Established as per the Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956

Approved by AICTE, COA and BCI, New Delhi

Electrical Power Utilization and Safety

Course Code : B20EEO601

School of Electrical and Electronics

Engineering, REVA University

Adithya Ballaji,
Assistant Professor
AY: 2023-2024
OUTLINE
✓ Introduction to traction
✓ Requirements of an ideal traction
✓ Systems of traction
✓ Speed time curve
✓ Tractive effort
✓ Co-efficient of adhesion,
✓ Selection of traction motors and method of speed control
✓ Energy saving by series parallel control
✓ AC traction equipment.
✓ AC series motor, characteristics, regenerative braking, linear
induction motor and their use.
✓ AC traction, specific energy, factors affecting specific energy
consumption
INTRODUCTION:
➢ Traction means act of drawing or pulling.

➢ If traction is by electricity, it is called electric traction.

➢ This includes; tramway, trolley, railways, ropeway etc.

➢ Electric traction can be shown to be cheaper than any alternate method.

School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, REVA University Source : NPTEL

INTRODUCTION:
▪ Electric Traction involves utilization of electric power for traction systems i.e., for railways, trams,
trolleys etc.

▪ For traction purposes mostly 3- Phase Induction motors and DC series motors are used, and both
have high starting torque, prevailing requirement for the high-speed acceleration.

School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, REVA University Source : NPTEL

 Traction
Systems

Non-electric
Electric traction
traction
systems
systems
TRACTION SYSTEM:
System of traction can be classified as:

1. Nonelectric traction system

Ex: Steam engine drive, Internal combustion engine

2. Electric traction system

Ex: Diesel electric drive, Battery electric drive

1. Vehicle which receive power from distributing network fed from central power station.(tramways,
trolley bus, electric railways)

2. Self-contained locomotives such as diesel electric train, ships petrol electric trucks lorries, battery
driven road vehicles

School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, REVA University Source : NPTEL

EXAMPLES OF TRACTION SYSTEMS

➢ Railway electrical locomotives

➢ Battery driven road vehicles

➢ Petrol, diesel trucks and busses

➢ Tramways and Tramcars

➢ DC electrical trains and small ships

➢ Diesel trains and ships

5
TRACTION SYSTEM:

Actual location of traction motor in electric locomotive

School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, REVA University Source : NPTEL

REQUIREMENTS OF AN IDEAL TRACTION SYSTEM:
➢ Maximum tractive effort should be exerted at starting in order that rapid (quickly accomplished)
acceleration may be attained.
➢ The equipment should be capable of withstanding overloads for short periods.
➢ The locomotive or train unit should be self-contained and able to run on any route.
➢ Wear caused on track must be minimum.
➢ Braking should be possible without excessive wear on brake shoes, and if possible, the braking energy
should be regenerated and returned to the supply.
➢ Pollution free
➢ Easy speed control
➢ Equipment must be of high Efficiency, Low initial and maintenance cost
➢ No interference to communication lines running along the track.

School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, REVA University Source : NPTEL

SYSTEMS OF TRACTION
1.Direct steam engine drive

2.Direct internal combustion engine drive

3.Steam electric drive

4. Internal combustion engine electric Drive

5.Battery-electric drive

6.Track electrification

School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, REVA University Source : NPTEL

1.Direct steam engine drive:

•Steam engine drive is widely employed for railway work

•Reciprocating steam engines is invariably used for getting the necessary motive power
•Suitable for low density traffic area
Advantages:
• Simple to connect the cylinders and driving wheels. Hence speed control is
easy.
• Causes no interference to communication lines
• Capacity is high compared to direct internal combustion engine drive and
battery electric drive
• Initial investment is low compared to electric drive.[No overhead structure,
distribution system, power generation]
• Self-Contained [Not tied to any route]
Disadvantages:

• Difficulty of installing a condenser on locomotive. Hence efficiency is poor 6%

to 8%
• Limited overload capacity
• Steam locomotive is available for hauling for about 60% of its working day,
remaining time is spent in cooling, watering, servicing
• More number of crews is required.
• Causes wear on track owing to unbalanced reciprocating parts and corrosion of
steel structures by smoke emitted.
• Not clean because of coal dust, ash, etc
Steam turbine locomotive
Few steam turbine locomotives have been built having a condenser and
reduction gearing between the turbine and driving wheels. They have 10%-
15% efficiency, but initial and maintenance cost is high.
Gas turbine locomotives
Experimental gas turbine locomotives have also been built
2.Direct internal combustion engine drive
• They are widely employed for road transport [Bus, Car, Trucks]
• Efficiency is more than steam engines

Advantages:
• Efficiency is of 25% more than steam engines
• Self-contained unit
• Speed control and braking system is very simple
• Initial investment is very low [Cost of vehicle and garage]
Disadvantages:
• Overload capacity is limited on account of Speed torque characteristic [10% of overloading will
also result in stalling of engine]

• Operation at any normal speed in uneconomical [600 & 2000 rpm]

• No starting torque and must be started by some auxiliary means [Electrically/compressed air]

• Maintenance and running cost is higher

• As torque exerted by internal combustion engine is approximately constant, an engine capable of

giving high starting torque is not used to nits full capacity when running at full speed unless
some form gear is employed, speed control is possible only by employing gear box.

3/1/2023 Electric traction 18

3.Steam electric drive
• There are few locomotives which use steam turbine for driving a generator used for
supplying current for electric motors. This was for experimental purpose.
• Due to mechanical difficulties and complications it was not put into use.
4. Internal combustion engine electric
Drive
• In this drive reduction gear and gear box are eliminated as the diesel engine is
to drive the dc generator coupled to it at constant speed.
• Used in railway work.
Advantages:
• No modification in existing track is required for conversion from steam to
diesel engine electric traction
• Initial investment is as low as no overhead structure distribution equipment
is required.
• The time spent on maintenance is very less.
• Over all efficiency is greater than that of steam locomotives[25%]
• No loss of power during speed control.

3/1/2023 Electric traction 21

Disadvantages:
•The life of diesel engine is comparatively shorter
•Diesel engine cannot be overloaded
•For cooling diesel engine an motor generator set separate cooling system are
required.
•Running and maintenance cost is high
•The dead weight on the locomotive will be comparatively more because of
motor generator set and other accessories. In order to handle this weight ,a
number of axles required are more.
5.Battery-electric drive:
•DC Motors are used here for driving but are supplied from a secondary battery
carried on the vehicle

Disadvantages:
➢ Limited due to frequent charging of
batteries and small capacity battery.

Advantages:

➢Well suited for traction in industrial works and

mines and for road transport.
6.Track electrification

3/1/2023 Electric traction 24

Most widely used. Electric energy is supplied from a contact wire suspended above
the track or from an additional rail along side.

3/1/2023 Electric traction 25

Advantages:
1.No equipment on the vehicle, no prime mover, no storage of fuel or energy, hence
efficiency of the vehicle is 85 to 90%. But overall of the whole system is 10 to 15%

2.Generating stations will take care of maintenance. Hence maintenance cost is less.

3.In a day, 95% of the time can be used for hauling.

Disadvantage:
Breakdown of electric supply causes complete stoppage of the system
3
➢ Electric Traction involves utilization
of electric power for traction systems
i.e., for railways, trams, trolleys etc.
➢ For traction purposes mostly 3- Phase
Induction motors and d.c series motors
are used, and both have high starting
torque, prevailing requirement for the
high-speed acceleration.

4
REQUIREMENTS OF IDEAL TRACTION SYSTEMS
➢ High starting tractive effort to have rapid acceleration.
➢ Minimum wear on the track.
➢ Easy speed control.
➢ Minimum equipment and maximum efficiency.
➢ Withstanding of large temporary loads.
➢ Self contained and compact locomotive.
➢ No interference with the other systems like communication
➢ Pollution free environment 6
 ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRICAL TRACTION SYSTEMS
➢ It is the cheapest method of traction systems.
➢ Pollution free and clean environment.
➢Maintenance and repair cost are very less compared to other
traction systems like steam engine traction.
➢Starting and control of the electrical traction system is very fast
and can be done without loss of time.
➢This traction uses AC or DC series motors which provide very
high starting torque.
➢ Braking or stopping of this system can be done in very less time
and less energy usage. 37

➢ Carriage of fuel (coal , oil) is not needed.

 DISADVANTAGES OF ELECTRICAL TRACTION SYSTEMS
➢ High initial expenditure
➢ Extra equipment is required for braking
➢ Failure of electrical supply is a major problem
➢The electrified tracks are needed for running the electrical
locomotives
➢Interference with communication systems (telephone or telegraph) is a
problem

38
A Brief History to Electric Traction
➢ Italian Railways were the first in the world to
introduce the electric traction.
➢ The world's first AC locomotive in Valtelina,
northern Italy (1898–1902).
➢ Power supply: 3-phase 15 Hz AC, 3000 V (AC
motor 70 km/h).
➢ It was designed by a Hungary company.
➢ The 106 km Valtellina line was opened on 4
September 1902.

7
A Brief History to Electric Traction

7
A Brief History to Electric Traction

7
Speed-time curve

➢ It is the graph obtained between time in seconds in the x-axis and

speed in km/hr in the y-axis from start of the train to stop of the
train.

➢ The slope of the curve represents acceleration in km/hr/sec.

➢ The area under the curve represents the distance travelled in km.

7
Typical speed-time curve:

➢ A suburban service with a short distance between stops is shown

in the fig. It can be divided into 5 parts.
1. Acceleration during notching (accelerating) period (0-t1)
2. Acceleration on speed curve (t1-t2)
3. Free running period (t2-t3)
4. Coasting (t3-t4)
5. Braking (t5-t5)

7
 Speed in km/hr

Acceleration during notch up

Fig.
0-t1

:
Acceleration on speed curve

t1-t2

Typical
Free running
Typical speed-time curve:

t2-t3

speed-time

Coasting or
running with power cut off
t3-t4

Braking retardation
t4-t5

curve-suburban
Time

run
in
sec

7
1.Acceleration during notching period (0-t1):
➢ Starting resistance is cutout. So Current, tractive effort and
acceleration remains constant. Acceleration up to 0.6 or even 0.9
m/sq.sec are used.

2.Acceleration on speed curve (t1-t2):

➢ At t1, starting resistance is completely cutout, train continues to
accelerate, the torque gradually falls as speed increases. Speed
increases till tractive effort balances the resistance to the motion of
the train.

3/1/2023 Electric traction 40

3.Free running period (t2-t3):
➢ The train continues to run at the same speed reached at point t2.

4.Coasting (t3-t4):
➢ Power is shut off and train is allowed to run under its own
momentum, the speed gradually is falling due to friction, windage, etc.

5.Braking (t4-t5):
➢ The brakes are applied, and the train brought to rest at the end of
the run. The braking deceleration is usually between 0.6 and
0.9m/sq.sec for suburban services, where rapid braking is essential.

3/1/2023 Electric traction 41

➢The acceleration and free running periods are controlled by
speed-torque characteristics of the motor. Coasting is governed
by the train resistance (friction at various rotating parts,, air
resistance) and braking is governed by allowable braking
retardation.

➢The actual shape of any particular speed-time curve will differ

from the above on account of the existence of gradients and with
different lengths of run

3/1/2023 Electric traction 42

➢For instance, for short run, there may be no free running period
and for a long run or main line services, the majority of the run
will be free running and the starting and braking periods are
negligible.

➢The drawing of speed-time curves is important for any

electrification scheme in order to find what schedule speeds
(D/(T+t)) can be maintained? And what will be the energy
consumption?

3/1/2023 Electric traction 43

Simplified speed-time curves:
It is a simple approximate geometric shape which replaces an actual
speed-time curve. The areas of two curves will be equal since area
represents the distance travelled by a train.

Advantages:
1.Effect of different values of acceleration, average speed (D/T) etc.,
on energy consumption can be observed.
2.Labor charges can be saved in repeating the calculations a very
large no. of times without any knowledge of the motor
characteristics.

3/1/2023 Electric traction 44

Types of Railway Services
There are three types of passenger services offered by the railways :
1. City or Urban Service. In this case, there are frequent stops, the distance between stops
being nearly 1 km or less. Hence, high acceleration and retardation are essential to achieve
moderately high schedule speed between the stations.
2. Suburban Service. In this case, the distance between stops averages from 3 to 5 km over a
distance of 25 to 30 km from the city terminus. Here, also, high rates of acceleration and
retardation are necessary.
3. Main Line Service. It involves operation over long routes where stops are infrequent. Here,
operating speed is high and accelerating and braking periods are relatively unimportant.

On goods traffic side also, there are three types of services (i) main-line freight service (ii)
local or pick-up freight service and (iii) shunting service.
Typical Speed/Time Curve

1. Constant Acceleration Period (0 to t1)

2. Acceleration on Speed Curve (t1 to t2)
3. Free-running Period (t2 to t3)
4. Coasting (t3 to t4)
5. Braking (t4 to t5)

Passenger Services

1. Its slope gives acceleration or retardation as the case may be.

2. Area between it and the horizontal (i.e. time) axis represents the distance travelled.
3. Energy required for propulsion can be calculated if resistance to the motion of train is
known.
Speed/Time Curves for Different Services

➢ City service where relative values of acceleration and retardation are high
in order to achieve moderately high average speed between stops.

➢ Due to short distances between stops, there is no possibility of free-

running period though a short coasting period is included to save on
energy consumption.
Speed/Time Curves for Different Services

➢ In suburban services, again there is no free-running period but there is

comparatively longer coasting period because of longer distances between
stops. In this case also, relatively high values of acceleration and
retardation are required in order to make the service as attractive as
possible.
Speed/Time Curves for Different Services

➢ For main-line service, there are long periods of free-running at high

speeds. The accelerating and retardation periods are relatively
unimportant.
Simplified Speed/Time Curve

The actual speed/time curve is replaced by a

simplified speed/time curve which does not involve
the knowledge of motor characteristics.

The simplified speed/time curve can have either of the two shapes:
1. Trapezoidal shape OA1B1C - where speed-curve running and coasting periods
of the actual speed/time curve have been replaced by a constant speed period.
2. Quadrilateral shape OA2B2C where the same two periods are replaced by the
extensions of initial constant acceleration and coasting periods.
Simplified Speed/Time Curve

➢ Trapezoidal diagram OA1B1C gives simpler relationships between the

principal quantities involved in train movement and also gives closer
approximation of actual energy consumed during main-line service on level
track.
➢ Quadrilateral diagram approximates more closely to the actual conditions in
city and suburban services..
Average and Schedule Speed
While considering train movement, the following three speeds are of importance:

1. Crest Speed. It is the maximum speed (Vm) attained by a train during the run.

distance between stops

2. Average Speed =
actual time of run

In this case, only running time is considered but not the stop time.

distance between stops

3. Schedule Speed = actual time of run+ stop time
Selection of Traction Motors:

The motor is common to all systems of electric traction, and as the conditions under
which it operates are very different and much more arduous (laborious) than those
occurring in most industrial drives, a special type of motor, known as a traction
motor, has been developed.

General features of traction motors:

The following are the chief requirements of a satisfactory traction motor.
Electrical features:
1. High starting torque
A traction motor must be capable of developing high starting torque specially
when train is to be accelerated at a reasonably high rate
2. Speed-torque characteristic
Speed-torque characteristic must be such that speed may fall with the increase
in load. Such motors are self protective against excessive overloading as power
output of a motor is proportional to the product of torque and speed
3/1/2023 Electric traction 53
General features of traction motors:
The following are the chief requirements of a satisfactory traction motor.
Electrical features:
3. Simple speed control
Traction motor should be amenable to simple speed control methods as an
electric train has to be started and stopped very often
4. Possibility of dynamic or regenerative braking
The traction motor must be amenable to easy and simple methods of
rheostatic or regenerative braking
5. Capability of withstanding temporary interruption of supply.
6. Overload capacity
7. Parallel running
3/1/2023 54
Electric traction
Mechanical features:
1. Robustness (strong and healthy) and ability to withstand continuous vibration.
2. Minimum weight
The weight of the traction motor should be minimum in order to increase the
payload capacity of the vehicle.
3. Protection against dirt and damp, particularly if mounted beneath the
locomotive or motor coach. Hence traction motor must be totally enclosed type.
4. Overall dimensions Should be minimum

➢Cast steel or fabricated steel which gives more mechanical strength is used for
magnetic circuit of traction motor as they cannot withstand continuous vibrations
➢Those parts of the motor which are not highly stressed must be made of pressed or
fabricated steel plates and light alloys

No type of motor completely fulfils all these requirements, and of all the various
types which have been tried the only ones which have been found satisfactorily in
practice are the dc series and dc compound motors for dc systems and 3 phase
induction motor for 3 phase systems.
3/1/2023 Electric traction 55
Method of speed control:
DC equipment-starting and speed control:

➢The speed control of a dc series motor may be varied by field control (NEb/) or by variation
of voltage applied to the motor {N[V-Ia(ra+Rse)]}.

➢On account of design difficulties arising with traction motors, field control is usually limited to
one or two tapings on the field, giving speeds of about 115% to 130% of normal.

➢Speed variation below normal and starting must be carried out by voltage control, employing
either a series resistance or the series parallel connection or in most cases, a combination of two.

Please Note: For above normal speed, field control is used.

For below normal speed and for starting, voltage control is used.

3/1/2023 Electric traction 56

AC Traction Equipment
 OVERHEAD Through the roof bars via
TRANSMISSION LINE (25
kV) pantograph

AC supply is fed to the

transformer which in
turn steps down the
voltage and feds it to

Rectifier changes AC to DC
and is fed to SR

pulsating DC to smooth DC
(DC-DC)and feds it to
PANTOGRAPH
RECTIFIER
TRANSFORMER

LOCO MOVES TRACTION MOTORS SOOTHING REACTORS

 AC Traction Equipment
• Catenary - This is the overhead wire of special cross-section
• Pantograph - This is a device used for collecting current from the catenary i.e. the over
head lines
• Circuit Breakers - The function of circuit breaker is to disconnect the engine from the
line side in case of some fault
• On Load Tap Changer - On load tap changer is used for varying the output voltage for
controlling the speed of motor
• Transformer - A tap changing transformer is installed in the locomotive for stepping
down the voltage according to the requirement of traction motors
• Rectifiers - Semiconductor rectifiers are used for conversion of A.C power into
D.C power
• Smoothing Reactors - Any ripples found on the output side of the rectifier are eliminated
by the smoothing reactor fitted after the rectifier.
A.C. Series (Universal) Motors
• A universal motor is a special type of motor which is designed to run on either DC
or single phase AC supply.
• These motors are generally series wound (armature and field winding are in series), and
hence produce high starting torque
• Most of the universal motors are designed to operate at higher speeds, exceeding
3500 RPM.
• They run at lower speed on AC supply than they run on DC supply of same voltage, due
to the reactance voltage drop which is present in AC and not in DC.
There are two basic types of universal motor:
(i) compensated type and (ii) uncompensated type.
A.C. Series (Universal) Motors
Speed/Load Characteristics
• Speed/load characteristics of a universal motor are similar to that of DC
series motor.
• The speed of a universal motor is low at full load and very high at no load.
• Usually, gears trains are used to get the required speed on required load.
• The speed/load characteristics are (for both AC as well as DC supply) are
shown in the figure.
Applications of Universal Motors
• Universal motors find their use in various home appliances like vacuum
cleaners, drink and food mixers, domestic sewing machine etc.

• The higher rating universal motors are used in portable drills, blenders
etc.
Linear Induction Motors

WHAT ARE LINEAR MOTORS?

✓ Linear motors are electric induction motors that produce motion in a
straight line rather than rotational motion.
✓ In a traditional electric motor, the rotor (rotating part) spins inside the stator
(static part)
✓ In a linear motor, the stator is unwrapped and laid out flat and the "rotor"
moves past it in a straight line.
Construction of a Linear Induction Motor

If the stator of the poly phase

induction motor is cut along the
section and laid on a flat surface,
then it forms the primary of the LIM
housing the field system, and
consequently the rotor forms the
secondary consisting of flat
aluminium conductors with
ferromagnetic core for effective
flux linkage.
Construction of a Linear Induction Motor
WORKING OF A LINEAR INDUCTION MOTOR
• Primary of an LIM is excited by a balanced three phase power
supply
• A traveling flux is induced in the primary instead of rotating 3 φ flux
• Electric current is induced into the secondary due to the relative
motion between the traveling flux and the conductors
• This induced current interacts with the traveling flux wave to produce linear
force or thrust F.
• If the secondary is fixed and the primary is free to move, the force will
move the primary in the direction of the force, resulting in the required
rectilinear motion.
Linear Induction Motors
SPEED
 Synchronous speed of the field

 Where,
fs = supply frequency in Hz,
p = number of poles
Linear Induction Motors
 The developed field will result in a linear traveling field
 The velocity of which is given by the equation

Vs=2tfs
Vs = velocity of the linear traveling field, t = pole pitch

For a slip of s, the speed of the LIM is given by

Vr=(1-s)vs
Linear Induction Motors
ADVANTAGES
 There are no moving parts to go wrong
 As the platform rides above the track on a cushion of air, there is no loss of
energy to friction or vibration
 As both acceleration and braking are achieved through electromagnetism, linear
motors are much quieter than ordinary motors.

DISADVANTAGES
Because the air-gap is greater
✓ more power is required
✓ efficiency is lower
APPLICATIONS OF LINEAR INDUCTION MOTORS
✓ Automatic sliding doors in electric trains.

✓ Mechanical handling equipment, such as

propulsion of a train of tubs along a certain
route.

✓ Metallic conveyor belts.

Electric traction
3/1/2023 Electric traction 75