Eng. Res. Express 1 (2019) 025002 https://doi.org/10.

1088/2631-8695/ab4787

PAPER

Development of hot rolled weathering angle steel for transmission

RECEIVED
9 May 2019
towers
REVISED
16 September 2019
ACCEPTED FOR PUBLICATION
Shangwu Zeng1 , Delu Xu1, Jianwei Chang1, Fei He1, Changjie Sun2 and Lei Zhang1
24 September 2019 1
Beijing Guowang Fuda Science & Technology Development Co., Ltd, State Grid Corporation of China, Beijing 100070, People’s Republic
PUBLISHED of China
2
3 October 2019 Tianjin DaYi Iron and Steel Co., Ltd Tianjin 301509, People’s Republic of China
E-mail: kittyzengshangwu@163.com

Keywords: weathering angle steel, hot rolled, corrosion resistance, transmission tower

Abstract
In this study, Q355 grade hot-rolled weathering angle steel (WAS) was successfully developed and
produced for transmission towers (also known as electricity pylons) by chemical composition and
process design. The microstructure and mechanical properties were investigated using optical
microscopy, a universal material tester, and an impact tester. Cyclic immersion experiments were
performed to study the corrosion behaviour of WAS and Q355 grade hot-rolled conventional angle
steel (CAS) when exposed to a simulated industrial atmospheric environment. The characteristics of
the rust layers on the tested samples were observed by scanning electron microscope, analysed by x-ray
diffraction, and studied by polarisation measurements. The results indicated that WAS has good
comprehensive mechanical properties. The weight loss showed that the corrosion resistance
performance of WAS is superior to that of CAS. The components of the rust layers consisted primarily
of α-FeOOH, γ-FeOOH and Fe3O4. However, the content of α-FeOOH in WAS was more than that
in CAS and increased as corrosion progressed. The rust layer on WAS, comprised an α-FeOOH phase,
and was more dense and adherent to the substrate than on CAS, providing better protection and lower
corrosion weight loss than CAS. The electrochemical parameters show that the WAS has better
corrosion resistance.

1. Introduction

Power demand and electricity consumption continue to increase with the rapid development of the economy in
China. However, areas with huge power demands are long distances away from the most abundant energy
resources in the country. Therefore, the Chinese government has been vigorously developing ultra-high voltage
(UHV) AC and DC technologies applicable for long-distance and large-capacity transmission to meet the
pressing needs of clean energy delivery, electricity supply at load centres, and energy conservation [1–5]. Until
December 2018, China had built 8 UHV AC projects and 13 UHV DC projects, using more than 33,000 km of
transmission line. Many UHV projects will be built in the future according to the demands of power resources in
China.
The transmission tower is one of the most important infrastructures in transmission line engineering
projects. The amount of steel in transmission towers has followed an upward trend for the past 10 years, with a 3
million ton annual almost 4 years. Figure 1 shows the steel consumption for transmission towers of different
voltage classes (220 kV and above) in 2016, with a total of 2.5 million tons in UHV projects, accounting for 69%.
Hot-rolled angles have been mainly used for transmission lines in China. Hot-dip galvanising has long been the
primary anti-corrosion solution for transmission towers [6, 7]. However, with obsolete technology (see figure 2),
the hot-dip galvanising industry has been identified as one of the industries that consume large amounts of raw
materials and energy, produce numerous pollutants (acid fog, zinc smoke, waste acid, waste water containing
zinc and iron, sludge, among others). This causes severe environmental pollution and endangers human health
in China [8–10]. Given that exhaust emission standards have become increasingly strict in recent years, the

© 2019 IOP Publishing Ltd

Eng. Res. Express 1 (2019) 025002 S Zeng et al

Figure 1. Steel consumption for transmission towers in 2016 (220 kV and above).

production costs of hot-dip galvanising continue to rise. In addition, transmission towers with hot-dip
galvanising corrosion protection need maintenance [11]. According to a survey performed by the Shandong
Electric Power Research Institute in China, the initial corrosion protection maintenance schedule and the
maintenance intervals of hot-dip galvanised steel transmission towers in the Shandong area are 13.2 and 6.6
years, respectively [12]. Therefore, to achieve a 40-year service life, 5 rounds of anti-corrosion maintenance need
to be applied, on average. Therefore, it is critical to find novel anti-corrosion materials to replace hot-dip
galvanising. The study of weathering steel structures is one of the main areas of focus for development of the
uncoated corrosion protection of steel structures in atmospheric environmental conditions.
Weathering steels, containing small amounts of Cr, Ni, Cu and P, have much higher resistance to
atmospheric corrosion than plain carbon steels after long-term exposure to the atmosphere. The main
applications for weathering steels include civil structures such as bridges and other load-bearing structures, road
installations, electricity poles, utility towers, guide rails, ornamental sculptures, facades, and roofing [13].
Weathering steel was applied in double-circuit 69 kV transmission towers early in 1960, located on the south
shore of Lake Michigan, America [14]. In 1962, unsprayed weathering steel was used for two 138 kV H-frame
transmission structures in Pennsylvania [14]. Weathering steel was then used in transmission lines of
Massachusetts and Pennsylvania [15, 16]. In 1972, towers were made of Atmofix 52 A weathering steel in the
Czech Republic [17]. In 1975, Japan experimentally applied angle steel towers using cold-formed untreated
weathering steel for transmission lines and applied tubular steel towers in 2000 [18]. In 2009, trial applications of
two cold-formed weathering angle steel transmission towers were made in China [19] and applied to
transmission line projects in 2018.
Cold-formed steel structures are structural products made by forming plane sheets of steel into different
shapes at ambient temperature. The most common sections are lipped C and Z sections, with thin wall
thicknesses typically ranging from 1.2 to 3.2 mm [20, 21]. Cold-formed weathering angle steel has been used in
transmission towers in American, Japan and China. However, compared with WAS, there are some issues: (1)
limited by the capacity of cold-forming equipment; large size cold-formed angle steel with thicknesses exceeding
16 mm cannot be processed [22], hindering its application in UHV projects; (2) when the cold bending process is
added, the costs increase. This increases the cost of raw materials by $160–220 per ton; (3) the deviation of the
inner arc radius (r) of the cold-formed angle steel is large, making it impossible to arc shovel in subsequent
processing and thus affecting the assembly of the angle steel tower; (4) the high residual stress distribution zone
lies in the apex angle (the corner regions of cold-formed or cold-deformation area) [23, 24]. It not only results in
accelerating brittle fracture and stress corrosion cracking, but also affects the static load strength, fatigue strength
and stability of components [25–27]. To overcome these existing problems, it is necessary to develop WAS for
transmission towers. As yet, very few relevant reports on WAS have been produced and applied in transmission
towers that can solve the pollution, health, and cost issues caused by the hot-dip galvanising anti-corrosion
method.
Towers lift heavy transmission conductors to a sufficiently safe height from the ground, and they are located
outdoors for long periods of time, thus contributing to the complex climatic environment in China. For
example, the significant differences in humidity and temperature between north and south, the variation in
concentration of SO2 and Cl− in different regions. Raw material selection for towers needs to consider the

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Figure 2. Process flow diagram of hot-dip galvanising for transmission towers.

strength, toughness and corrosion resistance. The tower processing elements include punching and drilling
holes, bending, opening angle, and closing angle, requiring raw material with good processability. The
connections between tower elements are usually with bolts and welding; therefore, raw material should possess
good weldability.
The primary strength-controlling chemical element in steels is carbon. It affects the ductility and weldability
of weathering steel, and the corrosion resistance. The carbon element content of WAS is no more than 0.12 wt%,
which is less than that of CAS („0.2 wt%). Phosphorus is the most efficient way of improving the corrosion
resistance of steel, but it leads to segregation and harms the formability, ductility (low temperature toughness),
and weldability; therefore, the phosphorus element content is controlled at a lower level. The corrosion
resistance of WAS can be guaranteed by adding chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), and copper (Cu) elements.
From the perspective of manufacturing technique, the differences between sheet or plate and angle steel are
obvious. Sheet and plate manufacturing uses the thermal mechanical control processing (TMCP) method to
control performance. TMCP is a microstructural control technique that combines controlled rolling and
cooling during the hot rolling process. TMCP steels with added micro alloys have been developed to manage the
conflicting requirements of strength, toughness, and weldability through grain refinement [28]. Currently,
niobium (Nb) and titanium (Ti) micro alloying is widely used in the rolling process of sheet and plate combined
with TMCP [29–33]. However, the equipment for the hot angle steel production line has limited capability, thus
causing limited control of temperature and deformation during hot rolling per pass, and can only adopt air
cooling after hot rolling, which makes the application of TMCP technology impossible. Hence, the strength of

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Table 1. Chemical composition, mass %.
4

Alloy C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Cu V N Al Fe

Design „0.12 „0.50 „1.50 „0.025 „0.015 0.40∼0.80 0.15∼0.65 0.25∼0.55 „0.15 „0.018 …0.015 Balance
WAS 0.08 0.30 0.62 0.015 0.010 0.45 0.27 0.26 0.06 0.015 0.03 Balance
CAS 0.18 0.29 1.44 0.016 0.009 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.016 0.04 Balance

S Zeng et al
Eng. Res. Express 1 (2019) 025002 S Zeng et al

Table 2. Specifications of industrial trial

production.

Steel Size/mm Abbreviation

WAS L180×180×12 WAS-12

L180×180×14 WAS-14
L200×200×16 WAS-16
L200×200×20 WAS-20
CAS L180×180×14 CAS-14

weathering steel angle could be improved by adding a vanadium (V) element. The chemical composition of
Q355 grade WAS was designed and given in table 1.
In this work, Q355 grade WAS was successfully rolled by chemical composition and technological design.
The microstructures and mechanical properties of WAS and CAS were investigated through optical microscopy,
and tension and impact tests. The corrosion behaviour of WAS and CAS were studied by using cyclic immersion
accelerated corrosion experiments to simulate an industrial atmospheric environment. Simultaneously, a
comparison between the corrosion loss and behaviour of WAS and CAS was conducted by analysing the weight
loss, corrosion product, corrosion morphology, and electrochemical behaviour after various corrosion periods.

2. Experimental

2.1. Industrial trial production

Trial production of Q355 grade hot-rolled weathering angle steel was successful utilising the angle steel
production line with two roughing stands and two finishing stands. The WAS was hot rolled from a
165×300 mm continuous casting slab to the target specification, then air cooled to room temperature. The
heating temperature, initial rolling temperature, and finishing rolling temperature were 1220 °C–1250 °C,
1150 °C–1200 °C, and 860 °C–880 °C, respectively. As a reference material, Q355 grade hot-rolled conventional
angle steel was produced using a similar production line and technology. The chemical composition of the WAS
and CAS are listed in table 1. The specifications of the WAS and CAS are given in table 2.

2.2. Microstructural and mechanical properties

The microstructural and mechanical properties samples were prepared by a line-cutting machine along the
rolling direction. Specimens for microstructure examination were mechanically polished and etched with a 4%
Nital solution, and then observed under an optical microscope. Tensile specimens had an overall size of 5 mm
diameter and 25 mm length. The specimens for impact test were standard Charpy V notch test specimens with
dimensions 10×10×55 mm, with a V notch depth of 2 mm. The tensile test was performed at room
temperature using a universal material tester, and impact toughness was measured at 0 °C with an impact tester.
The total elongation was determined from the difference in the gauge length before and after testing. Five
specimens were tested in each specification to obtain the average yield strength (ReH), tensile strength (Rm),
elongation (A) and impact absorbed energy (KV2).

2.3. Cyclic immersion corrosion test

Two kinds of samples were prepared for the cyclic immersion corrosion test. The first (for corrosion loss
analysis) had dimensions of 60 mm×40 mm×4 mm, and the other (for corrosion morphology observation,
corrosion product analysis, and electrochemical tests) had dimensions of 10 mm×10 mm×3 mm. For the
electrochemical test, the wires for the electrical connections were soldered onto the samples then embedded in
epoxy resin, leaving an exposed area of 1 cm2 on the work side. The exposed surfaces of each sample were
abraded with 1000 grit SiC paper, then cleaned ultrasonically in acetone, rinsed with alcohol, dried, measured,
weighed, and stored in a drying vessel prior to use. For the corrosion loss sample, the size was measured with a
digital Vernier caliper (0.01 mm), and the weight measured by an electronic balance (0.0001 g).
Five parallel samples, three for corrosion loss determination, one for rust layer analysis, and one for
electrochemical analysis, were exposed in a cyclic immersion test box as an accelerated corrosion test method
under an artificially simulated industrial atmospheric environment. Each cyclic immersion test lasted for 1 h
and included two stages: (1) immersing the samples in a 0.01 mol L−1 NaHSO3 aqueous solution with a pH value
of 4.4, at 45 °C for 12 min (2) drying the samples at 45 °C, 70% RH for 48 min The specimens were taken out
after 72, 144, 240 and 360 h. A chemical dissolution method was adopted to remove the corrosion layer. The
rusted samples were immersed in a dilute hydrochloric acid solution until the corrosion products were

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Figure 3. Microstructural images of experimental steels (a)WAS-12, (b)WAS-14, (c)WAS-16, (d)WAS-20, (e) CAS-14.

completely removed. Subsequently, the samples were rinsed with distilled water, dried, and weighed to
determine their weight loss.

2.4. Corrosion morphology and rust layer analysis

The surface and cross-section morphologies of the corrosion samples were observed by scanning electron
microscopy (Hitachi SU5000 and Zeiss Evo 18, respectively). Corrosion products were identified with x-ray
diffraction (XRD) (Ultima IV). The XRD was performed under Cu Kα radiation, and the diffraction angle range
was between 10° and 90° with a step increment of 0.02°.

2.5. Electrochemical test

Electrochemical tests were conducted through a conventional three-electrode system on a Gamry 1000
electrochemical workstation in a 0.01 mol L−1 NaHCO3 solution, where the test samples were the working
electrode, a saturated calomel electrode (SCE) served as the reference electrode, and a Pt sheet was used as the
counter electrode. The polarisation curves were derived from the applied voltage ranging from −0.3 to +0.7 V
(versus SCE) with a scan rate of 0.5 V s−1.

3. Results

3.1. Microstructural and mechanical properties

Figure 3 shows optical microstructures of the WAS and CAS, consisting of predominantly polygonal ferrite and
small amounts of pearlite. From figures 3(a) to (d), the grain size increased gradually as the specification
thickness increased from 12 mm (WAS-12) to 20 mm (WAS-20), in WAS-12 and WAS-14 subtle ferrite and
pearlite bands exist.
The tensile and impact test results are summarised in figure 4. Results show that the yield strength and tensile
strength decrease from 394.0 to 365.0 MPa and 511.0 to 490.8 MPa, respectively, as the specification thickness
increases (from WAS-12 to WAS-20). As the strength decreases, there is a corresponding increase in impact-
absorbed energy values, exhibiting excellent impact toughness. Furthermore, the WAS is superior to the CAS in
toughness. The results indicate that the mechanical properties of all the WAS samples fully comply with the
Chinese National Standards (GB/T 1591-2018 [34] and YB/T4163-2016 [35]), and demonstrate outstanding
comprehensive mechanical properties.

3.2. Corrosion behaviour

3.2.1. Corrosion loss and products
The results of the relationship between weight loss and cyclic immersion corrosion time are shown in figure 5.
The corrosion weight loss increases gradually with increasing corrosion time, while the growth trends decline,
implying the slowing down of corrosion rates of two kinds of experimental steel. However, the weight loss of

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Figure 4. Mechanical properties of experimental steels.

Figure 5. Weight loss of experimental steels after corrosion over time.

WAS is lower than that of CAS, which is more significant with increases in the corrosion time. Specifically, the
numerical results show that the average weight loss of WAS (31.57 mg cm−2) is approximately 40% lower than
that of CAS (51.88 mg cm−2) after 360 h cyclic immersion corrosion. It can be deduced that the addition of Cr,
Ni and Cu in WAS notably improves the corrosion resistance to the atmospheric environment.
Figure 6 presents the XRD patterns of the rust layers formed on experimental steel after cyclic immersion
corrosion. Results indicate that rust layers mainly consist of goethite (α-FeOOH), lepidocrocite (γ-FeOOH),
maghemite (γ-Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4). However, a corrosion products peak intensity shows a clear
difference between the WAS and CAS. The pattern of the corrosion products of WAS shows high intensity peaks
for α-FeOOH (2θ=21.24 and 2θ=53.24).

3.2.2. Corrosion morphology

The surface morphologies of WAS and CAS were observed by SEM after cyclic immersion corrosion for 240 h, as
shown in figure 7. A comparison of figures 7(a) and (c) shows that the rust layer on WAS is uniform and dense,
while the rust layer on CAS is loose and uneven, and contains cracks and voids. SEM micrographs in figure 7(b)
show a globular structure, similar to cotton balls, signifying the formation of goethite (α-FeOOH) [36], whereas
figure 7(d) reveals a flower-like structure indicating the presence of lepidocrocite (γ-FeOOH) [36].
Figure 8 displays the cross-section morphology of WAS and CAS after cyclic immersion corrosion for 360 h.
It shows that both experimental steels form a continuous rust layer, although there are very obvious differences
between them. The thickness of the rust layer on WAS is markedly thinner than that of the CAS. Furthermore,
the rust layer on WAS comprises of an outer rust layer and inner rust layer.

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Figure 6. XRD patterns of rust layers of experimental steels. (a) WAS, (b) CAS.

Figure 7. Surface morphology of experimental steels after corrosion for 240 h. and (b) WAS, (c) and (d) CAS.

3.2.3. Electrochemical properties

The potentiodynamic polarisation curves of both bare steels and corroded steels for various cyclic immersion
corrosion times are shown in figure 9. The corrosion potentials (Ecorr) and the corrosion current densities (Icorr)
of WAS and CAS were evaluated from the fitting of the linear anodic branches of the polarisation curves. The
polarisation fitting results are listed in table 3. The corrosion potentials of both WAS and CAS increase with
increasing corrosion time (as a result of corrosion formation), and the current densities decrease. However,
these electrochemical parameters show that the WAS has better corrosion resistance.

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Figure 8. Cross-section morphology of experimental steels after corrosion for 360 h (a) WAS, (b) CAS.

Figure 9. Polarisation curves as a function of corrosion time (a) WAS, (b) CAS.

Table 3. Electrochemical parameters.

Steel Corrosion time Ecorr(V) Icorr(A/cm2)

WAS 0h −0.86 1.12×10−4

72 h −0.62 4.91×10−5
144 h −0.59 4.84×10−5
240 h −0.57 4.60×10−5
360 h −0.55 4.53×10−5
CAS 0h −0.89 1.67×10−4
72 h −0.65 6.37×10−5
144 h −0.62 6.19×10−5
240 h −0.61 5.91×10−5
360 h −0.62 5.65×10−5

4. Discussion

Based on the results above, it can be concluded that the WAS has better mechanical properties and resistance to
atmospheric corrosion than CAS, which is mainly attributed to the control of C, Mn content and addition of V,
Cr, Ni and Cu.
Microstructure and alloyed elements are the major factors in determining material properties. From
figures 3 and 4, the low value of strength achieved is due to the presence of microstructure dominated by coarser
ferrite and pearlite structure. As the specification thickness increases, the rolling reduction and cooling rate
decrease thereby resulting in coarser ferrite and pearlite structures. Compared to Nb and Ti, V has certain
further advantages as a micro-alloying element due to the solubility of V(C, N) in austenite and ferrite being

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Table 4. Compositions of corrosion products.

Steel Corrosion time α-FeOOH γ-FeOOH Fe2O3 Fe3O4

WAS 72 h 81.8 4.5 0.6 13.2

144 h 86.5 4.4 2.0 7.1
240 h 87.4 10.8 1.3 0.5
360 h 91.0 7.7 0.3 1.0
CAS 72 h 59.5 10.0 4.0 26.5
144 h 62.0 11.1 0.9 26.0
240 h 58.3 11.0 5.3 25.4
360 h 58.3 10.7 6.5 24.5

much larger [37]. The kinetics of V(C, N) formation in austenite are sluggish for processing at finishing
temperatures higher than 1000 °C and for normal steel compositions virtually all V will be available for
precipitation in ferrite [37]. The mass dispersed and fine V(C, N) second-phase particles are precipitated from
steels, resulting in a strong precipitation strengthening effect [38]. In V micro-alloyed steels, nitrogen (N)
content is often increased to make ferrite grains finer and get higher precipitation strengthening [39]. In order to
utilise the precipitation strengthening effect of V, the precipitation ability of V at high temperature is promoted
by increasing the content of N in steel. So far, this technique is well suited for hot-rolled weathering steel angle
produced without TMCP.
The enhanced corrosion resistance of weathering steel in relation to mild steel or plain carbon steel is due to
the formation of a compact and well-adhering corrosion product layer in low aggressive atmospheres [40]. From
the corrosion product of the rust layer, the corrosion products peak intensity shows obvious differences between
the WAS and CAS (figure 6). The pattern of the corrosion products of the WAS shows high intensity peaks for α-
FeOOH (2θ=21.24 and 2θ=53.24). A semi-quantitative calculation concerning the corrosion products were
obtained by Jade, as listed in table 4. The content of α-FeOOH of WAS in the rust is more than that of CAS and
grows with increasing corrosion time. It is widely accepted that α-FeOOH is the final stable, compact and dense
corrosion product and responsible for the protective ability of the rust [41, 42]. Therefore, the high amount of α-
FeOOH is helpful to enhance the corrosion resistance of WAS. From the morphology of rust layer, the corrosion
surface morphology of WAS is better than that of CAS (figures 7(a), (c)). Figure 8(a) shows that the inner rust
layer is dense, uniform and tightly adherent to the whole substrate, which can effectively obstruct the invasion of
corrosive ions and further give rise to the decrease in corrosion rate. Cr, Ni and Cu is beneficial to produce
amorphous ferric oxyhydroxide (which further transforms into more stable and more protective structure of α-
FeOOH) that forms a uniform, compact and crack free rust layer [42]. The rust layer on CAS exists in many gaps
and cracks between the substrate and rust layer or even in the rust layer, which illustrates poor corrosion
resistance.

5. Conclusion

In this study, Q355 grade WAS for transmission towers is produced by a traditional hot angle steel production
line. The microstructure, mechanical properties, and corrosion behaviour of WAS combined with CAS were
studied. The main conclusions can be summarised as follows:

(1) The microstructures of the WAS and CAS show the presence of polygonal ferrite and pearlite. The WAS
showed good comprehensive mechanical properties, better than those for CAS for the same specification
angle. WAS-14 has a higher yield strength and impact toughness (391.0 MPa, 188.8 J) when compared with
CAS-14 (380.0 MPa, 153.5 J).
(2) The WAS shows excellent corrosion resistance compared with CAS in a simulated industrial atmospheric
environment, proven by the corrosion loss. After 360 h cyclic immersion corrosion, the weight loss of WAS
and CAS are 31.57 mg cm−2 and 51.88 mg cm−2, respectively; weight loss of WAS is approximately 40%
lower than that of CAS.
(3) α-FeOOH, γ-FeOOH and Fe3O4 were the main phases in the rust surface of samples after the cyclic
immersion corrosion test, the content of amorphous α-FeOOH of WAS was more than that of CAS and the
inner rust layer of WAS is dense and adherent to the substrate, hence reducing the corrosion loss.
(4) The corrosion potential (Ecorr) and corrosion current density (Icorr) of WAS are higher than those of CAS;
WAS shows excellent corrosion resistance.

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ORCID iDs

Shangwu Zeng https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5399-2854

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