EN 1991-1-4, or specialist
literature.
2 Normative references
The following referenced documents, in whole or in part, are normatively referenced in this
document and are indispensable for its application. For dated references, only the edition cited
applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the referenced document (including any
amendments) applies. Information on currently valid national and international standards can be
obtained from the South African Bureau of Standards.
SANS 10100-1 (SABS 0100-1), The structural use of concrete – Part 1: Design.
SANS 10137, The installation of glazing in buildings.
SANS 10160-1, Basis of structural design and actions for buildings and industrial structures –
Part 1: Basis of structural design.
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Part 2: Self-weight and imposed loads.
Part 4: Seismic actions and general requirements for buildings.
Part 5: Basis for geotechnical design and actions.
Part 6: Actions induced by cranes and machinery.
Part 7: Thermal actions.
Part 8: Actions during execution.
SANS 10162-1, The structural use of steel – Part 1: Limit-state design of hot-rolled steelwork.
SANS 10162-2, The structural use of steel – Part 2: Cold-formed steel structures.
SANS 10162-4, Structural use of steel – Part 4: The design of cold-formed stainless steel structural
members.
SANS 10163-1, The structural use of timber – Part 1: Limit-states design.
SANS 10164-2, The structural use of masonry – Part 2: Structural design and requirements for
reinforced and prestressed masonry.
3 Definitions and symbols

For the purposes of this document the definitions and symbols given in SANS 10160-1 and the
following apply.
3.1 Definitions
3.1.1
basic wind speed
fundamental value of the basic wind speed modified to account for the return period of the wind
being considered
3.1.2
force coefficient
overall effect of the wind on a structure, structural element or component as a whole, including
friction, if not specifically excluded
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3.1.3
fundamental value of the basic wind speed
characteristic 3 s gust wind speed with an annual probability of exceedance of 0,02, irrespective of
wind direction, at a height of 10 m above flat open country terrain and accounting for altitude
effects (if required) Amdt 1
3.1.4
net pressure coefficients
resulting effect of the wind on a structure, structural element or component per unit area
3.1.5
peak wind speed
basic wind speed modified to account for the effect of terrain roughness and topography
3.1.6
pressure coefficient
3.1.6.1
external pressure coefficient
effect of the wind on the external surfaces of buildings
NOTE The external pressure coefficients are divided into overall coefficients and local coefficients.
Local coefficients give the pressure coefficients for loaded areas of 1 m2 or less, for example, for the
design of small elements and fixings; overall coefficients give the pressure coefficients for loaded areas
larger than 10 m2.
3.1.6.2
internal pressure coefficient
effect of the wind on the internal surfaces of buildings
3.2 Symbols
NOTE The notation used is based on ISO 3898.
3.2.1 Latin upper case letters

A reference area
Ac area enclosed by the boundaries of the face projected on a plane normal to the face
Agk area of the gusset plate
Afr area of external surface parallel to wind direction
Aref reference area of the structure or structural element
Ffr friction force
Fw wind force calculated from pressure or force coefficient
Fw,e external wind force
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Fw,i internal wind force
K shape parameter depending on the coefficient of variation of the extreme value distribution
L length
Re Reynolds number
3.2.2 Latin lower case letters
b breadth of the building
cf force coefficient for a structure or structural element
cfr friction coefficient
cpe external pressure coefficient
cpi internal pressure coefficient
cprob probability factor
cr(z) roughness/height coefficient
cscd structural factor
co topography (orography) factor
d along-wind dimension of building
h height of a building
he height above ground to the centroid of the projected surface
hg height above ground of the bottom edge of projected surface
hstrip height of horizontal strip
k equivalent surface roughness
l length of element
p probability of annual exceedance
qp peak wind speed pressure
vb basic wind speed defined at 10 m above ground in terrain category B
vb peak basic wind speed defined at 10 m above ground in terrain category B
NOTE This is the same as vb and is maintained for continuity purposes.
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vb,0 fundamental value of the basic wind speed corresponding to the specific geographical
location
vp(z) peak wind speed at height, z, and is determined by the basic wind speed, vb, terrain
roughness and topography
we external wind pressure
wi internal wind pressure
z height above ground level
zc height below which no further reduction in wind speed is allowed
ze height for external pressure
zg gradient height
zi height for internal pressure
zo height of the reference plane
3.2.3 Greek lower case letters
α pitch angle of a roof
ρ air density
λ effective slenderness
θ wind direction
φ blockage ratio
μ opening ratio or permeability
ψmc reduction factor
ψr reduction factor for square sections with rounded corners
ψλ end-effect factor for elements with free-end flow
ν kinematic viscosity of the air (ν = 15ꞏ10-6 m2/s)
4 Application requirements
4.1 This part of SANS 10160 shall be used in conjunction with the requirements specified in the
following standards:
a) SANS 10160-1, for the basis of structural design;
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b) SANS 10160-2, for self-weight and imposed loads;
c) SANS 10160-4, for the seismic actions and general requirements for buildings;
d) SANS 10160-5, for the basis for geotechnical design and actions;
e) SANS 10160-6, for actions induced by cranes and machinery;
f) SANS 10160-7, for thermal actions; and
g) SANS 10160-8, for actions during execution.
4.2 This part of SANS 10160 shall also be used in conjunction with appropriate standards for the
structural design of buildings and industrial structures, such as the following materials-based
structural design standards:
a) SANS 10100-1, for the structural use of concrete;
b) SANS 10137, for glazing in buildings;
c) SANS 10162-1, for the limit-states design of hot-rolled steelwork;
d) SANS 10162-2, for the limit-states design of cold-formed steelwork;
e) SANS 10162-4, for cold-formed stainless steel structural members;
f) SANS 10163-1, for the structural use of timber; and
g) SANS 10164-2, for the structural use of masonry.
5 Design situations
5.1 The relevant wind actions shall be determined for each design situation.
5.2 Other actions or elements (for example, the presence of traffic or the addition of large screens),
which will modify the effects of wind, shall be taken into account.
5.3 The changes to the structure during various stages of execution (such as different stages of the
form of the structure, which may modify the effects of wind) shall be taken into account.
5.4 If in a design the external skin of a building is assumed to be sealed under storm conditions, a
situation of unforeseen or accidental openings shall also be considered.
6 Modelling of wind action

6.1 Nature of wind actions
6.1.1 Wind actions fluctuate with time and act directly as pressures on the external surfaces of
enclosed structures and because of porosity of the external surfaces, also act indirectly on the
internal surfaces. In the case of open structures, they act both on external and internal surfaces.
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6.1.2 Pressures, which act over surfaces, result in forces normal to the surfaces of the structure or
individual cladding elements. Additionally, when large surfaces of structures are subject to wind
flow directed along the surfaces, substantial friction forces develop.
6.2 Representation of wind actions

Wind action is represented by a simplified set of pressures or forces whose effects are equivalent to
the extreme effects of turbulent wind.
6.3 Classification of wind actions

Wind actions shall be classified as variable and fixed actions.
6.4 Characteristic values

The actions are determined from the basic values of wind speed and wind pressure. The basic values
are characteristic values having an annual probability of exceedance of 0,02, which is equivalent to
a mean return period of 50 years.
NOTE All coefficients and procedures used to derive wind actions from basic values are chosen so that the
probability of the calculated wind action does not exceed the probability of these basic values.
6.5 Models
The response of structures shall be calculated according to the procedure outlined in 7.5, from the
peak speed pressure, qp, at the reference height in an undisturbed wind flow, and the pressure and
force coefficients, while adopting a structural factor, cscd = 1,0 (see 7.5.3.2). The peak wind speed
pressure, qp, depends on the wind climate, terrain roughness and topography.
NOTE The effect of wind on a structure depends on the size, shape and dynamic properties of the structure.
This part of SANS 10160 is based on a static representation of wind action in which the dynamic properties of
structures and the dynamic response are not considered. The effects of non-simultaneous occurrence of peak
wind pressures are also ignored. This assumption may lead to a certain degree of over estimation of loads for
low-rise but large structures. Tall and dynamically sensitive structures are not covered in this part of
SANS 10160.
7 Wind speed and wind pressure

7.1 Basis for calculation
7.1.1 The basic wind speed, νb, depends on the fundamental value of basic wind speed, νb,0,
adjusted for return period probability factor and shall be determined in accordance with 7.2.2.
7.1.2 The peak wind speed, νp(z), is determined by the basic wind speed, νb, terrain roughness and
topography and shall be determined in accordance with 7.3.
7.1.3 The peak wind pressure, qp(z), is a function of peak wind speed, νb(z), and air density, ρ, and
shall be determined in accordance with 7.4.
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7.2 Basic values

7.2.1 The fundamental value of the basic wind speed, νb,0, is the characteristic 3s gust wind speed,
irrespective of wind direction and time of the year, measured at 10 m above ground level in open
country terrain with low vegetation, such as grass and isolated obstacles, with separation of at least
20 obstacle heights.
NOTE This terrain corresponds to category B given in 7.3.2.2.
7.2.2 The basic wind speed shall be calculated using the following equation:
vb = cprob × vb,o (1)
where
νb is the basic wind speed defined at 10 m above ground in terrain category B;
νb,0 is the fundamental value of the basic wind speed corresponding to the specific
geographical location, which shall be taken from figure 1 or annex A;
cprob see 7.2.3.
7.2.3 The basic values are characteristic values having an annual probability of exceedance of
0,02, which is equivalent to a mean return period of 50 years. The probability factor, cprob, is given
in equation 2:
1  K  ln ln 1  p  
n
cprob =   (2)
 1  K  ln ln 0,98 
where
K is the shape parameter depending on the coefficient of variation of the extreme value
distribution with a value of 0,2;
n is the exponent with a value of 0,5.
NOTE The return period may be taken as the design working life of the structure (see SANS 10160-1).
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NOTE 1 This map results from comprehensive statistical research. (Strong winds in South Africa: Part 1 and
Part 2) and is based on 3 second gust wind speed. Tabularised information, per municipality, is provided in
table A.1 of annex A.
NOTE 2 This map should be used in combination with the partial factor for wind loading as stipulated in
SANS 10160-1. For structures particularly sensitive to wind action, detailed investigation on an appropriate
partial action factor may be required.
Figure 1 — Map of the fundamental value of the basic wind speed, νb,0
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7.3 Peak wind speed

7.3.1 Variation with height
7.3.1.1 The peak wind speed, νp(z) at a height, z, above the terrain, depends on the terrain
roughness and topography as well as on the basic speed, νb,peak and shall be determined using the
following equation:
vp(z) = cr(z) × co(z) × vb,peak (3)
where
νb,peak = 1,0νb; (4)
cr(z) is the roughness factor, given in 7.3.2;
co(z) is the topography (orography) factor, taken as 1,0 unless specified otherwise in 7.3.3.
NOTE Equation (4) is maintained for continuity purposes, as the map in figure 1 is defined in terms of
3 s gust and no conversion factor is necessary.
7.3.1.2 The influence of neighbouring structures on the wind speed at a specific site shall be
considered, as described in 7.3.4 and 7.3.5.
7.3.2 Terrain roughness
7.3.2.1 The terrain roughness factor, cr(z), accounts for the variability of the wind speed at the site
of the structure due to
a) the height above ground level, and
b) the ground roughness of the terrain upwind of the structure in the wind direction under
consideration.
The factor, cr(z), shall be determined using the following equation:

α
 zz 
cr (z) = 1,36  o  (5)
z z 
 g o 
where
z is the height above the ground level;
zo is the height of the reference plane, as defined in table 1;
zg is the gradient height, as defined in table 1;
zc is the height below which no further reduction in wind speed is allowed as defined in
table 1;
α is the exponent as defined in table 1.
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Table 1 — Parameters of wind profile
1 2 3 4 5
Height Height Height Exponent
Terrain category
zg zo zc α
A 250 0 1 0,070
B 300 0 2 0,095
C 350 3 5 0,120
D 400 5 10 0,150
7.3.2.2 Various terrain categories are specified in table 2 (see annex B).
7.3.2.3 At low elevations above the ground level, the wind profile (i.e. magnitude of the cr(z)
factor) is strongly influenced by local surroundings, which are site specific and which may
introduce acceleration of the wind flow. This is especially relevant within developed areas i.e. rough
terrain categories. No further reductions in the wind speed below cut-off heights, zc, which are
stipulated in table 1, are permitted.
7.3.2.4 The variation of the roughness factor, cr(z), with height, is given in table 3 and in figure 2.
7.3.2.5 The terrain roughness to be used for a given wind direction depends on the distance of the
terrain covered with a uniform roughness within an angular ± 15° sector of this direction. Small
areas, with a deviation in the roughness, which constitute less than 10 % of the overall area, can be
ignored.
7.3.2.6 When there is a choice between adopting two or more terrain categories for a given area
then the terrain category with a lower roughness shall be used.
7.3.2.7 The smoother terrain category in the upwind direction shall be adopted if a structure is
situated near a change of terrain roughness at the following distances and in the following
categories:
a) less than 2 km from the smoother category A; or
b) less than 1 km from smoother categories B and C.
In other cases the procedure described in B.2 may be used.
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Table 2 — Terrain categories
1 2 3
Category Description Illustration
Flat horizontal terrain with negligible vegetation

A and without any obstacles (for example coastal
areas exposed to open sea or large lakes)
Area with low vegetation such as grass and isolated

B obstacles (for example trees and buildings) with
separations of at least 20 obstacle heights
Area with regular cover of vegetation or buildings

or with isolated obstacles with separations of
C
maximum 20 obstacle heights (such as villages,
suburban terrain and permanent forest)
Area in which at least 15 % of the surface is

D covered with buildings and their average height
exceeds 15 m
NOTE A certain amount of a reduction in loading for category D can be obtained (see 7.3.5) by using a procedure
described in B.5, which takes into account the vertical displacement of the peak wind pressure profile, within an
environment with closely spaced obstructions.
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Table 3 — Variation of the cr(z) factor with height above ground level
1 2 3 4 5
Elevation Category
A B C D
m
0 0,92 0,85 0,73 0,71
2 0,97 0,85 0,73 0,71
4 1,02 0,90 0,73 0,71
6 1,05 0,94 0,77 0,71
10 1,09 0,98 0,85 0,71
15 1,12 1,02 0,91 0,78
20 1,14 1,05 0,95 0,83
30 1,17 1,09 1,00 0,90
40 1,20 1,12 1,04 0,95
50 1,22 1,15 1,07 0,98
60 1,23 1,17 1,09 1,01
70 1,24 1,18 1,12 1,04
80 1,26 1,20 1,14 1,06
90 1,27 1,21 1,15 1,08
100 1,28 1,23 1,17 1,10
Figure 2 — Variation of the cr(z) factor with height above ground level
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7.3.3 Terrain topography
7.3.3.1 Where the terrain topography (for example, hills or cliffs) increases wind speeds by more
than 5 %, these effects shall be taken into account by using the topography factor, co(z).
NOTE The recommended procedure is given in B.3.
7.3.3.2 The effects of topography may be neglected when the average slope of the upwind terrain is
less than 3°. The effects of the up-wind topography have to be considered to a distance of ten times
the height of the isolated topographical feature.
7.3.4 Large and considerably higher neighbouring structures
If a structure under consideration is located within a close proximity of another, which protrudes at
least twice as high as the average heights of neighbouring structures, then the structure under
consideration could be subject to accelerated wind speeds. Such cases shall be taken into account in
the design process.
NOTE A recommended conservative approximation, which takes this effect into account, is given in B.4.
Alternatively wind-tunnel modelling can be used.
7.3.5 Closely spaced buildings and obstacles
The effect of closely spaced buildings and other obstacles shall be taken into account.
NOTE In a rough terrain with closely spaced buildings the mean wind flow near the ground is modified as if
the ground level was raised to a height which is called a displacement height, hdis. A recommended
approximate procedure in this respect is given in B.5.
7.4 Peak wind speed pressure

The peak wind speed pressure, qp(z) at height z, shall be determined using the following equation:
1
qp(z) = × ρ × vp2 (z) (6)
2
where
ρ is the air density, expressed in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3).
NOTE The recommended values of the air density as a function of altitude above sea level are given in
table 4.
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Table 4 — Air density as a function of site altitude
1 2
Site altitude above sea level Air density
m ρ
kg/m3
0 1,20
500 1,12
1 000 1,06
1 500 1,00
2 000 0,94
NOTE 1 A temperature of 20° has been selected as appropriate
for South Africa and the variation of mean atmospheric pressure
with altitude is allowed for in this table.
NOTE 2 Intermediate values of ρ may be obtained from linear
interpolation.
7.5 Wind actions

7.5.1 Calculation procedure
A summary of calculation procedures for the determination of wind actions is given in table 5.
Table 5 — Calculation procedure
1 2 3
Description Symbol Reference
Fundamental basic wind speed νb,0 Figure 1
Basic wind speed νb Equation (1)
Terrain category A, B, C, D Table 2
Reference height ze 7.5.2.2
Topography coefficient co(z) 7.3.3
Roughness/Height coefficient cr(z) 7.3.2
Peak wind speed νp(z) Equations (3) and (4)
Peak wind speed pressure qp(z) Equation (6)
Internal pressure coefficient cpi 8.3.9
External pressure coefficient cpe 8.3.2 to 8.3.8
Internal wind pressure wi Equation (7)
External wind pressure we Equation (8)
Wind force calculated from force coefficient Fw Equations (9) and (10)
Internal forces Fw,i Equation (11)
External forces Fw,e Equation (12)
Friction forces Ffr Equation (13)
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7.5.2 Wind pressure on surfaces
7.5.2.1 Wind action on structures and structural elements shall be determined by taking into
account the simultaneous actions of external and internal wind pressures.
NOTE The fluctuating internal pressures are generated by wind penetrating the outer skin of a structure via
passages, which may include the following:
a) permanent openings (vents, louvers);
b) temporary openings (windows and doors);
c) leakages (via. windows and cladding); and
d) accidental openings (broken windows, displaced sheeting).
7.5.2.2 The wind action shall be determined for a selected value of the reference height of the
surface of the structure, ze, depending on the configuration and geometry of the structure as
specified in 8.3.
7.5.2.3 The wind pressure, wi, acting on internal surfaces of a structure, shall be obtained using the
following equation:
wi = qp(ze) × cpi (7)
where
qp(ze) is the peak wind speed pressure;
ze is the reference height relevant to the internal pressure;
cpi is the pressure coefficient for the internal pressure.
7.5.2.4 The wind pressure acting on the external surfaces, we, shall be obtained using the following
equation:
we = qp (ze) × cpe (8)
where
qp(ze) is the peak wind speed pressure;
ze is the reference height relevant to the external pressure;
cpe is the pressure coefficient for the external pressure.
7.5.2.5 The net pressure acting on a wall, roof or other element is the difference between the
pressures on the opposite surfaces taking into account their signs. Pressure directed towards the
surface is taken as positive, and suction, directed away from the surface, as negative. In figure 3
various cases of build-up of positive and negative pressures are demonstrated.
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Figure 3 — Pressure on surfaces
7.5.3 Wind forces
7.5.3.1 Wind force for the whole structure or a structural component shall be determined using
either of the following:
a) by using force coefficients in the equations as described in 7.5.3.2; or
b) by integrating surface pressures as described in 7.5.3.3.
7.5.3.2 The wind force, Fw, acting on a structure or a structural component may be determined
using the following equation:
Fw = cs × cd × cf × qp (ze) × Aref (9)
or by vector summation over individual structural elements, using the following equation:
Fw = cs × cd × Σcf × qp(ze) × Aref (10)
where
cscd is the structural factor equal to 1,0 (see 7.5.3.4 and 7.5.3.5);
cf is the force coefficient for a structure or structural element (see clause 8);
qp(ze) is the peak wind speed pressure (see 7.4) at a reference height, ze (see clause 8);
Aref is the reference area of the structure or structural element (see clause 8).
NOTE Clause 8 gives values of force coefficients, cf, for structures or structural elements such as prisms,
cylinders, roofs, signboards, plates or lattice structures. The values, which are given, include the effects of
friction.
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7.5.3.3 The wind force, Fw, acting on a structure or a structural element may be determined by
vectorial summation of the forces, Fw,e, Fw,i and Ffr, calculated from the external and internal
pressures (see equations (11) and (12)), and the friction forces resulting from the friction of the
wind generated along the surfaces which are parallel to the flow, as calculated in the following
equations:
Internal forces:
Fw,i =  wi × Aref (11)

surfaces
External forces:
Fw,e = cs × cd ×  we × Aref (12)

surfaces
Friction forces:
Ffr = cfr × qp (ze) × Afr (13)
where
cscd is the structural factor equal to 1,0 (see 7.5.3.4 and 7.5.3.5);
wi is the internal pressure on the individual surface at height, ze, given in equation (7);
we is the external pressure on the individual surface at height, ze, given in equation (8);
Aref is the reference area of an individual surface;
cfr is the friction coefficient derived from clause 8;
Afr is the area of external surface parallel to wind direction.
7.5.3.4 The structural factor, cscd, takes into account and combines the effects of
a) the disorganized distribution, i.e. non-simultaneous occurrence of peak pressures over the
external surfaces of buildings and structures, and
b) the dynamic effects due to resonance between the turbulence of the flow and vibrations of the
structure.
7.5.3.5 For structures falling within the scope of this part of SANS 10160 the factor, cscd, shall be
taken as 1,0.
NOTE 1 Structures falling outside the scope of this part of SANS 10160 can be designed in accordance with
EN 1991-1-4, considering the guidelines included in annex C.
NOTE 2 Alternatively, wind tunnel modelling may be used (see annex D).
7.5.3.6 The effects of the wind friction can be ignored when the total area of all surfaces parallel
(or at a small angle) to the wind direction is equal to or less than four times the total area of all
external surfaces perpendicular to the wind (including windward and leeward surfaces).
7.5.3.7 In the summation of wind forces acting on building structures, the lack of correlation of
wind pressures between the windward and leeward sides shall be taken into account.
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8 Pressure and force coefficients

8.1 Aerodynamic coefficient
8.1.1 Pressure coefficients
8.1.1.1 Buildings
The internal and external pressures for buildings shall be determined in accordance with 8.3.
8.1.1.2 Circular cylinders
The internal pressure for circular cylinders shall be determined in accordance with 8.3.9.
The external pressure for circular cylinders shall be determined in accordance with 8.10.
NOTE 1 External pressure coefficients give the effect of the wind on the external surfaces of buildings;
internal pressure coefficients give the effect of the wind on the internal surfaces of buildings.
NOTE 2 The external pressure coefficients are divided into overall coefficients and local coefficients. Local
coefficients give the pressure coefficients for loaded areas of 1 m2. They may be used for the design of small
elements and fixings. Overall coefficients give the pressure coefficients for loaded areas of 10 m2. They may
be used for loaded areas larger than 10 m2.
8.1.2 Net pressure coefficients
8.1.2.1 The net pressure coefficient for canopy roofs shall be determined in accordance with 8.4.
8.1.2.2 The net pressure coefficient for free-standing walls, parapets and fences shall be determined
in accordance with 8.5.2.
NOTE Net pressure coefficients give the resulting effect of the wind on a structure, structural element or
component per unit area.
8.1.3 Friction coefficients
The friction coefficients for walls and surfaces shall be determined in accordance with 8.6.
8.1.4 Force coefficients
The force coefficients for the applicable structures shall be determined in accordance with the
following:
a) for signboards, see 8.5.3;
b) for structural elements with rectangular cross sections, see 8.7;
c) for structural elements with sharp edged sections, see 8.8;
d) for structural elements with polygonal sections, see 8.9;
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e) for circular cylinders, see 8.10.2 and 8.10.3;
f) for spheres, see 8.11; and
g) for lattice structures and scaffoldings, see 8.12.
8.1.5 Reduction factor
Depending on effective slenderness of the structure, the reduction factor is determined in

accordance with 8.13.
8.2 Asymmetric and counteracting pressures and forces
8.2.1 If instantaneous fluctuations of wind over surfaces can give rise to significant asymmetry of
loading and the structural form is likely to be sensitive to such loading, then their effect shall be
taken into account.
NOTE An example of an asymmetric loading is the torsion in nominally symmetric single-core buildings.
8.2.2 For free-standing canopies and signboards, 8.4 and 8.5 shall be applied.
NOTE 1 It is recommended that for rectangular structures that are susceptible to torsional effects the
pressure distribution given in figure 4 should be applied to represent the torsional effects due to an inclined
wind or due to lack of correlation between wind forces acting at different places over the structure.
NOTE 2 It is recommended that for other cases an allowance for asymmetry of loading should be made by
completely removing the design wind action from those parts of the structure where its action will produce a
beneficial effect.
NOTE The zones and values for cpe are given in table 6 and figure 8.
Figure 4 — Pressure distribution used to take torsional effects into account
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8.3 Pressure coefficients for buildings
8.3.1 General
8.3.1.1 The external pressure coefficients, cpe, for buildings and parts of buildings depend on the
size of the loaded area, A, which is the area of the structure that produces the wind action in the
section to be calculated. The external pressure coefficients are given for loaded areas, A, of 1 m2 and
10 m2 as specified in clause 8 for the appropriate building configurations as, cpe,1, for local
coefficients, and cpe,10, for overall coefficients, respectively.
NOTE 1 Values for cpe,1 are intended for the design of small elements and fixings with an area per element
of 1 m2 or less such as cladding elements and roofing elements. Values for cpe,10, may be used for the design
of the overall load bearing structure of buildings.
NOTE 2 For loaded areas between 1 m2 and 10 m2 the recommended procedure is given in figure 5.
The figure is based on the following:
For 1 m2 < A < 10 m2
cpe = cpe,1 − (cpe,1 − cpe,10) log10A
Figure 5 — Recommended procedure for determining the external pressure coefficient,

cpe, for buildings with a loaded area, A between 1 m2 and 10 m2
8.3.1.2 The values, cpe.10 and cpe.1, in tables 6 to 12 shall be used for the orthogonal wind directions
0°, 90° and 180°. These values represent the most unfavourable values obtained in a range of wind
direction  = ± 45°, either side of the relevant orthogonal direction.
8.3.1.3 For protruding roof overhangs the pressure on the underside of the overhang is equal to the
pressure for the zone of the vertical wall directly connected to the protruding roof; the pressure at
the top side of the roof overhang is equal to the pressure of the zone, defined for the roof (see
figure 6).
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Figure 6 — Illustration of relevant pressures for protruding roofs
8.3.2 Vertical walls of rectangular plan buildings
8.3.2.1 The reference heights, ze, for the determination of loading zones on windward walls of
rectangular plan buildings (i.e. walls facing the wind) depend on the aspect ratio, h/b, and are
always the upper heights of the different parts of the walls. The reference heights are given in
figure 7 for the following cases:
a) a building, whose height, h, is less than the breadth, b, shall be considered to be loaded with one
zone;
b) a building, whose height, h, is greater than breadth, b, but less than 2b, may be considered to
have two zones; a lower zone extending upwards from the ground to a height equal to b, and an
upper zone consisting of the remainder; and
c) a building, whose height, h, is greater than 2b, may be considered to have multiple zones; a lower
zone extending upwards from the ground to a height equal to b; an upper zone extending
downwards from the top by a height equal to b, and a middle region between the upper and lower
zones, which may be divided into horizontal strips with a height, hstrip, as shown in figure 7, with
hstrip < b.
8.3.2.2 For leeward wall and sidewalls (zones A, B, C and E, see figure 8) the reference height
shall be taken as the height of the building.
8.3.2.3 The external pressure coefficients, cpe,10 and cpe.1,for zone A, B, C, D and E are defined in
table 6.
NOTE The recommended values of cpe,10 and cpe,1, are given in table 6, depending on the ratio h/d. For
intermediate values of h/d, linear interpolation may be applied. The values given in table 6 also apply to walls
of buildings with inclined roofs, such as mono- and duo-pitch.
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NOTE The wind speed pressure is taken to be uniformly distributed over each horizontal strip considered.
Figure 7 — Reference height, ze, depending on h and b,

and corresponding wind pressure profiles
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Key
e = b or 2h, whichever is the smaller
b = crosswind dimension
Figure 8 — Key for interpretation of zones for vertical walls
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Table 6 — Values of external pressure coefficients

for vertical walls of rectangular plan buildings
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Zone
A B C D E
h/d
External pressure coefficients
cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1
5 −1,2 −1,4 −0,8 −1,1 −0,5 +0,8 +1,0 −0,7
1 −1,2 −1,4 −0,8 −1,1 −0,5 +0,8 +1,0 −0,5
≤ 0,25 −1,2 −1,4 −0,8 −1,1 −0,5 +0,7 +1,0 −0,3
NOTE For buildings with h/d > 5, with rectangular, polygonal or circular cross-section, the total wind
loading may be based on the provisions given in 8.7 to 8.9 and 8.10.2.
8.3.2.4 In cases where total wind forces on building structures are determined by application of the
pressure coefficients, cpe, on windward and leeward side (zones D and E) of the building,
simultaneously, the lack of correlation of wind pressures between the windward and leeward side
shall be taken into account.
NOTE The lack of correlation of wind pressures between the windward and leeward side may be considered
as follows:
a) for buildings with h/d ≥ 5, the resulting force should be multiplied by 1;
b) for buildings with h/d ≤ 1, the resulting force should be multiplied by 0,85; and
c) for intermediate values of h/d, linear interpolation may be applied.
8.3.3 Flat roofs
8.3.3.1 Flat roofs are defined as having a slope, α, of –5° <  < 5°.
8.3.3.2 The roof shall be divided into zones as shown in figure 9.
8.3.3.3 The reference height, ze, for flat roof and roofs with curved or mansard eaves, shall be taken
as h, and for flat roofs with parapets as h + hp (see figure 9).
8.3.3.4 Pressure coefficients for each zone are given in table 7.
8.3.3.5 The resulting pressure coefficient on the parapet shall be determined in accordance with
8.5.
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Key
Figure 9 — Key for interpretation of zones for flat roofs
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Table 7 — External pressure coefficients for flat roofs
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Zone
F G H I
Roof type External pressure coefficients
cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1
0,2
Sharp eaves −1,8 −2,5 −1,2 −2,0 −0,7 −1,2
−0,2
0,2
hp/h = 0,025 −1,6 −2,2 −1,1 −1,8 −0,7 −1,2
−0,2
0,2
With −1,4 −2,0 −0,9 −1,6 −0,7 −1,2
parapets hp/h = 0,05
−0,2
0,2
hp/h = 0,10 −1,2 −1,8 −0,8 −1,4 −0,7 −1,2
−0,2
0,2
r/h = 0,05 −1,0 −1,5 −1,2 −1,8 −0,4
−0,2
0,2
Curved r/h = 0,10 −0,7 −1,2 −0,8 −1,4 −0,3
eaves
−0,2
0,2
r/h = 0,20 −0,5 −0,8 −0,5 −0,8 −0,3
−0,2
0,2
α = 30° −1,0 −1,5 −1,0 −1,5 −0,3
−0,2
0,2
Mansard
eaves α = 45° −1,2 −1,8 −1,3 −1,9 −0,4
−0,2
0,2
α = 60° −1,3 −1,9 −1,3 −1,9 −0,5
−0,2
NOTE 1 For roofs with parapets or curved eaves, linear interpolation may be used for intermediate
values of hp/h and r/h.
NOTE 2 For roofs with mansard eaves, linear interpolation between α = 30°, 45° and α = 60° may be
used. For α > 60° linear interpolation between the values for α = 60° and the values for flat roofs with
sharp eaves may be used.
NOTE 3 In zone I, where positive and negative values are given, both values should be considered.
NOTE 4 For the mansard eave itself, the external pressure coefficients are given in table 10. For external
pressure coefficients for duo-pitch roofs, with wind direction 0°, adopt zone F and G, depending on the
pitch angle of the mansard eave.
NOTE 5 For the curved eave itself, the external pressure coefficients are given by linear interpolation
along the curve, between values on the wall and on the roof.
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8.3.4 Mono-pitch roofs
8.3.4.1 The roof, including protruding parts (see figure 6), shall be divided into zones as shown in
figure 10.
8.3.4.2 The reference height, ze, shall be taken as equal to h.
8.3.4.3 The pressure coefficients for each zone that shall be used are given in tables 8 and 9.
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Key
Figure 10 — Key for interpretation of zones for mono-pitch roofs
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Table 8 — External pressure coefficients for mono-pitch roofs
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Pitch Zone Zone

angle F G H F G H
α
Wind direction  = 0° Wind direction  = 180°
External pressure coefficients External pressure coefficients
degrees cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1
−1,7 −2,5 −1,2 −2,0 −0,6 −1,2

5 −2,3 −2,5 −1,3 −2,0 −0,8 −1,2
+0,0 +0,0 +0,0
−0,9 −2,0 −0,8 −1,5 −0,3

15 −2,5 −2,8 −1,3 −2,0 −0,9 −1,2
+0,2 +0,2 + 0,2
−0,5 −1,5 −0,5 −1,5 −0,2

30 −1,1 −2,3 −0,8 −1,5 −0,8
+0,7 +0,7 +0,4
−0,0 −0,0 −0,0

45 −0,6 −1,3 −0,7 −0,5
+0,7 +0,7 +0,6
60 +0,7 +0,7 +0,7 −0,5 −1,0 −0,5 −0,5
75 +0,8 +0,8 +0,8 −0,5 −1,0 −0,5 −0,5
NOTE 1 At wind direction of  = 0° the pressure changes rapidly between positive and negative values around a
pitch angle of α = +5° to +45°, so both positive and negative values are given. For such roofs, two cases should be
considered: one with all positive values, and one with all negative values. Positive and negative values cannot act
in combination on the same face.
NOTE 2 For intermediate pitch angles linear interpolation may be used between values with the same sign. The
values equal to 0,0 are given for interpolation purposes.
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Table 9 — External pressure coefficients for mono-pitch roofs; wind direction θ = 90°
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Zone
Pitch
angle Fup Flow G H I
 External pressure coefficients
degrees cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1
5 −2,1 −2,6 −2,1 −2,4 −1,8 −2,0 −0,6 −1,2 −0,5
15 −2,4 −2,9 −1,6 −2,4 −1,9 −2,5 −0,8 −1,2 −0,7 −1,2
30 −2,1 −2,9 −1,3 −2,0 −1,5 −2,0 −1,0 −1,3 −0,8 −1,2
45 −1,5 −2,4 −1,3 −2,0 −1,4 −2,0 −1,0 −1,3 −0,9 −1,2
60 −1,2 −2,0 −1,2 −2,0 −1,2 −2,0 −1,0 −1,3 −0,7 −1,2
75 −1,2 −2,0 −1,2 −2,0 −1,2 −2,0 −1,0 −1,3 −0,5
8.3.5 Duo-pitch roofs
8.3.5.1 The roof, including protruding parts, shall be divided in zones as shown in figure 11.
8.3.5.3 The pressure coefficients for each zone that shall be used are given in tables 10 and 11.
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Key
Figure 11 — Key for interpretation of loading zones for duo-pitch roofs
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Table 10 — External pressure coefficients for duo-pitch roofs

with the wind directiona θ = 0°
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Pitch Zone
angle F G H I J
α
degrees cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1
−45 −0,6 −0,6 −0,8 −0,7 −1,0 −1,5
−30 −1,1 −2,0 −0,8 −1,5 −0,8 −0,6 −0,8 −1,4
−15 −2,5 −2,8 −1,3 −2,0 −0,9 −1,2 −0,5 −0,7 −1,2
+0,2 +0,2
−5 −2,3 −2,5 −1,2 −2,0 −0,8 −1,2
−0,6 −0,6
−1,7 −2,5 −1,2 −2,0 -0,6 −1,2 +0,2

5 −0,6
+0,0 +0,0 +0,0 −0,6
−0,9 −2,0 −0,8 −1,5 −0,3 −0,4 −1,0 −1,5

15
+0,2 +0,2 +0,2 0,0 0,0 0,0
−0,5 −1,5 −0,5 −1,5 −0,2 −0,4 −0,5

30
+0,7 +0,7 +0,4 0,0 0,0
−0,0 −0,0 −0,0 −0,2 −0,3

45
+0,7 +0,7 +0,6 0,0 0,0
60 +0,7 +0,7 +0,7 −0,2 −0,3
75 +0,8 +0,8 +0,8 −0,2 −0,3

NOTE 1 For θ = 0˚, pressure changes rapidly between positive and negative values on the windward
roof section between angles of α = −5˚and α = +45˚, so both positive and negative values are given. For
such roofs, four loading cases shall be considered, where the largest or smallest values of all areas F, G
and H are combined with the largest or smallest values in areas I and J. Positive and negative values
cannot act in combination on the same face.
NOTE 2 For intermediate pitch angles of the same sign, linear interpolation may be used between
values of the same sign. (Interpolation should not be done between α = +5˚ and α = −5˚, but use the data
for flat roofs given in 8.3.3). The values equal to 0,0 are given for interpolation purposes.
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Table 11 — External pressure coefficients for duo-pitch roofs

with the wind direction θ = 90˚
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Pitch Zone
angle F G H I
α
degrees cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1
−45 −1,4 −2,0 −1,2 −2,0 −1,0 −1,3 −0,9 −1,2

−30 −1,5 −2,1 −1,2 −2,0 −1,0 −1,3 −0,9 −1,2
−15 −1,9 −2,5 −1,2 −2,0 −0,8 −1,2 −0,8 −1,2
−5 −1,8 −2,5 −1,2 −2,0 −0,7 −1,2 −0,6 −1,2
5 −1,6 −2,2 −1,3 −2,0 −0,7 −1,2 −0,6
15 −1,3 −2,0 −1,3 −2,0 −0,6 −1,2 −0,5
30 −1,1 −1,5 −1,4 −2,0 −0,8 −1,2 −0,5
45 −1,1 −1,5 −1,4 −2,0 −0,9 −1,2 −0,5
60 −1,1 −1,5 −1,2 −2,0 −0,8 −1,0 −0,5
75 −1,1 −1,5 −1,2 −2,0 −0,8 −1,0 −0,5
NOTE For intermediate pitch angles of the same sign, linear interpolation may be used between values of the
same sign. (Interpolation should not be done between α = +5˚ and α = −5˚, but use the data for flat roofs given
in 8.3.3).
8.3.6 External pressure coefficients for hipped roofs
8.3.6.1 The roof, including its protrusions, shall be divided into zones as shown in figure 12.
8.3.6.3 The pressure coefficients that shall be used are given in table 12.
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Key
Figure 12 — Key for interpretation of loading zones for hipped roofs
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Table 12 — External pressure coefficients for hipped roofs of buildings

for wind direction θ = 0˚ and θ = 90˚
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Pitch Zone for wind direction θ = 0˚ and θ = 90˚
angle
α0 for F G H I J K L M N
θ = 0˚ External pressure coefficients
α90
for
cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1 cpe,10 cpe,1
θ = 90˚
−1,7 −2,5 −1,2 −2,0 −0,6 −1,2
5 −0,3 −0,6 −0,6 −1,2 −2,0 −0,6 −1,2 −0,4
+0,0 +0,0 +0,0
−0,9 −2,0 −0,8 −1,5 −0,3

15 −0,5 −1,0 −1,5 −1,2 −2,0 −1,4 −2,0 −0,6 −1,2 −0,3
+0,2 +0,2 +0,2
−0,5 −1,5 −0,5 −1,5 −0,2

30 −0,4 −0,7 −1,2 −0,5 −1,4 −2,0 −0,8 −1,2 −0,2
+0,5 +0,7 +0,4
−0,0 −0,0 −0,0

45 −0,3 −0,6 −0,3 −1,3 −2,0 −0,8 −1,2 −0,2
+0,7 +0,7 +0,6
60 +0,7 +0,7 +0,7 −0,3 −0,6 −0,3 −1,2 −2,0 −0,4 −0,2
75 +0,8 +0,8 +0,8 −0,3 −0,6 −0,3 −1,2 −2,0 −0,4 −0,2
NOTE 1 For θ = 0˚, the pressure changes rapidly between positive and negative values on the windward roof section
between angles of α = +5˚ and α = +45˚, so both positive and negative values are given. For such roofs, two cases should
be considered, one with all positive values, and one with all negative values. Positive and negative values cannot be
combined in one loading case.
NOTE 2 For intermediate pitch angles, linear interpolation may be used between values of the same sign. The values
equal to 0,0 are given for interpolation purposes.
NOTE 3 The pitch angle of the windward section will always govern the magnitude of pressure coefficients.
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8.3.7 Multi-span roofs
8.3.7.1 Pressure coefficients for wind directions 0°, 90° and 180°, for each span of a multi-span
roof, may be derived from the pressure coefficient for each individual span.
8.3.7.2 Modifying factors for the pressures (local and global) for wind directions 0° and 180° on
each span shall be obtained from:
a) 8.3.4, for mono-pitch roofs, modified for their position according to configurations a, b1 and b2
(see figure 13).
b) 8.3.5, for duo-pitch roofs for   0 modified for their position according to configurations c and
d (see figure 13).
8.3.7.3 Zones F, G and J shall be considered for the upwind face only and zones H and I for each
span of multi-span roof.
8.3.7.4 The reference height, z, shall be taken as the height of the structure, h (see figure 13).
8.3.8 Vaulted roofs and domes
Circular cylindrical roofs and domes pressure coefficients for the walls of rectangular buildings
with vaulted roofs shall be taken from 8.3.2.
NOTE The recommended values of cpe,10 are given in figures 14 and 15, for different zones. The reference
height should be taken as, ze = h + f. (The information on cpe,1 is not given, and if relevant, the designer is
encouraged to seek specialist advice or consult specialist literature.)
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NOTE 1 In configuration b, two cases should be considered depending on the sign of pressure coefficient,
cpe on the first roof.
NOTE 2 In configuration c, the first external pressure coefficient, cpe, is that of the mono-pitch roof, the
second and all following external pressure coefficients, cpe, are those of the troughed duo-pitch roof.
Figure 13 — Key to multi-span roofs
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NOTE 1 For 0 < h/d < 0,5, cpe,10, is obtained by linear interpolation.
NOTE 2 For 0,2 ≤ f/d ≤ 0,3 and h/d ≥ 0,5, two values of cpe,10 should be considered.
NOTE 3 The diagram is not applicable to flat roofs.
Figure 14 — Recommended values of external pressure coefficients, cpe,10

for vaulted roofs with rectangular base
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NOTE cpe,10 is constant along arcs of circles, intersections of the sphere and of planes perpendicular to the
wind direction; it can be determined as a first approximation by linear interpolation between the values in A,
B and C along the arcs of circles parallel to the wind. In the same way the values of cpe,10, in A, if 0 < h/d < 1,
and in B or C if 0 < h/d < 0,5, can be obtained by linear interpolation in the figure above.
Figure 15 — Recommended values of external pressure coefficients, cpe,10

for domes with circular base
8.3.9 Internal pressure
8.3.9.1 Internal and external pressures shall be considered to act simultaneously. The worst
combination of external and internal pressures shall be considered for every combination of possible
openings and other leakage paths. When cpi is a favourable action an additional combination with
cpi = 0 shall be considered.
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8.3.9.2 The internal pressure coefficient, cpi, depends on the size and distribution of openings in the
building envelope. If in at least two sides of the buildings (walls or roof) the total area of openings
in each side is more than 30 % of the area of that side, the actions on the structure shall not be
calculated in accordance with 8.3 but in accordance with 8.4 and 8.5.
NOTE The openings of a building include small openings such as open windows, ventilators or chimneys as
well as background permeability such as air leakage around doors, windows, service ducts and walls. The
background permeability is typically within the range 0,01 % to 0,1 % of the wall area.
8.3.9.3 If an external opening, such as a door or a window, is dominant while open, but is assumed
to be closed in the ultimate limit state, during severe windstorms, the situation in which the door or
window is open shall be considered as an accidental design situation in accordance with
SANS 10160-1.
NOTE A design check of accidental situation is important for high internal walls when a wall has to carry
the entire external wind action due to openings in the building envelope.
8.3.9.4 A building wall shall be regarded as dominant if the area of its openings is at least twice the
area of openings and leakages in the remaining surfaces of the building under consideration.
NOTE This can also be applied to individual internal volumes within the building.
8.3.9.5 In a building with a dominant wall the internal pressure shall be taken as a fraction of the
external pressure at the openings of the dominant wall. The values given by equations (14) and (15)
shall be used.
If the area of openings in the dominant wall is twice the area of the openings in the remaining
facades, use the following equation:
cpi = 0,75cpe (14)
where
cpe is the value of the external pressure coefficient at the openings in the dominant face.
If the area of openings in the dominant wall is at least three times the area of the openings in the
remaining facades, use the following equation:
cpi = 0,90cpe (15)
where
cpe is the value of the external pressure coefficient at the openings in the dominant face.
NOTE If these openings are located in zones with different values of external pressures, an area
weighted average value of cpe should be used.
If the area of openings in the dominant face is between two and three times the area of the openings
in the remaining walls linear interpolation may be used for calculating cpi.
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8.3.9.6 For buildings without a dominant wall, the internal pressure coefficient, cpi, shall be
determined from figure 16, as a function of the ratio of the height and depth of the building, h/d, and
the opening ratio, μ, which shall be determined for each wind direction, θ, using the following
equation:
 area of openings where c pe is negative or 0,0

μ= (16)
 area of all openings
NOTE 1 This calculation applies to walls and roofs of buildings with and without internal partitions.
NOTE 2 Where it is not possible, or not deemed to be justified, to estimate, μ, for a particular case then cpi
should be taken as the more onerous of +0,2 and −0,3.
Amdt.1
NOTE For values between h d = 0,25 and h d = 1,0, linear interpolation may be used.
Figure 16 — Internal pressure coefficients for uniformly distributed openings
8.3.9.7 The reference height, zi, for the internal pressures shall be equal to the reference height, ze,
for the external pressures (see 7.5.2) on the facades in which the openings, which contribute to the
generation of internal pressure, are positioned. If there are several openings the largest value of ze
shall be used to determine zi.
8.3.9.8 The internal pressure coefficient of open silos and chimneys shall be based on the following
equation:
cpi = −0,60 (17)
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8.3.9.9 The internal pressure coefficient of vented tanks with small openings shall be based on the
following equation:
cpi = −0,40 (18)
8.3.9.10 The reference height, zi, is equal to the height of the structure.
8.3.10 Pressure on walls and roofs with more than one external skin
8.3.10.1 The wind force is to be calculated separately for each skin.
8.3.10.2 The permeability, μ, of a skin is defined as the ratio of the total area of the opening divided
by the total area of the skin. A skin is defined as impermeable if the value, μ, is less than 0,1 %.
8.3.10.3 If only one skin is permeable, then the wind force on the impermeable skin shall be
determined from the difference between the internal and the external wind pressure as described in
7.5.2.4. If more than one skin is permeable then the wind force on each skin depends on
a) the relative rigidity of the skins,
b) the external and internal pressures,
c) the distance between the skins,
d) the permeability of the skins, and
e) the openings at the extremities of the layer between the skins.
NOTE 1 As a first approximation, the wind pressure on the most rigid skin may be taken as the difference
between the internal and external pressures.
NOTE 2 In cases where the extremities of the layer between the skins are air tight (see figure 17(a)) and
where the free distance between the skins is less than 100 mm (the thermal insulation material being included
in one skin, with no airflow within the insulation), the following rules may be applied:
a) For walls and roofs with an impermeable internal skin and a permeable external skin and uniformly
distributed openings, the wind force on the external skin may be calculated from, cp,net = 0,67cpe, for over-
pressure and cp,net = 0,33cpe, for under-pressure. The wind force on the internal skin may be calculated
from, cp,net = cpe − cpi.
b) For walls and roofs with an impermeable internal skin and an impermeable more rigid, external skin, the
wind force on the external skin may be calculated from, cp,net = cpe − cpi.
c) For walls and roofs with a permeable internal skin with approximately uniformly distributed openings and
an impermeable external skin, the wind force on the external skin may be calculated from, cp,net = cpe − cpi,
and the wind force on the internal skin from, cp,net = 0,33cpi.
d) For walls and roofs with an impermeable external skin and an impermeable, more rigid internal skin, the
wind force on the outside skin may be calculated from, cp,net = cpe and the wind force on the internal skin
from cp,net = cp − cpi.
8.3.10.4 If openings in the skin enable the air exchange with other walls or with the external air
flow (see figure 17(b)), the rules given in (a) to (d)are not applicable.
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Second skin Second skin

Insulation Insulation
< 100 mm < 100 mm

a) Extremities of the layer between the skins closed
Opening Second skin Second skin

Insulation Insulation
Drg.698c
b) Extremities of the layer between the skins open
Figure 17 — Corner details for external walls with more than one skin
8.4 Canopy roofs
8.4.1 A canopy roof is defined as the roof of a structure that does not have permanent walls, such
as petrol stations, and Dutch barns.
8.4.2 The degree of blockage under a canopy roof (as shown in figure 18) is defined in terms of the
blockage, φ, which is a ratio of the area of actual obstructions under the canopy divided by the cross
sectional area under the canopy, with both areas being normal to the wind direction.
NOTE φ = 0 represents an empty canopy, and φ = 1 represents the canopy fully blocked with contents up to
the down wind eaves only (note that this situation does not correspond to a closed building).
8.4.3 The overall force coefficients, cf, and net pressure coefficients, cp,net, given in tables 13 to 15
for φ = 0, and φ = 1, take into account the combined effect of wind acting on both the upper and
lower surfaces of the canopies for all wind directions. Intermediate values may be under by linear
interpolation.
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8.4.4 Downwind of the position of maximum blockage values for, φ = 0, shall be used.
8.4.5 The overall force coefficient represents the resultant force and shall be used in the design of
the structure. The net pressure coefficient represents the maximum local pressure for all wind
directions and shall be used in the design of roofing elements and fixings only.
8.4.6 The loads shall be applied as follows:
a) For a mono-pitch canopy (see table 13), the centre of pressure shall be taken at d/4, from the
windward edge (d = along-wind dimension, see figure 19).
b) For a duo-pitch canopy (see table 14), the centre of pressure shall be taken at the centre of each
slope (see figure 20). In addition, a duo-pitch canopy shall be able to support one pitch with the
maximum or minimum load, the other pitch being unloaded.
c) For a multi-bay duo-pitch canopy, each load on a bay may be calculated by applying the
reduction factors, ψmc, given in table 15, to the cp,net values given in table 14.
d) For canopies with double skin, the impermeable skin and its fixings shall be calculated with cp,net
and the permeable skin and its fixings with 0,33 cp,net.
8.4.7 Friction forces shall be considered (see 8.6).
8.4.8 The reference height, zc shall be taken as h, as shown in figures 19 and 20.
Figure 18 — Airflow over canopy roofs
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Table 13 — cp,net and cf values for mono-pitch canopies
1 2 3 4 5 6
Zone
Roof
Overall force A B C
angle α Blockage φ
coefficients cf Net pressure coefficients
degrees
cp,net cp,net cp,net
Max. all φ +0,2 +0,5 +1,8 +1,1
0 Min. φ = 0 −0,5 −0,6 −1,3 −1,4
Min. φ = 1 −1,3 −1,5 −1,8 −2,2
Max. all φ +0,4 +0,8 +2,1 +1,3
5 Min. φ = 0 − 0,7 −1,1 −1,7 −1,8
Min. φ = 1 − 1,4 −1,6 −2,2 −2,5
Max. all φ +0,5 +1,2 +2,4 +1,6
10 Min. φ = 0 −0,9 −1,5 −2,0 −2,1
Min. φ = 1 −1,4 −2,1 −2,6 −2,7
Max. all φ +0,7 +1,4 +2,7 +1,8
15 Min. φ = 0 −1,1 −1,8 −2,4 −2,5
Min. φ = 1 − 1,4 −1,6 −2,9 −3,0
Max. all φ +0,8 +1,7 +2,9 +2,1
20 Min. φ = 0 −1,3 −2,2 −2,8 −2,9
Min. φ = 1 −1,4 −1,6 −2,9 −3,0
Max. all φ +1,0 +2,0 +3,1 +2,3
25 Min. φ = 0 −1,6 −2,6 −3,2 −3,2
Min. φ = 1 −1,4 −1,5 −2,5 −2,8
Max. all φ +1,2 +2,2 +3,2 +2,4
30 Min. φ = 0 −1,8 −3,0 −3,8 −3,6
Min. φ = 1 −1,4 −1,5 −2,2 −2,7
NOTE 1 "+" values indicate a net downward wind action and "−" values represent a net upward wind
action.
NOTE 2 For zone D the maximum value from zones B or C should be used.
NOTE 3 Max. all φ implies maximum positive value for all φ.

Min. φ = 0 implies minimum φ = 0.
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Figure 19 — Location of the centre of force for mono-pitch canopies
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Table 14 — cp,net and cf values for duo-pitch canopies

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Roof angle α Overall force Net pressure coefficients cp,net for zones
Degrees Blockage φ coefficient cf A B C D
Max. all φ +0,7 +0,8 +1,6 +0,6 +1,7
−20 Min. φ = 0 −0,7 −0,9 −1,3 −1,6 −0,6
Min. φ = 1 −1,3 −1,5 −2,4 −2,4 −0,6
Max. all φ +0,5 +0,6 +1,5 +0,7 +1,4
−15 Min. φ = 0 −0,6 −0,8 −1,3 −1,6 −0,6
Min. φ = 1 −1,4 −1,6 −2,7 −2,6 −0,6
Max all φ +0,4 +0,6 +1,4 +0,8 +1,1
−10 Min. φ = 0 −0,6 −0,8 −1,3 −1,5 −0,6
Min. φ = 1 −1,4 −1,6 −2,7 −2,6 −0,6
Max. all φ +0,3 +0,5 +1,5 +0,8 +0,8
−5 Min. φ = 0 −0,5 −0,7 −1,3 −1,6 −0,6
Min. φ = 1 −1,3 −1,5 −2,4 −2,4 −0,6
Max. all φ +0,3 +0,6 +1,8 +1,3 +0,4
+5 Min. φ = 0 −0,6 −0,6 −1,4 −1,4 −1,1
Min. φ = 1 −1,3 −1,3 −2,0 −1,8 −1,5
Max. all φ +0,4 +0,7 +1,8 +1,4 +0,4
+10 Min. φ = 0 −0,7 −0,7 −1,5 −1,4 −1,4
Min. φ = 1 −1,3 −1,3 −2,0 −1,8 −1,8
Max. all φ +0,4 +0,9 +1,9 +1,4 +0,4
+15 Min. φ = 0 −0,8 −0,9 −1,7 −1,4 −1,8
Min. φ = 1 −1,3 −1,3 −2,2 −1,6 −2,1
Max. all φ +0,6 +1,1 +1,9 +1,5 +0,4
+20 Min. φ = 0 −0,9 −1,2 −1,8 −1,4 −2,0
Min. φ = 1 −1,3 −1,4 −2,2 −1,6 −2,1
Max. all φ +0,7 +1,2 +1,9 +1,6 +0,5
+25 Min. φ = 0 −1,0 −1,4 −1,9 −1,4 −2,0
Min. φ = 1 −1,3 −1,4 −2,0 −1,5 −2,0
Max. all φ +0,9 +1,3 +1,9 +1,6 +0,7
+30 Min. φ = 0 −1,0 −1,4 −1,9 −1,4 −2,0
Min. φ = 1 −1,3 −1,4 −1,8 −1,4 −2,0
NOTE 1 "+" values indicate a net downward wind action and "−" values represent a net upward wind action.
NOTE 2 For zone E the maximum value from zones B or C should be used.
NOTE 3 Max. all φ implies maximum positive value for all φ.
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a) Pitch angle positive
b) Pitch angle negative
Figure 20 — Arrangements of loads obtained from force coefficients for duo-pitch canopies
8.4.9 Loads on each slope of multi-bay canopies, as shown in figure 21, are determined by
applying the reduction factors, ψmc, given in table 15 to the overall force, and net pressure
coefficients for isolated duo-pitch canopies.
Table 15 — Reduction factors ψmc for multi-bay canopies
1 2 3 4
ψmc factors
Bay Location For maximum (downward) For minimum (upward)
force and pressure force and pressure
coefficients coefficients
1 End bay 1,0 0,8
2 Second bay 0,9 0,7
3 Third and subsequent bays 0,7 0,7
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a) Reduction factors for maximum downward force and pressure coefficients
b) Reduction factors for largest upward force and pressure coefficients
Figure 21 — Multi-bay canopies
8.5 Free-standing walls, parapets, fences and signboards
8.5.1 General
The values of the resulting pressure coefficients, cp,net, for free-standing walls and parapets depend
on the solidity ratio, φ. For solid walls, the solidity φ, shall be taken as 1, and for walls which are
80 % solid (i.e. have 20 % openings), φ = 0,8. Porous walls and fences with a solidity ratio of,
φ ≤ 0,8, shall be treated as plane lattices in accordance with 8.12.
8.5.2 Free-standing walls and parapets
8.5.2.1 For free-standing walls and parapets the resulting pressure coefficients, cp,net, shall be
specified for the zones A, B, C and D as shown in figure 22.
NOTE Recommended values of the resulting pressure coefficients cp,net are given in table 16 for two
different solidity ratios.
The wind actions shall be applied to either side of the wall and perpendicular to the wall. The
reference area in both cases is the gross area.
NOTE Linear interpolation may be used for solidity ratio between 0,8 and 1.
8.5.2.2 The reference height for free standing walls shall be taken as, ze = h (see figure 22). The
reference height for parapets in buildings shall be taken as, ze = (h + hp) (see figure 9).
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Table 16 — Recommended net pressure coefficients cp,net

for free-standing walls and parapets
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Solidity Return Zone
Aspect ratio
ratio corners A B C D
L/h  3 2,3 1,4 1,2 1,2
Without L/h = 5 2,9 1,8 1,4 1,2

φ=1
L/h  10 3,4 2,1 1,7 1,2
length  h 2,1 1,8 1,4 1,2
φ = 0,8 1,2 1,2 1,2 1,2

NOTE Linear interpolation may be used for return corner lengths between 0 and h.
Figure 22 — Key for interpretation of zones for free-standing walls and parapets
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8.5.3 Signboards
8.5.3.1 For signboards separated from the ground by a height, hg > h/4 (see figure 23), the force
coefficients are given by using the following equation:
cf = 1,80 (19)
Equation (19) is also applicable where, hg < h/4 and b/h < 1.
8.5.3.2 The resultant force normal to the signboard shall be taken as acting at a height of the centre
of the signboard with a horizontal eccentricity, e, as given in the following equation:
e = ± 0,25b (20)
8.5.3.3 Signboards separated from the ground by a height, hg < h/4 and with b/h > 1, shall be
treated as boundary walls (see 8.5.1).
NOTE Possibilities for development of flutter and divergence instabilities should be considered.
h
e e
h
e e
he
hg
hg
Drg.698n
NOTE 1 Reference height: he = hg + h/2.
NOTE 2 Reference area: Aref = b × h.
Figure 23 — Key interpretation of signboards
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8.6 Friction forces
8.6.1 Friction shall be considered for the cases defined in 7.5.3.
8.6.2 The friction coefficients, cfr, for walls and roof surfaces as given in table 17, shall be used.
8.6.3 The reference area, Afr, is given in figure 24. For buildings, friction forces shall be applied on
the part of the external surfaces parallel to the wind, located beyond a distance from the upwind
eaves or corners, equal to the smallest value of 2b or 4h.
8.6.4 The reference height, ze, shall be taken as equal to the structure height above ground or
building height, h (see figure 24).
Table 17 — Friction coefficient, cfr

for walls, parapets and roof surfaces
1 2
Friction coefficient
Surface
cfr
Smooth
0,01
(i.e. steel, smooth concrete)
Rough
0,02
(i.e. rough concrete, tar-boards)
Very rough
0,04
(i.e. ripples, ribs, folds)
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Figure 24 — Reference area for friction
8.7 Structural elements with rectangular sections
8.7.1 The force coefficient, cf of structural elements of rectangular section with the wind blowing
normally to a face, shall be determined using the following equation:
cf = cf,0 × ψr × ψλ (21)
where
cf,0 is the force coefficient of rectangular sections with sharp corners and without free-end
flow as given in figure 25;
ψr is the reduction factor for square sections with rounded corners.;
NOTE 1 ψr depends on the Reynolds number, (see note 2).
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ψλ is the end-effect factor for elements with free-end flow as defined in 8.13.
NOTE 2 The recommended approximate upper bound values of ψr, are given in figure 26. These values are
based on measurements in low-turbulence conditions, which are assumed to be conservative.
NOTE 3 Figure 26 may also be used for buildings with h/d > 5,0.
Figure 25 — Force coefficients cf,0 of rectangular sections

with sharp corners and without free-end flow
Figure 26 — Reduction factor, ψr for a square cross-section

with rounded corners
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8.7.2 The reference area, Aref, shall be determined using the following equation:
Aref = L × b (22)
where
L is the length of the structural element being considered.

The reference height, ze, is equal to the maximum height above ground of the section being
considered.
8.7.3 For plate-like sections, d/b < 0,2, and at certain wind angles of attack, lift forces may give
rise to an increase of 25 % in values of cf.
8.8 Structural elements with sharp edged sections
8.8.1 The force coefficient, cf, of structural elements with sharp edged section (for example
elements with cross-sections such as those shown in figure 27) shall be determined using the
following equation:
cf = cf,0 × ψλ (23)
where
cf,0 = 2;
ψλ is the end-effect factor (see 8.13).
8.8.2 The reference areas (see figure 27), shall be taken as follows:
In x-direction: Aref,x = L × b
In y-direction: Aref,y = L × d (24)
where
Figure 27 — Structural sections with sharp edges
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8.8.3 In all cases the reference height, ze, shall be taken as equal to the maximum height above
ground of the section being considered.
8.9 Structural elements with regular polygonal sections
8.9.1 The force coefficient, cf, of structural elements with regular polygonal section with five or
more sides shall be determined using the following equation:
cf = cf,0 × ψλ (25)
where
ψλ is the end-effect factor as defined in 8.13;
cf,0is the force coefficient of structural elements without free-end flow.
NOTE The recommended conservative values of cf,0, based on measurements under low-turbulent
conditions are given in table 18.
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Table 18 — Force coefficient cf,0 for regular polygonal sections
1 2 3 4 5
Number Finish of surface Reynolds number
Sections cf,0
of sides and of corners Re
5 Pentagon All All 1,80
6 Hexagon All All 1,60
Surface smooth Re ≤ 2,4 × 105 1,45

r/b < 0,075 ≥ 3 × 105 1,30
Re
8 Octagon
Surface smooth Re ≤ 2 × 105 1,30
r/b ≥ 0,075 ≥ 7 × 105 1,10
Re
10 Decagon All All 1,30
Surface smooth
2×105 < R e < 1,2 × 106 0,90
corners rounded
12 Dodecagon < 4 × 105 1,30
Re
All others
Re > 4 × 10 5 1,10
Treat as a circular
Surface smooth Re < 2 × 105 cylinder (see 8.10)
16 to 18 Hexdecagon
corners rounded
2 × 105 ≤ R e < 1,2 × 106 0,70
NOTE 1 Reynolds number with ν = νp(z), is defined in 8.10.
NOTE 2 r is the corner radius, b, is the diameter of circumscribed circumference (see figure 28).
NOTE 3 For dodecagon surface smooth and hexdecagon surface smooth values were derived from wind
tunnel tests on sectional models with galvanized steel surface and a section with b = 0,3 m and a corner
radius of 0,06b.
8.9.2 For buildings where h/b > 5, cf may be determined from equation (25) and the information
contained in table 18.
8.9.3 The reference area, Aref, shall be obtained using the following equation:
Aref = L × b (26)
where
L is the length of the structural element being considered;
b is the diameter of circumscribed circumference (see figure 28).
8.9.4 The reference height, ze, is equal to the maximum height above ground of the section being
considered.
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Figure 28 — Regular polygonal section
8.10 Circular cylinders
8.10.1 External pressure coefficients
8.10.1.1 Pressure coefficients of sections depend upon the Reynolds numbers, Re, defined by the
following equation:
b  v  ze 
Re = (27)

where
b is the diameter, expressed in metres (m);
ν is the kinematic viscosity of the air (ν = 15×10-6 m2/s);
ν(ze) is the peak wind speed at a reference height of ze, expressed in metres per second (m/s)
(see 8.10.1.6).
8.10.1.2 The external pressure coefficients, cpe, of circular cylinders, shall be determined using the
following equation:
cpe = cp,0 × ψλα (28)
where
cp,0 is the external pressure coefficient without free-end flow (see 8.10.1.3);
ψλα is the end-effect factor (see 8.10.1.4).
8.10.1.3 The external pressure coefficient, cp,0 is given in figure 29 for various Reynolds numbers
as a function of angle, α.
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8.10.1.4 The end-effect factor, ψλα, is given by the following equation:
ψλα = 1 for 0° ≤ α ≤ αmin
   α  α min 
ψλα = ψλ + (1 ψλ) cos    for αmin < α < αA (29)
 2  α A  α min 
ψλα = ψλ for αA ≤ α ≤ 180°
where
αA is the position of the flow separation (see figure 29);

NOTE 1 Intermediate values may be obtained from linear interpolation.
NOTE 2 Typical values in figure 29 are shown in table 19. Figure 29 and table 19 are based on the Reynolds
2q p
number with vp (z) = and qp given in 7.4.

NOTE 3 Figure 29 is based on an equivalent roughness, k/b < 5×10-4. Typical values of roughness height, k,
are given in table 20.
c p,0
1

 min. A
b
Wind 
-0 0 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180°
c pe =  c
  p0
2 * 10 7
-1
A
5* 0 6
cp,0, h
10 5
c pe =  c p0,h
1
0° 180° c p,0 min.

=
Re
-2
Drg.698t
Figure 29 — Pressure distribution for circular cylinders

for different Reynolds number ranges and without end-effects
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Table 19 — Typical values of the design parameters for the pressure distribution around
circular cylinders for different Reynolds number ranges and without end-effects
1 2 3 4 5
Re αmin cp,0min αA cp,0,h
5
5 × 10 85 −2,2 135 −0,4
2 × 106 80 −1,9 120 −0,7

107 75 −1,5 105 −0,8
αmin is the position of the minimum pressure, expressed in degrees.
cp,0min is the value of the minimum pressure coefficient.
αA is the position of the flow separation, expressed in degrees.
cp,0,h is the base pressure coefficient.
8.10.1.5 The reference area, Aref, for the calculation of resultant forces in accordance with 7.5.3,
shall be determined using the following equation:
Aref = L × b (30)
where
L is the length of the structural element;
b is the breadth of the cylinder (see figure 29).
8.10.1.6 The reference height, ze, is equal to the maximum height above ground of the section
being considered.
8.10.2 Force coefficients

8.10.2.1 The force coefficient, cf, for a finite circular cylinder shall be determined using the
following equation:
cf = cf,0 × ψλ (31)
where
cf,0 is the force coefficient of cylinders without free-end flow (see figure 30);

NOTE 1 Figure 30 may also be used for building with h/b > 5,0.
2qp
NOTE 2 Figure 30 is based on the Reynolds number with vp  z   (m/s), and qp, given in 7.4.

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Figure 30 — Force coefficient, cf,0 for circular cylinders without free-end flow
and for different equivalent roughness, k/b
8.10.2.2 Values of equivalent surface roughness, k, are given in table 20.
8.10.2.3 For stranded cables, cf,0 = 1,2, for all values of the Reynolds number, Re.
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Table 20 — Equivalent surface roughness, k
1 2
Equivalent
roughness
Type of surface k
mm
Glass 0,0015
Polished metal 0,002
Fine paint 0,006
Spray paint 0,02
Bright steel 0,05
Cast iron 0,2
Galvanised steel 0,2
Smooth concrete 0,2
Planed wood 0,5
Rough concrete 1,0
Rough sawn wood 2,0
Rust 2,0
Brickwork 3,0
8.10.2.4 The reference area, Aref, for the calculation of resultant forces in accordance with to 7.5.3,
shall be obtained using the following equation:
Aref = L × b (32)
where
8.10.2.5 The reference height, ze, is equal to the maximum height above ground of the section
being considered.
8.10.2.6 For cylinders within a proximity of a plane surface with a distance ratio, hg/b<1,5 (see
figure 31), expert advice is necessary.
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Figure 31 — Cylinder near a plane surface
8.10.3 Force coefficients for vertical cylinders in a row arrangement
For vertical circular cylinders in a row arrangement, the force coefficient, cf,0, depends on the wind
direction in relation to the row axis and the ratio of distance, a, and the diameter, b, as defined in
table 21. The force coefficient, cf, for each cylinder shall be obtained using the following equation:
cf = cf,0 × ψλ × k (33)
where
cf,0 is the force coefficient of cylinders without free-end flow, (see 8.10.2);
ψλ is the end-effect factor (see 8.13);
k is the factor given in table 21 (for most unfavourable wind direction).
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Table 21 — Factor, k for vertical cylinders in a row arrangement
1 2
a/b k
a / b < 3,5 1,15
210  a / b
3,5 < a / b < 30
180
a / b > 30 1,0
a is the distance between the vertical cylinders.
b is the diameter.
8.11 Spheres
8.11.1 The along-wind force coefficient, cf,x of spheres, shall be determined as a function of the
Reynolds number, Re (see 8.10.1), and the equivalent roughness, k/b (see table 20).
NOTE 1 Recommended values of cf,x based on measurements in low turbulent flow given in figure 32 are
2qp
based on the Reynolds number with vp (z) = and qp given in 7.4.

NOTE 2 The values in figure 32 are limited to values, hg > b/2, where hg is the distance of the sphere from a
plain surface, b is the diameter (see figure 33). For hg ≤ b/2, the force coefficient, cf,x, should be multiplied by
a factor of 1,6.
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Figure 32 — Along wind force coefficient for a sphere
8.11.2 The vertical force coefficient, cf,z for spheres, is obtained by using the following equation:
cf,z = 0 for hg > b / 2
cf,z = +0,60 for hg < b / 2 (34)
8.11.3 In both cases the reference area, Aref, shall be obtained by using the following equation:
b2
Aref = π × (35)
4
8.11.4 The reference height shall be taken as:
b
he = hg + (36)
2
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Figure 33 — Sphere near a plain surface
8.12 Lattice structures and scaffoldings
8.12.1 The force coefficient, cf of lattice structures and scaffoldings with parallel chords (see
figure 34), shall be obtained by using the following equation:
cf = cf,0 × ψλ (37)
where
cf,0 is the force coefficient of lattice structures and scaffoldings without end-effects;
NOTE cf,0 is given in figures 35 and 36 and is a function of the solidity ratio, φ (see 8.12.2), and the
Reynolds number, Re (see figure 37).
Re is the Reynolds number (see 8.10.1), using the average member diameter, bi, (see note);
ψλ is the end-effect factor (see 8.13), as a function of the slenderness of the structure, λ,
calculated with length, L and width b = d (see figure 34).
2qp
NOTE Figures 35, 36 and 37 are based on the Reynolds number with vp (z) = and qp given in 7.4.

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Key
Agk area member diameter

bi average member diameter
d width of scaffolding
L length of scaffolding
Lb average member length
Figure 34 — Lattice structure or scaffolding
Figure 35 — Force coefficient, cf,0 for a plane lattice structure with members of non-circular
cross-section as a function of solidity ratio, φ
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Figure 36 — Force coefficient cf,0 for a spatial lattice structure

with members of non-circular cross-section as a function of solidity ratio, 
Figure 37 — Force coefficient, cf,0 for plane and spatial lattice structure
with members of circular cross-section
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8.12.2 The solidity ratio, φ, is defined using the following equation.
A
φ= (38)
Ac
where
A is the sum of the projected areas of the members and gusset plates normal to the plane is
calculated using the following equation:
A =  bi × li +  Agk (39)
i k
where
bi, and Li are the width and length of the individual member, i (see figure 34),
projected normal to the face;
Agk is the area of the gusset plate, k (see figure 34);
Ac is the area enclosed by the boundaries of the face projected normal to the
plane and is calculated using the following equation:
Ac = d × L
where
L is the length of the lattice;
d is the width of the lattice.
8.12.3 The reference height, ze, is equal to the maximum height of the element above ground.
8.12.4 The reference area Aref shall be determined by Aref = A.
8.13 Effective slenderness and end-effect factor

8.13.1 Where relevant, the end-effect factor, ψλ, shall be determined as a function of
slenderness, λ.
NOTE The force coefficients, cf,0, given in 8.7 to 8.12 are based on measurements of structures without free-
end flow, away from the ground. The end-effect factor takes into account the reduced resistance of the
structure due to the wind flow around the end (end-effect). Figure 38 and table 22 are based on measurements
in low turbulent flow.
8.13.2 The effective slenderness, λ, shall be defined depending on the dimensions of the structure
and its position. The reference area Aref shall be taken as A.
NOTE Recommended values for, λ, are given in table 22 and indicative values for, ψλ, are given in figure 38
for different solidity ratio, φ. Figure 38 and table 22 are based on measurements in low turbulence flow.
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Table 22 — Recommended values of λ for cylinders, polygonal sections,

rectangular sections, sharp-edged structural sections and lattice structures
1 2 3
Position of the structure, Effective slenderness
No.
wind normal to the plane of the page λ
For polygonal,
rectangular and sharp-
edged sections and
1 lattice structures:
For L ≥ 50 m, λ =
1,4L/b or, λ = 70,
whichever is smaller
for L < 15 m, λ = 2L/b
or, λ = 70, whichever
is smaller
2 For circular cylinders:

For L ≥ 50 m, λ =
0,7L/b or, λ = 70
whichever is smaller
For L < 15 m, λ = L/b
or, λ = 70, whichever is
smaller
3 For intermediate values

of L, linear
interpolation shall be
used.
For L ≥ 50 m, λ =
0,7L/b or, λ = 70,
whichever is larger
For L < 15 m, λ = L/b,

or λ = 70, whichever is
4
larger
For intermediate values

of L, linear
interpolation shall be
used.
Amdt 1
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Figure 38 — Indicative values of the end-effect factor, ψλ

as a function of solidity ratio, φ versus slenderness, λ
8.13.3 The solidity ratio, φ (see figure 39), is calculated using the following equation:
A
φ= (40)
Ac
where
A is the sum of the projected areas of the members;
Ac is the overall envelope area, with Ac = L × d.
Figure 39 — Definition of solidity ratio, φ
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Annex A
(normative)
Geographical locality
Table A.1 gives information on the wind speed per municipality.
Table A.1 — 1 in 50 year 3 s gust wind speed per municipality
1 2 1 2
1:50 Year design wind gust 1:50 Year design wind gust
Province/Municipality Province/Municipality
m/s m/s
EASTERN CAPE EASTERN CAPE
Amahlathi 40 Nyandeni 44
Baviaans 36 Port St Johns 40
Blue Crane Route 36 Qaukeni 40
Buffalo City 40 Sakhisizwe 44
Camdeboo 36 Senqu 40
Elundini 44 Sunday's River Valley 40
Emalahleni 44 Tsolwana 40
Engcobo 44 Umzimkhulu 40
Gariep 40 Umzimvubu 40
Great Kei 40 FREE STATE
Ikwezi 36 Dihlabeng 40
Ingquza Hill 40 Kopanong 40
Inkwanca 40 Letsemeng 40
Intsika Yethu 44 Mafube 40
Inxuba Yethemba 40 Maluti a Phofung 40
King Sabata Dalindye 44 Mangaung 40
Kouga 40 Mantsopa 40
Kou-Kamma 36 Masilonyana 40
Lukanji 44 Matjhabeng 40
Makana 40 Metsimaholo 40
Maletswai 40 Mohokare 40
Mbhashe 40 Moqhaka 40
Mbizana 40 Nala 40
Mhlontlo 44 Naledi 40
Mnquma 40 Ngwathe 40
Ndlambe 40 Nketoana 40
Nelson Mandela 40 Phumelela 40
Ngqushwa 40 Setsoto 40
Nkonkobe 40 Tokologo 40
Ntabankulu 40 Tswelopele 40
Nxuba 40 – –
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Table A.1 (continued)
1 2 1 2
m/s m/s
GAUTENG KWAZULU-NATAL
City of Johannesburg 36 Msinga 40
City of Tshwane 36 Msunduzi 40
Ekurhuleni 36 Mthonjaneni 36
Emfuleni 36 Mtubatuba 32
Lesedi 36 Ndwedwe 36
Merafong City 36 Newcastle 40
Midvaal 36 Nkandla 40
Mogale City 36 Nongoma 36
Nokeng tsa Taemane 36 Nqutu 40
Randfontein 36 Ntambanana 36
West Rand 36 Okhahlamba 40
Westonaria 36 Richmond 40
KWAZULU-NATAL The Big 5 False Bay 32
Abaqulusi 36 Ubuhlebezwe 40
Dannhauser 40 Ulundi 36
eDumbe 36 Umdoni 36
Emadlangeni 40 Umhlabuyalingana 32
Emnambithi 40 uMhlathuze 36
eNdondakusuka 40 uMlalazi 36
Endumeni 40 uMngeni 40
Ethekwini 36 uMshwathi 40
Ezingoleni 36 Umtshezi 40
Greater Kokstad 40 UMuziwabantu 40
Hibiscus Coast 36 Umvoti 40
Hlabisa 36 Umzumbe 36
Imbabazane 40 UPhongolo 32
Impendle 40 Vulamehlo 36
Indaka 40 LIMPOPO
Ingwe 40 Aganang 36
Jozini 32 Ba-Phalaborwa 32
Kwa Sani 40 Bela-Bela 36
KwaDukuza 36 Blouberg 32
Maphumulo 40 Fetakgomo 36
Matatiele 40 Greater Giyani 32
Mkhambathini 40 Greater Letaba 32
Mpofana 40 Greater Tzaneen 36
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Table A.1 (continued)
1 2 1 2
m/s m/s
LIMPOPO NORTH-WEST
Lepele-Nkumpi 36 City of Matlosana 36
Lephalale 32 Ditsobotla 36
Makhado 32 Greater Taung 40
Makhuduthamaga 36 Kagisano 36
Maruleng 36 Kgetlengrivier 36
Modimolle 36 Klerksdorp 36
Mogalakwena 36 Lekwa-Teemane 40
Molemole 36 Madibeng 36
Mookgopong 36 Mafikeng 36
Musina 32 Maquassi Hills 40
Mutale 32 Molopo 36
Polokwane 36 Moretele 36
Thabazimbi 36 Moses Kotane 36
Thulamela 32 Moshaweng 36
MPUMALANGA Naledi 40
Albert Luthuli 36 Rustenburg 36
Delmas 36 Schweizer-Reneke 40
Dipaleseng 36 Setla-Kgobi 36
Dr JS Moroka 36 Tlokwe City Council 36
Emalahleni 36 Tswaing 36
Govan Mbeki 36 Ventersdorp 36
Highlands 36 Zeerust 36
Lekwa 36 NORTHERN CAPE
Mbombela 32 !Kheis 40
Middelburg 36 //Khara Hais 40
Mkhondo 36 Dikgatlong 40
Msukaligwa 36 Emthanjeni 40
Nkomazi 32 Gamagara 36
Seme 36 Ga-Segonyana 36
Steve Tshwete 36 Hantam 36
Thaba Chweu 36 Kai !Garib 40
Thembisile 36 Kamiesberg 32
Umjindi 36 Kareeberg 40
– – Karoo Hoogland 40
– – Kgatelopele 36
– – Khâi-Ma 36
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Table A.1 (concluded)
1 2 1 2
m/s m/s
NORTHERN CAPE WESTERN CAPE
Magareng 40 Beaufort West 40
Mier 36 Bergrivier 40
Nama Khoi 32 Bitou Municipality 36
Phokwane 40 Breede River/Winelands 40
Renosterberg 40 Breede Valley 44
Richtersveld 32 Cape Agulhas 44
Siyancuma 40 Cederberg 36
Siyathemba 40 City of Cape Town 40
Sol Plaatje 40 Drakenstein 40
Thembelihle 40 George 36
Tsantsabane 36 Kannaland 36
Ubuntu 40 Knysna 36
Umsobomvu 40 Laingsburg 40
– – Langeberg 40
– – Matzikama 32
– – Mossel Bay 36
– – Oudtshoorn 36
– – Overstrand 44
– – Prince Albert 40
– – Saldanha Bay 40
– – Stellenbosch 40
– – Swartland 40
– – Swellendam 40
– – Theewaterskloof 40
– – Witzenberg 40
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Annex B
(informative)
Effects of the terrain on wind speed
B.1 Roughness of each terrain category

Illustrations of the upper roughness of each terrain category are given in table B.1.
Table B.1 — Illustrations of the upper roughness of each terrain category
1 2
Terrain category A
Flat horizontal terrain with negligible vegetation and without
any obstacles (for example, coastal areas exposed to open sea
or large lakes)
Terrain category B
Area with low vegetation such as grass and isolated obstacles
(for example, trees or buildings) with separations of at least
twenty obstacle heights
Terrain category C
Area with regular cover of vegetation or buildings or with
isolated obstacles with separations of maximum twenty
obstacle heights (such as villages, suburban terrain or
permanent forest)
Terrain category D
Area in which at least 15 % of the surface is covered with
buildings and their average height exceeds 15 m
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B.2 Transition between roughness categories

B.2.1 General
The transition between different roughness categories should be considered when calculating, qp.
NOTE Recommended procedures are given in B.2.2 and in B.2.3.
B.2.2 Procedure 1
If the structure is situated near a change of terrain roughness at a distance of
a) less than 2 km from the smoother category A, and
b) less than 1 km from the smoother categories B to D,
the smoother terrain category in the upwind direction should be used. Small areas (less than 10 % of
the area under consideration) with deviating roughness may be ignored.
B.2.3 Procedure 2
B.2.3.1 The alternative procedure is as follows:
a) determine the roughness categories for the upstream terrain; and
b) determine the distance, x, from the building to the upstream roughness changes.
B.2.3.2 If the distance, x, from the structure to a smoother terrain is smaller than the values given
in table B.2, then this terrain profile should be used for the angular sector considered. If this
distance, x, is larger than the value in table B.1, the rougher terrain should be used.
B.2.3.3 Small areas (less than 10 % of the area under consideration) with deviating roughness may
be ignored.
B.2.3.4 Where no distance, x, is given in table B.2, or, for heights exceeding 50 m, the smoother
terrain category should be used.
B.2.3.5 Linear interpolation may be used for intermediate values of height, z.
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Table B.2 — Distance from structure
1 2 3 4 5
Distance from structure to
Height
the influencing terrain
z category
Influencing x
terrain category km
Upstream terrain category
m
B C D
5 0,5 5 –
7 1 10 –
10 2 20 –
15 A 5 – –
20 12 – –
30 20 – –
50 50 – –
5 – 0,3 2
7 – 0,5 4
10 – 1 7
15 B – 3 20
20 – 7 –
30 – 10 –
50 – 30 –
5 – – 0,2
7 – – 0,4
10 – – 0,7
15 C – – 2
20 – – 5
30 – – 7
50 – – 20
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B.3 Numerical calculation of topography coefficients

B.3.1 The distribution of wind speeds over isolated hills, ridges, cliffs and escarpments depends
on the upstream slope,  = H/Lu in the wind direction, where the height, H, and the length, Lu are
defined in figure B.1.
Key
νm mean wind speed at height, z, above ground level

νmf mean wind speed at height, z, in a flat approach terrain
Figure B.1 — Illustration of increase of wind speed over topography
B.3.2 The largest increase in the wind speed occurs near the top of the slope (see figure B.1), and
is determined from the topography factor, co. The slope has no significant effect on the standard
deviation of the turbulence.
NOTE The turbulence intensity will decrease with increasing wind speed and also the value of the standard
deviation.
B.3.3 The topography factor, co(z) = vm/vmf, accounts for the increase of mean wind speed over
isolated hills and escarpments only (not undulating and mountainous regions). It is related to the
wind speed at the base of the hill or escarpment. The effects of topography should be taken into
account in the following situations:
a) For sites on upwind slopes of hills and ridges where
0,05 <  ≤ 0,3 and |x| ≤Lu/2
NOTE For the definition of, x, see figures B.2 and B.3.
b) For sites on downwind slopes of hills and ridges where
1)  < 0,3 and x < Ld/2, or
2)  ≥ 0,3 and x < 1,6H.

c) For sites on upwind slopes of cliffs and escarpments where
0,05 <  ≤ 0,3 and |x|≤ Lu/2
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d) For sites on downwind slopes of cliffs and escarpments where
1)  < 0,3 and x < 1,5Le, or
2)  < 0,3 and x < 5H.
e) The topography factor is defined by the following equations:
co = 1 for  ≤ 0,05 (B.1)
co = 1 + 2 s for 0,05 <  ≤ 0,3 (B.2)
co = 1 + 0,6s for  > 0,3 (B.3)
where
s is the orographic location factor, to be obtained from figure B.2 or figure B.3, scaled to
the length of the effective upwind slope length, Le;
 is the upwind slope, H/Lu, in the wind direction (see figure B.2 and figure B.3);
Le is the effective length of the upwind slope, defined in table B.3;
Lu is the actual length of the upwind slope in the wind direction;
Ld is the actual length of the downwind slope in the wind direction;
H is the effective height of the feature;
x is the horizontal distance of the site from the top of the crest;
z is the vertical distance from the ground level of the site.
Table B.3 — Effective length, Le
1 2
Slope Effective length
H/Lu Le
Shallow
0,05    0,3 Le = Lu
Steep
  0,3 Le = H/0,3
NOTE The graphs in figures B.2 and B.3 exceed the area of application as defined in B.3.3. The
consideration of orographic effects beyond these boundaries is optional.
B.3.4 In valleys, co (z) may be set to 1,0 if no increase in wind speed due to funnelling effects
should be expected. For structures situated within steep-sided valleys the increase of wind speed
caused by funnelling should be accounted for.
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B.3.5 The procedure described in B.3 covers only the idealized cases of isolated topographical
features. In cases of structures being designed in a topographically complex terrain, expert advice
should be obtained or relevant full-scale or wind tunnel measurements could be undertaken (see
annex D).
Figure B.2 — Factor, s, for cliffs and escarpments
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Figure B.3 — Factor, s, for hills and ridges
B.4 Neighbouring structures

B.4.1 Tall buildings positioned within clusters of low-rise buildings can introduce an increase in
wind loading on the low-rise buildings, and this should be taken into account.
B.4.2 If a building is more than twice as high as the average height, have, of the neighbouring
structures then, as a first approximation, the design of any of those nearby structures may be based
on the peak wind pressure at height above ground (zn) as calculated in the following equation
(see figure B.4):
r
x≤r zn =
2
1  2h  
r < x < 2r zn =  r   1  low   x  r   (B.4)
2  r  
x ≥ 2r zn = hlow
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where the radius, r, is
r = hhigh if hhigh ≤ 2dlarge
r = 2dlarge if hhigh > 2dlarge
B.4.3 The structural height, hlow, the radius, r, the distance, x, and the dimensions, dsmall and dlarge,
are illustrated in figure B.4.
B.4.4 The increase in wind speed can be disregarded when hlow is more than half the height, hhigh,
of the high building, i.e. zn = hlow.
Figure B.4 — Influence of a high rise building, on two different nearby structures (1 and 2)
B.5 Displacement height

B.5.1 Buildings in terrain category D, closely spaced buildings and other obstructions cause the
wind to behave as if the ground level was raised to a displacement height, hdis. The displacement
height, hdis, may be determined using the following equation, and figure B.5:
x ≤ 2have hdis is the lesser of 0,8have or 0,6h
2have < x < 6have hdis is the lesser of 1,2have – 0,2x or 0,6h (B.5)
x ≥ 6have hdis = 0
B.5.2 In the absence of accurate information the average obstruction height might be taken as, have
– 15 m for terrain category D. The values of, have and x should be established for each 30° sector,
since these effects are directionally dependent.
NOTE The profile of peak wind speed over height (see figure 2) may be lifted by a height, hdis.
© SABS
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Edition 2.1
Figure B.5 — Obstruction height and upwind spacing
© SABS
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Edition 2.1
Annex C
(informative)
Design of buildings and structures

which fall outside the scope of this part of SANS 10160
C.1 Dynamic effects
C.1.1 Buildings and structures falling outside the specifications of this part of SANS 10160 can
be designed in accordance with a recognised analytical method, in which due consideration is given
to dynamic effects.
NOTE 1 The trend towards designing and constructing higher and more economic (i.e. lighter) buildings and
structures has contributed to a new generation of structures which are sensitive to wind induced vibrations.
Under natural winds, such structures can develop significant dynamic response, which will magnify the static
loading.
NOTE 2 For buildings and structures of such a nature, wind loading becomes typically the most significant
type of loading and it is assumed that the design process will involve a comprehensive investigation
(including the influence of local effects) and access to specialist literature or inputs (or both).
C.1.2 Wind induced vibrations depend to a large extent on the characteristics of structures, with
the three most relevant being shape, stiffness (flexibility) and damping.
C.1.3 There are several mechanisms of aerodynamic excitations of structures, mainly the along-
and across-wind vibrations, but also mechanisms such as buffeting, galloping and torsional
divergence.
C.1.4 The along-wind response of buildings and structures is caused by resonance between the
atmospheric wind turbulence and their structural vibrations. The relevant analytical methods are
typically referred to as Gust Factor or Gust Energy methods.
C.1.5 The across-wind excitations are due to shedding of vortices into the wake behind the
structure, which tends to develop into periodic lateral forces. Although vortex shedding is most
noticeable for circular cylinders, it can also develop behind cylinders of other geometries. The
frequency of vortex shedding is governed by a dimensionless parameter referred to as the Strouhal
number.
C.2 Design in accordance with EN 1991-1-4

C.2.1 Buildings and structures falling outside the scope of this part of SANS 10160 can be
designed in accordance with EN 1991-1-4.
C.2.2 In such a design process, the climatic information relevant to South Africa shall be used in
combination with the procedures specified in EN 1991-1-4.
C.2.3 In this process the complexity of the South African wind climate regarding the dominance
of frontal winds in coastal areas and southern portion of the country and intense thunderstorms in
northern inland need to be taken into account.
© SABS
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Annex D
(informative)
Wind tunnel testing as a design tool
D.1 Recommendations
Wind-tunnel tests are recommended for buildings and structures
a) of unusual geometric form, not covered in this part of SANS 10160,
b) of unusual dynamic response characteristics,

c) placed in a terrain or environment with significant up-wind obstructions influencing the wind
flow, and
d) having severe consequence of failure.
NOTE Large buildings and structures, especially those placed within the built-up environment are also
known to produce profound negative effects on the pedestrian level wind environment within their vicinity.
Wind-tunnel environmental impact studies can be undertaken before the construction of such developments in
order to identify the possible problematic areas and investigate the optimal ways of reducing the negative
effects and risks.
D.2 Minimum wind-tunnel testing requirements

D.2.1 Tests for the determination of mean and fluctuating forces and pressures should be
considered to be properly conducted only if all the following conditions are satisfied:
a) the natural atmospheric boundary-layer has been modelled to account for the variation of wind
speed with height;
b) the atmospheric intensity of turbulence and its length scales of longitudinal component are
modelled to approximately the same scale as that used to model the buildings and other
structures;
c) the modelled structure, surrounding structures and dominant topography are geometrically
similar to the full-scale situation;
d) due considerations are given to the effects of blockage and the response characteristics of the
wind-tunnel instrumentation; and
e) for curved surfaces, due consideration is given to the effects of Reynolds numbers.
D.2.2 Tests for determining the dynamic response of a structure may be considered properly
conducted only if the requirements listed in D.2.1 are met and if, in addition, the model is scaled
with due regard to mass, length, stiffness and damping.
© SABS
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Bibliography
EN 1991-1-4, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures – Part 1-4: General actions – Wind actions.
ISO 3898, Bases for design of structures – Names and symbols of physical quantities and generic
quantities.
Kruger A.C., Retief J.V. and Goliger A.M., Strong winds in South Africa – Part 1, Application of
estimation methods. Journal of South African Institution of Civil Engineering. Vol. 55, No. 2, 2013.
Kruger A.C., Retief J.V. and Goliger A.M., Strong winds in South Africa – Part 2, Mapping of
updated statistics. Journal of South African Institution of Civil Engineering. Vol. 55, No. 2, 2013.
______________
© SABS
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© SABS.

SOUTH AFRICAN NATIONAL STANDARD

Basis of structural design and actions for buildings

Part 3: Wind actions

Published by the South African Bureau of Standards

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COPYRIGHT PROTECTED DOCUMENT

SABS – Standards Division

SABS Customer Services provide comprehensive standards-related information on national, regional

This document was approved for publication in September 2019.

This document supersedes SANS 10160-3:2018 (edition 2).

Part 1: Basis of structural design.

Part 2: Self-weight and imposed loads.

Part 3: Wind actions.

Part 4: Seismic actions and general requirements for buildings.

Part 5: Basis for geotechnical design and actions.

Part 7: Thermal actions.

Part 8: Actions during execution.

2 Normative references .............................................................................................................. 4

3 Definitions and symbols ......................................................................................................... 5

3.1 Definitions ..................................................................................................................... 5

4 Application requirements ........................................................................................................ 8

5 Design situations ..................................................................................................................... 9

6 Modelling of wind action ........................................................................................................ 9

6.1 Nature of wind actions.................................................................................................... 9

7 Wind speed and wind pressure ............................................................................................... 10

7.1 Basis for calculation ....................................................................................................... 10

8 Pressure and force coefficients ............................................................................................... 22

8.1 Aerodynamic coefficient ................................................................................................ 22

Annex A (normative) Geographical locality ............................................................................ 76

Annex B (informative) Effects of the terrain on wind speed ................................................... 80

Annex D (informative) Wind tunnel testing as a design tool................................................... 90

Basis of structural design and actions for buildings and industrial

1.2 Scope of SANS 10160-3

a) buildings and structures with an overall height of up to 100 m;

a) structures and buildings higher than 100 m;

e) structures and buildings of unusual shapes;

g) high-risk structures (for example, those containing nuclear or biological material); or

SANS 10137, The installation of glazing in buildings.

SANS 10163-1, The structural use of timber – Part 1: Limit-states design.

3 Definitions and symbols

3.2.1 Latin upper case letters

Agk area of the gusset plate

Afr area of external surface parallel to wind direction

Aref reference area of the structure or structural element

Ffr friction force

Fw wind force calculated from pressure or force coefficient

Fw,e external wind force

Fw,i internal wind force

3.2.2 Latin lower case letters

b breadth of the building

cf force coefficient for a structure or structural element

cfr friction coefficient

cpe external pressure coefficient

cpi internal pressure coefficient

cprob probability factor

cr(z) roughness/height coefficient

cscd structural factor