Compressor Selection Sizing and Troubleshooting, Kolmetz Handbook of Process Equipment Design

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COMPRESSOR SELECTION SIZING AND TROUBLESHOOTING, Kolmetz Handbook

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KLM Technology
Rev: 04
Group
Practical Engineering Guidelines, Consulting and
Guidelines for Processing
Plant Solutions Training Rev 01-March 2008
Rev 02- January 2011
Rev 03-June 2014
Rev 04 - January 2023
www.klmtechgroup.com
Co Author:
Rev 01- A L Ling
KLM Technology Group
P. O. Box 281
Kolmetz Handbook Rev 02- Viska Mulyandasari
Rev 03 – Yulis Sutianingsih
Bandar Johor Bahru,
80000 Johor Bahru,
Of Process Equipment Design Rev 04 – Faulina Popy P
Johor, West Malaysia
COMPRESSOR SELECTION Author / Editor:

SIZING AND Karl Kolmetz
TROUBLESHOOTING
(ENGINEERING DESIGN GUIDELINES)
TABLE OF CONTENT
INTRODUCTION 7
Scope 7
History of Compressor 8
Transport of Materials 9
Thermodynamic 12
Gas and Vapor 15
Partial Pressure 16
Compressibility 16
Compression Process 24
Power Requirement 24
Compressibility Correction 26
Cylinder Clearance and Compressibility Efficiency 27
Pseudo-Critical Conditions and Compressibility 28
DEFINITION 30
NOMENCLATURE 35
THEORY 37
Types of Compressors 35
(A) Dynamic Compressor 40

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(B) Positive-Displacement Compressor 50
(C) Scroll Compressor 65
(D) Straight Lobe Compressor 67
(E) Diaphragm Compressors 68
Major Component of Compressor 71
Selection and Sizing 104

Methods for Compressor Performance 136
Stage of Compression 147
Calculated Limitations 148
APPLICATION 161
LIST OF FIGURE
Figure 1 : Range of Compressor Application 10

Figure 2 : Type of Compressor 12
Figure 3 : Thermodynamic processes on a pressure-volume
22
Diagram
Figure 4 : Compression schematic layout 24
Figure 5 : Adiabatic compression process 25
Figure 6 : Compressor types based on operating principles 37
Figure 7 : Selecting Compressor 39
Figure 8 : Centrifugal compressor 42
Figure 9 : Single stage compressor 44
Figure 10 :Multi stage compressor 45
Figure 11 : Axial flow compressor 48
Figure 12 : Rotary compressor 55
These design guideline are believed to be as accurate as possible, but are very general and not for specific design cases.
They were designed for engineers to do preliminary designs and process specification sheets. The final design must always
be guaranteed for the service selected by the manufacturing vendor, but these guidelines will greatly reduce the amount of
up front engineering hours that are required to develop the final design. The guidelines are a training tool for young engineers
or a resource for engineers with experience.
This document is entrusted to the recipient personally, but the copyright remains with us. It must not be copied, reproduced or in any
way communicated or made accessible to third parties without our written consent.
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Figure 13. Reciprocating compressor 62

Figure 14 : Components of centrifugal compressor 71
Figure 15 : Components of reciprocating compressor 78
Figure 16 : Relationship of compression variable 117
Figure 17 : TDC and BDC of Positive Displacement Compressor 121
Figure 18 : Displacement volume and clearance volume in
122
Reciprocating compressor
Figure 19 : Compressor design flowchart 123
Figure 20 : Compressin Ratio – Loss 125
Figure 21 : Typical mechanical effiiciency of reciprocating
130
Compressors
Figure 22 : Type of cylinder vs. Clearance 132
Figure 23 : Size of cylinder vs. Rated discharge pressure 132
Figure 24 : Curve of Centrifugal compressor (typical) 133
Figure 25 : Polytropic efficiency for centrifugal compressor 134
Figure 26 : Mollier’s Chart 137
Figure 27 : Compressibility Functioon at Constant Pressure (X) 143
Figure 28 : Compressibility Functioon at Constant Temperature (Y) 144
Figure 29 : Unloading the Suction Valve 150
Figure 30 : The changing state of unloading suction valve 150
Figure 31 : Clearance Pocket 151
Figure 32 : The changing state of clearance pocket 151
Figure 33 : Spill Back Control 152
Figure 34 : Speed Control Process for reciprocating compressor 153
Figure 35 : Speed Control Process for centrifugal compressor 154
Figure 36 : Discharge Throttling 155
Figure 37 : Suction Throttling 155
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Figure 38 : Inlet Guide Vane 156

Figure 39 : Anti-surge control for multistage compression 157
Figure 40 : Anti-surge control 158
Figure 41 : State Diagram of anti-surge control 158
Figure 42 : Conventional Anti-surge control 159
Figure 43 : State Diagram of Dynamic anti-surge control 159
Figure 44 : Dynamic Anti-surge control 160
LIST OF TABLE
Table 1 : Operating Range of Compressors 11

Table2 : Specific Volume and Density 18
Table 3 : Volume Percent of Constituents 19
Table 4 : Molecular Weight of a Mixture 19
Table 5 : List the Specific Gas Constant 19
Table 6 : Cylinder Clearance and Compressibility Efficiency 27
Table 7 : Pseudo-Critical Conditions and Compressibility 28
Table 8 : Blower Applications 54
Table 9 : Troubleshooting Chart 61
Table 10 : Application of Diaphragm Compressor 70
Table 11 : Balance Piston Sea 77
Table 12 : Compressor Characteristics 106
Table 13 : Performance Parameters for Types Compressor 107
Table 14 : Significant Aspect for Compressors Base on Parameters 108
Table 15 : Comparison of Important Compressor Types 109
Table 16 : Axial Compressors versus Centrifugal Compressors 110
Table 17 : Centrifugal Compressors versus Reciprocating Compressors 111
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Table 18 : Rotary Compressors versus Reciprocating Compressor (Service 112

below 500 psig )
Table 19 : Power Rating for Types of Compressor 113
Table 20 : Comparison of compressor driver types (torque, size, weight) 113
Table 21 : Major considerations in driver type selection 114
Table 22 : Temperature limitation purposes. 126
Table 23 : Typical Frame Sizes and Geometries Available from Major 131
Reciprocating Compressor Manufacturers
Table 24 : Limitation of temperature 135
Table 25 : Limits of Departure from Ideal Gas laws 141
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INTRODUCTION
Scope
This design guideline covered the selection and sizing method of compressor used in the
typical processing industries. The guideline helps engineers to understand basic design of
the difference types of compressors, and gain knowledge in selection and sizing.
Compressors are widely used in industries to transport fluids. It is a mechanical device that
compresses a gas. There are many types of compressors, thus a proper selection is needed
to fulfil the typical necessity of each industry. Generally, the compression of gases may be
accomplished in device with rotating blades or in cylinders with reciprocating pistons. Rotary
equipment is used for high volume flow where the discharge pressure is not too high, while
the reciprocating compressors are required for high pressures. Besides volumetric flow rate,
there are also many parameters to be considered, includes the valid standards to be used.
Compressor selection is important; hence the theory for each type of compressor is included
in this guideline as additional information. All the important parameters used in the guideline
are well explained in the definition section, which helps the reader to understand the
meaning of the parameters, or the term used.
The theory section includes thermodynamics as a basic theory of gas compression,

comparison of several types of compressors, sizing theory, and formulations for the
compressor design. There are many equations found to sizing the compressor, hence the
practical (based on ideal condition) and generally used equations are added in this design
guideline. In the application section, five cases examples are included to guide the reader
o do the compressor sizing.
In the end of this guideline, example specification data sheet is included which is created
based on industrial example. Calculation spreadsheet is included as well and to aid user
more understand to apply the theory for calculations.
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History of Compressors
One of the earliest recorded uses of compressed gas (air) dates back to 3rd century B.C.
This early use of compressed air was the “water organ.” The invention of the “water organ”
is commonly credited to Ctesibius of Alexandria. Ctesibius also developed the positive
displacement cylinder and piston to move water.
The water organ consisted of a water pump, a chamber partly filled with air and water, a row
of pipes on top (organ pipes) of various diameters and lengths plus connecting tubing and
valves. By pumping water into the water/air chamber the air becomes compressed. This
concept was further improved by Hero of Alexandria (also noted for describing the principles
of expanding steam to convert steam power to shaft power).
In the 1850s, while trying to find a replacement for the water wheel at their family’s woolen
mill, Philander and Francis Roots devised what has come to be known as the Roots blower.
Their design consisted of a pair of figure-eight impellers rotating in opposite directions. While
some Europeans were simultaneously experimenting with this design, the Roots brothers
perfected the design and put it into large-scale production.
In 1808 John Dumball envisioned a multi-stage axial compressor. Unfortunately, his idea
consisted only of moving blades without stationary airfoils to turn the flow into each
succeeding stage. Not until 1872 did Dr. Franz Stolze combine the ideas of John Barber and
John Dumball to develop the first axial compressor driven by an axial turbine.
Due to a lack of funds, he did not build his machine until 1900. Dr. Stolze’s design consisted
of a multi-stage axial flow compressor, a single combustion chamber, a multi-stage axial
turbine, and a regenerator utilizing exhaust gases to heat the compressor discharge gas.
Operating conditions have a significant impact on compressor selection and compressor

performance. The effects of pressure, temperature, molecular weight, specific heat ratio,
compression ratio, speed, vane position, volume bottles, loaders, and unloaders, among
other factors, are discussed. These circumstances have an effect on compressor capacity,
which influences the choice of compressor. It affects the compressor's effectiveness as well.
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Due to the parallel and series modes of operation for compressors, some degree of selection
flexibility is still feasible. For instance, many compressors can be arranged in series so that
the discharge of one compressor feeds directly into the suction of a second compressor in
order to attain higher pressures. Similar to how numerous compressors can be set in tandem
to obtain larger flows, each compressor's suction and discharge can be combined into a
single manifold.
Because compressor surge is the most dangerous event that can occur in a dynamic
compressor, it will be described and covered in detail. The many forms of instrumentation
(controllers, valves, pressure and temperature transmitters, etc.) that are readily available
and best suited for managing surge are also covered. Other compressors' destructive modes
are also discussed.
Several algorithms are provided to help illustrate how pressure and temperature interact and
to quantify results, but their comprehension is not necessary for the choice of the appropriate
instrumentation and a control strategy. The reader shouldn't be put off by these algorithms
because comprehending them will allow for a more comprehensive knowledge of how the
compressor functions.
Transport of Materials
The type of equipment best suited for the pumping of gases in pipelines depends on flow
rate, the differential pressure required, and the oeprating pressure. Generally, fans are used
where the pressure drop is small (<35 cm H2O, 0.03 bar), axial flow compressors for high
flow rates and moderate differential pressures, centrifugal compressors for high flw rates
and by staging, high differential pressures.
Reciprocating compressors can be used over a wide range of pressures and capacities but
are normally specified only preference to centrifugal compressors where high pressures are
required at relatively low flow rates.
Reciprocating,centrifugal, and axial flow compressors are the principal types used in the
chemical process industries, and the range of application of each type is shown in Figure 1.,
which has been adapted from a similar diagram by Dimophon (1978).
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Figure 1. Range of Compressor Application
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A comprehensive selection guide for compressor technology is represents in Table 1.

Diagrammatic sketches of the compressors listed are given in Figure 2.
Table 1 : Operating Range of Compressors (Begg, 1966)
Type of Compressor Normal Normal Max. Normal Max. Differential

Max. Speed Capacity Pressure (bar)
(rpm) (m3/h) Single Multiple Stage
Stage
Displacement
1. Reciprocating. 300 85,000 3.5 5000
2. Sliding Vane. 300 3400 3.5 8
3. Liquid Ring. 200 2550 0.7 1.7
4. Rootes. 250 4250 0.35 1.7
5. Screw. 10,000 12,750 3.5 17
Dynamic
6. Centrifugal fan. 1000 170,000 0.35 0.2
7. Turbo blower. 3000 8,500 3.5 1.7
8. Turbo compressor. 10,000 136,000 0.35 100
9. Axial flow fan. 1000 170,000 3.5 2.0
10. Axial flow blower. 3000 170,000 10
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Figure 2. Type of Compressor (Begg, 1966)
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Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is a branch of science which deals with energy. It is core to engineering

and allows understanding of the mechanism of energy conversion. Compression theory is
primarily defined by the Gas Laws and the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics.
(I) Gas Laws
The general law of state for gases is based on the laws of Charles, Boyle, Gay-Lussac
and Avogadro. This states how pressure, volume, and temperature affect each other. It
can be written:
pxv
 R  gas constant Eq (1a)
T
The constant R only concerns the properties of the gas. If the mass m of the gas takes
up the volume V, the relation can be written:
pxV nxR xT Eq (1b)
An additional term may be considered at this time to correct for deviations from the ideal
gas laws. This term is the compressibility factor “Z.” Therefore, the ideal gas equation
becomes:
px v  Z xR xT Eq (1c)
(II) First Law of Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics’ first main principle says that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, but it can be changed from one form to another.
Q h  Ww x E Eq (2a)
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(III) Second Law Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics is more esoteric and has multiple formulations.
1. Heat cannot move from a colder to a hotter body on its own.
2. Only external work can cause heat to transfer from a body with a lower temperature
to one with a higher temperature.
3. All actual processes result in a decrease in the isolated system's available energy.
4. Heat, energy, or water will always flow downward on their own.
These claims essentially claim that energy exists at several levels and can only be used if it
can flow from one level to another
Entropy, a concept from thermodynamics, is a way to quantify the energy that isn't available.
The differential equation defines it.
𝑑𝑆 = 𝑑 Eq (3)
Ideal or Perfect Gas Law
1. Boyle’s Law
The volume of an ideal gas varies inversely with pressure when the temperature is constant.
In symbols:
P2.V2 = P1.V1 = constant Eq (4)
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2. Charle’s Law
At constant pressure, the volume of an ideal gas varies in direct proportion to absolute
temperature:
= = constant Eq (5)
3. Amonton’s Law
The pressure of an ideal gas will change in direct proportion to the absolute temperature at
constant volume.
= = constant Eq (6)
Compressors are mechanical devices that are used to transfer air, gas, or vapor from one
point to another by increasing their pressure. Suction or intake pressure may be low, sub-
optimal from atmospheric pressure to any pressure that is within the limits of the pipe's and
vessel's strength. The compressor pressure ratio is the ratio of the absolute discharge
pressure to the absolute suction pressure.
Stage compression is constrained by the mechanical capacities of the compressor and often
reaches a CR of 4. It takes numerous stages to obtain high pressures. The Ideal Gas Laws
and the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics serve as the main defining principles of
compression theory. The Ideal Gas Law, as originally conceived, is based on the behavior
of pure substances and has the following form:
Pv = RT Eq (7)
Where :
P = Absolute Pressure (KPa)
v = Specific Volume (cm3/g)
R = Gas Constant (8.3144 kN.m/kmol o K)
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T = Absolute Temperature (o K)
Gas and Vapor
A gas is a fluid that, by definition, has no independent shape nor form and has a tendency
to expand indefinitely. A substance in gaseous form a vapor is a liquid or solid that has been
gasified. These explanations are still widely used today. All substances could be referred to
as vapours because it can all liquefy at the proper pressure and temperature.
When conditions are such that a return to the liquid state (condensation) would be
challenging within the parameters of the procedures being evaluated, the word gas is more
commonly employed. In these circumstances, a gas is essentially a superheated vapor. The
terms "gas" and "vapor" will be used rather interchangeably, with the word "vapor" placing
emphasis on a closer proximity to the liquid phase.
Partial Pressure
When two pure liquids are mixed in the same system and are insoluble and non-reacting,
the vapor pressure produced by one pure liquid will not affect the vapor pressure of the
second pure liquid. Each component completely disregards the existence of every other
component. The sum of the vapor pressures of the constituent components determines the
total vapor pressure for mixes. This is Dalton's law, and as opposed to the mixture's total
pressure, each individual vapor has what is referred to as a partial pressure.
The principles of partial pressure are in operation when any gas other than a pure and dry
gas is compressed. There is always some water vapor mixed with the intake air, and the
compressor must manage both components. This is true even in regular 100-psig air
compression for power purposes. In actuality, air is a mixture of several substances, Its total
pressure is the sum of the partial pressures of each component, which include oxygen,
nitrogen, and argon. However, due to the tiny amount of variation in the composition of dry
air globally, it is regarded and will be handled going forward as a single gas with unique
features.
Partial pressures are used to calculate moisture condensation and removal in intercoolers
and aftercoolers after compression. In many vacuum pump applications, partial pressures
are also involved, and it frequently encountered in the compression of numerous mixtures.
When a component in a combination reaches its dew-point temperature, the space it
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occupies is said to be saturated by that component. Sometimes a volume is described as

partially saturated with water vapor at a particular temperature. As a result, the dew point is
lower than the actual temperature and the vapor is really overheated. The partial pressure
of a component can be calculated if the moles of each component are known. In any other
case, the conventional method for determining the partial pressure is to multiply the
component's vapor pressure at the current mixture temperature by the relative humidity.
Compressibility
In some circumstances, the divergence from the ideal or perfect gas laws is quite extreme,
and it occurs in all gases. Many compressor calculations must take these variances into
account in order to avoid regrettable errors in cylinder volumes and driver sizes.
Experimental data on the actual behavior of a given gas under P-V-Tchanges are used to
derive compressibility. In the fundamental formula, the compressibility factor Z 0 acts as a
multiplier. The difference between the ideal volume for a certain P-Tcondition and the actual
volume at the same P-Tcondition is what determines this.
𝑍= Eq (8)
0
In these equations, R0 is 1545 and pis lb/ft2
To cover all gases for which trustworthy data could be found, a series of compressibility and
temperature-entropy charts have been created. These can be discovered in specialized
books or texts. Sometimes it reflect the consolidation and correlation of data from several
sources, typically with a difference from the primary data of less than 1%. These graphs
could be regarded as reliable.
The calculation of theoretical discharge temperatures, which are not necessarily consistent
with ideal gas laws, can be done using temperature-entropy charts. To determine the
compressibility factor during discharge conditions as used in various calculations, discharge
temperatures are needed. The appropriate correction factors for the majority of compression
issues involving the gases described will be provided by these specific Zand T-Scharts.
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Gas Mixture
Mixtures are comparable ideal gases. Even if this isn't quite accurate, it works for the time
being. Compressors handle a lot of combinations that include two to ten different parts. Many
of these analogous gases qualities must be pinpointed as precisely as possible. These
characteristics are, in particular:
 Specific volume
 Density
 Volume and mole percent
 Molecular weight
 Specific gravity
 Partial pressure
 Compressibility
 Gas constant
 Specific heats
The Mole
Working with gas mixtures makes the mole very important. It is based on Avogadro's law,
which states that equal volumes of gases have the same number of molecules at a certain
pressure. As a result, these equal volumes' weights will correspond to their molecular
weights. Choosing standard temperature and pressure (SPT) parameters, it solve for Vin
the previous formula (pis lb/ft2 and Tis °R). This turns out to be 379.4 ft3. For simplicity, use
379 ft3/mol. To repeat, this is the volume of a weight (expressed in pounds) of any gas at
14.696 psia and 60°F the weight being the same number as the molecular weight. Thus, a
mole of hydrogen occupies a volume of 379 ft3 at standard conditions and weighs 2.016 lb.
A mole of air occupies 379 ft3 at the same conditions but weighs 28.97 lb. A mole of
isobutane, still 379 ft3 , weighs 58.12 lb. This, of course, assumes that it act as perfect or
ideal gases, which most of them do at or near standard conditions (SPT): 14.696 psia and
60°F. This or comparable circumstances are used in the majority of mole computations.
Nevertheless, keep in mind that a mole is a weight of gas. There is no volume. Despite the
fact that the divergence from a perfect gas may occasionally be disputed, the following
techniques for determining combination pseudo properties are extremely useful and, in
certain circumstances, the only option.
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Table 2 : Specific Volume and Density
Specific lb/mol and

Specific Density
Gas Volume Molecular
Volume lb/ft3
ft3/mol Weight
Hydrogen 379 2.016 188.3 0.00531
Air 379 28.97 13.1 0.0763
Isobutane 379 58.12 6.51 0.153
Mole percent is the ratio of the number of moles of one constituent to the total number of
moles of mixture. Mole percent also happens to be percent by volume. This statement
should be questioned since a mole is defined as a weight. Look at the following table for
proof. The gas analysis in these and following tables is that of a typical raw ammonia
synthesis gas.
Table 3 : Volume Percent of Constituents
Mol / Mol of Volume (SPT) Volume / mol

Gas Mol % Vol %
Mixture of 1 mol of Mixture
H2 61.4 0.614 379 232.7 61.4
N2 19.7 0.197 379 74.7 19.7
CO2 17.5 0.175 379 66.3 17.5
CO 1.4/100.0 0.014/1.000 5.3/379.0 1.4
Table 4 : Molecular Weight of a Mixture
Proportional Mol.
Gas Mol % or Vol % Mol Wt.
Wt.
H2 61.4 2 1.228
N2 19.7 28 5.516
CO2 17.5 44 7.700
CO 1.4/100.0 28 0.932/14.84
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Table 5 : List the Specific Gas Constant
Specific Gas
Constant
Gas Formula Molecular Weight
𝒇𝒕 ×𝒍𝒃
× oR
𝒍𝒃𝒎
Helium He 4.003 386.2
Carbon Monoxide CO 28.01 55.18
Hydrogen H2 2.016 766.6
Nitrogen N2 28.02 55.16
Oxygen O2 32.00 48.29
Carbon Dioxide CO2 44.01 35.12
Sulfur Dioxide SO2 64.07 24.12
Water Vapor H 2O 18.02 85.78
Methane CH4 16.04 96.35
Ethane C2H6 30.07 51.40
Iso-butane C4H10 58.12 26.59
In thermodynamic, system might be classified as isolated, closed, or open based on the

possible transfer of mass and energy across the system boundaries. The system in which
neither the transfer of mass nor that of energy takes place across its boundary with the
surroundings is called as isolated system. A closed system has no transfer of mass with its
surroundings, but may have a transfer of energy (either heat or work) with its surroundings.
And an open system is the system in which the transfer of mass as well as energy can take
place across its boundary.
When the variables of the system, such as temperature, pressure, or volume change, the
system is said to have undergone thermodynamic process. There are various types of
thermodynamic process:
1. Isobaric process
An isobaric process is a thermodynamic process in which the system's pressure stays

constant (P = const). Although the heat movement into or out of the system does
function, it also affects the system's internal energy. Engineers frequently use the
system's enthalpy, which is defined as :
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H = U + Pv Eq (9)
Enthalpy is often substituted for internal energy in thermodynamic analyses since it

is more practical, particularly when applying the first law of thermodynamics. In
engineering, the two significant thermodynamic cycles (Brayton and Rankine cycles)
are based on two isobaric processes. Therefore, it is essential for power plants to
examine this process.
2. Isochoric process
The volume of the closed system is constant (V = const) during an isochoric process,
which is a thermodynamic process. It explains the non-deformable behavior of the
gas inside the container. Heat transmission into or out of the system solely modifies
the system's internal energy because the volume stays constant (the temperature).
Isochoric reactions are crucial to the thermodynamic cycles of internal combustion
engines (the Otto and Diesel cycles). Consequently, it is essential for automobile
engineering to analyze this process.
3. Isothermal process
The temperature of the system is constant (T = const) during an isothermal process,

which is a thermodynamic process. In order for the system to continuously adjust to
the reservoir's temperature through heat exchange, the heat transfer into or out of
the system normally needs to occur at such a slow rate. Each of these states
preserves the thermal equilibrium.
For an ideal gas, the situation n = 1 corresponds to both a polytropic and an

isothermal (constant-temperature) process. In an isothermal process, there is no
change in the internal energy (due to T = 0), leading to U = 0 (for ideal gases) and Q
= 0. This is in contrast to an adiabatic process, where n = 0 and the system exchanges
no heat with its surroundings (Q = 0; T = 0), and Q = 0. Neither an adiabatic process
nor an isothermal process must be adiabatic in order to be isothermal.
4. Adiabatic process
The heat flow can be prevented either by surrounding the system with thermally
insulating material or by carrying out the process so quickly that there is not enough
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time for appreciable heat flow. When there is no heat transfer into or out of the
system, the process is said to be adiabatic (Q = 0).
It might be said that the system is completely insulated. Energy can only be
transferred as work in an adiabatic process. Since it can only utilize the adiabatic
approximation in very quick processes, the assumption of no heat transfer is crucial.
In these quick operations, there isn't enough time for heat to be transferred from or
to the system. Heat losses and losses from the combustion process happen in actual
devices (such as turbines, pumps, and compressors). Nevertheless, these losses are
typically negligible as compared to the total energy flow, and the adiabatic process
can be used to approximate several thermodynamic processes. Here is a graphic for
various types of thermodynamic process above:
Figure 3. Thermodynamic processes on a pressure-volume diagram
5. Isentropic process
An isentropic process is a thermodynamic process where the entropy of the fluid or

gas stays constant. It denotes that the isentropic process is a unique instance of an
adiabatic process in which neither heat nor matter is transferred. It is an adiabatic
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process that is reversible. A constant-entropy process is another name for an

isentropic process. Such an idealized process can be compared to actual processes
extremely well in engineering.
6. Reversible and irreversible process
a) Reversible Process
A reversible process is one that can be stopped by causing tiny changes to a system's
properties, according to the definition of the term in thermodynamics. It makes no
changes to the environment or the system as a result. Entropy does not rise during
the reversible process, and the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium with its
surroundings.
b) Irreversible Process
An irreversible process is one that cannot be stopped and that cannot change the
system's environment back to its initial state. This definition comes from
thermodynamics. The entropy of the system grows during irreversible processes.
Horse Power Calculations
By calculating the gas horsepower (GHP) and then accounting for mechanical losses, it is
possible to establish the brake horsepower (BHP) necessary to drive the compressor.
×
𝐺𝐻𝑃 = Eq (10)
× , ×
Where
BHP = Brake horsepower
Hd = Head (adiabatic) - ft-lb/lb
Wg = Weight flow of the gas - lbs/hr
E𝜌 = Adiabatic efficiency
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And
×
𝑊𝑔 = Eq (11)
× .
Then brake horsepower is:
BHP = GHP x (1 + % Mechanical Losses) Eq (12)
Every compressor type has different qualities that are detailed in the section dedicated to
that type of compressor.
Compression Process
Compressor is a work absorbing device used for increasing the pressure of a fluid. When
gas is compressed, its molecules are made to come closer, by which they occupy less
space. As the number of molecules of gas increases in a given volume, its mass and density
also increases. Increasing in density would affect to pressure increment.
Pressure of a fluid is increased by doing work upon it, which is accompanied by increase in
temperature depending on the gas properties. Figure 4 below presents a compression
schematic layout.
Figure 4. Compression schematic layout
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On Figure 5 below, the vertical line from point 1 to point 2’ represents the isentropic
compression process requiring minimum work of compression from P1 to P2. The actual
compression process follows a path from point 1 upward and to the right in the direction of
increasing entropy, terminating at point 2 on the isobar for P2 [3].
Figure 5. Adiabatic compression process
It is mentioned before that there are two types of compressor: positive displacement and
dynamic. They compress the gas fluid in different principle of operation. Positive
displacement compressor compresses the fluid by trapping successive volumes of fluid into
a closed space then decreasing its volume. Compression occurs as the machine encloses
a finite volume of gas and reduces the internal volume of compression chamber.
The other type of compressor, dynamic compressor, compresses the fluid by the mechanical
action of rotating vanes or impeller imparting velocity and pressure to the fluid. The larger
the diameter of impeller, the heavier the molecular weight of gas fluid, or the greater the
speed rotation would produce greater pressure. Generally, positive displacement
compressor is selected for smaller volume of gas and higher pressure ratios. Dynamic
compressor is selected for higher volume of gas fluid and smaller pressure ratios.
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A compressor uses the energy it receives to increase the pressure of the gas, the
temperature of the gas, and any heat that is transmitted out of the compressor. Most of the
time, it is necessary to boost gas pressure while utilizing the least amount of power. The
least amount of effort will be required if the compression process is isentropic, which means
there is no heat transfer between the compressor and the outside. This suggests that there
are no losses in the compressor, which is an impossible ideal but one that can serve as the
starting point for the compression efficiency.
However, a compressor that has an isentropic efficiency of more than 100% can be made.
In comparison to an isentropic process, a reversible isothermal process requires less work.
In a reversible isothermal process, reversible heat transfer keeps the gas's temperature at
the suction temperature as the compression process moves forward. Naturally, there must
be no losses in this procedure. The power needed is decreased by the fact that many
compressors have final discharge temperatures that are considerably lower than the
isentropic discharge temperature. Because the power required is almost always less than
the isentropic power, the isentropic efficiency is always used to rank compressors.
Power Requirement
The main factor used to size the driver as well as choose and build the compressor's
components is the power demand of each given compressor. The theoretical cycle through
a compression efficiency, which has been established by testing on earlier machines, is
related to the actual power need. The ratio of theoretical to real gas horsepower is known
as compression efficiency, and according to industry standards, it excludes losses due to
mechanical friction. These are later included, either by using a mechanical efficiency or by
including the previously calculated actual mechanical losses. Depending on the size and
kind of unit, positive displacement compressors frequently use mechanical efficiencies
between 88 and 95%.
The isothermal cycle served as the foundation for many years in the past. Only a few
situations still call for it now. The isentropic or adiabatic cycle, which more closely
approximates what actually occurs in the compressor, is now used to compare positive
displacement machines. The compressibility factor Z must be taken into account when
determining horsepower because it has a significant impact on many gases, especially at
high pressure.
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Compressibility Correction
A correction for the compressibility, which deviates from the perfect gas laws, is suggested
in the previous equations. The compressibility at the input and discharge conditions must be
determined. Compressibility under these circumstances can be determined directly from
specific gas charts or by the use of the reduced condition method utilizing generalized charts
The discharge temperature must be established in order to achieve the Zat discharge
conditions. It is understood when pressure is released. It is typical to utilize the theoretical
discharge temperature in calculations for the adiabatic cycle as it relates to positive
displacement units. Although several factors work in an actual compressor to generate
variations from the theoretical value, the temperature is typically very close to the theoretical
value, so any error added is minimal.
Isentropic adiabatic compression (i.e., the entropy remains constant). Theoretical discharge
temperatures can be read directly if temperature-entropy graphs for the gas are provided.
Otherwise, the following relationships must be used to calculate it:
( )
( )
= =𝑟 Eq (13)
Cylinder Clearance and Compressibility Efficiency
The valve area in a cylinder controls the compression efficiency more so than the clearance
does, much as the clearance in a cylinder controls the volumetric efficiency (VE) (CE).
However, the engineer finds it difficult to get a low clearance and a high VE value. Restricting
the size and quantity of valves is essential. However, this may have the tendency to reduce
compression efficiency and increase horsepower. Therefore, the designer must weigh the
two elements and reach a compromise, which is a typical engineering practice. High VE and
high CE (low power requirement) are typically incompatible; one cannot achieve both. There
are, however, four broad categories that the designer utilizes, with the type of application
greatly influencing which category is prioritized or balanced. These are possible categories
for them:
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Table 6 : Cylinder Clearance and Compressibility Efficiency
Compression Ratio More Important Factor

Very high 10–30 (vacuum pumps) Clearance
High 8–10 max. Clearance principally,
valving somewhat
Moderate 5 max. Balanced
Low 2 or less Valving
Pseudo-Critical Conditions and Compressibility
Reduced temperature and pressure have been mentioned in relation to the topic of
compressibility. On this basis, generalized compressibility curves are provided in Appendix
A. It can be used with mixtures as well at least for approximations. For a more strict Texts
by Ried et al. should be read before beginning treatment. To calculate the pseudo-reduced
conditions to be utilized in entering the charts, mixture pseudo-critical pressure and
temperature conditions must be determined. Temperatures and pressures must be
expressed in absolute values.
Table 7 : Pseudo-Critical Conditions and Compressibility
Individual Pseduo
Pseudo
Individual Critical Critical Pc
Gas Mol %
Temperature (o C) Pressure
Tc (o R)
(PsiA) (PsiA)
H2 61.4 83 51.0 327 201.0
N2 19.7 227 44.7 492 96.9
CO2 17.5 548 95.9 1073 187.8
CO 1.4 242 3.4/195 507 7.1/493
Mixture pseudo-criticals
These values allow for the calculation of the pseudo-reduced conditions and the extraction
of likely Zfactors from generalized charts.
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Multiple Stage
Regardless of type, all basic compressor components operate within specific limitations.
Basic components can be single-stage (where gas compression and distribution are
completed in the same element) or multi-stage (where several elements are placed in
tandem). A majority There are several significant constraints, including:
 Temperature of discharge
 Pressure variation
 The result of clearance (ties in with compression ratio)
 Desirability of electricity conservation
In addition to these, there are other justifications for staging multiple units, but these are
primarily for the designer of the particular unit to consider. There are no available quick
reference rules. It is important to multiple-stage the compression process, or carry it out in
two or more steps, whenever any limitation is present. Each stage will make use of at least
one fundamental component created to work in tandem with the other parts of the machine.
The isothermal cycle (constant temperature) is the more cost-effective power source, as
was previously mentioned. Obviously, the power needed in the second stage should be
reduced if the gas is cooled after partial compression to a temperature equivalent to the
initial intake temperature (back to the isothermal). In this scenario, the work saved over
single-stage adiabatic compression is represented by Area ABCD.
There is a theoretically ideal relationship between the intake pressures of following phases
for minimum power with perfect intercooling between stages. This is accomplished by
keeping the compression ratio constant throughout and assuming constant intake
temperature. Based on the overallcompression ratio, the formula is employed.
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DEFINITIONS
Adiabatic / Isentropic – This model assumes that no energy (heat) is transferred to or from
the gas during the compression, and all supplied work is added to the internal energy of the
gas, resulting in increases of temperature and pressure.
Aftercooler - Aftercooler is a heat exchanger which is used when discharge gas

temperature leaving compressor shall be decreased before entering to other equipment or
system.
Axially split- A joint that is parallel to the shaft centreline.
Bearing – Is a device to permit constrained relative motion between two parts, typically
rotation or linear movement. Compressors employ at least half a dozen types of journal bearings.
Essentially all of these designs consist of partial arc pads having a circular geometry.
Blades- Rotating airfoils for both compressors and turbines unless modified by an adjective.
Capacity - The amount of air flow delivered under specific conditions, usually expressed in
cubic feet per minute (CFM).
Centrifugal Compressor - also known as dynamic compressors, efficiently converts the

energy utilizing a series of stages to compress and cool the air as it continuously flows
through the unit.
Clearance - Some volume which is remains vacant between the top position of the piston
and the cylinder
Compression Ratio - The ratio of the discharge pressure to the inlet pressure.
Compressor Efficiency - This is the ratio of theoretical horse power to the brake horse
power.
Diaphragm Compressor - is a variant of the classic reciprocating compressor with backup

and piston rings and rod seal. The compression of gas occurs by means of a flexible
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membrane, instead of an intake element. The back and forth moving membrane is driven
by a rod and a crankshaft mechanism.
Discharge Pressure - Air pressure produced at a particular point in the system under
specific conditions measured in psi (pounds per square inch).
Discharge Temperature - The temperature at the discharge flange of the compressor.
Gauge Pressure - The pressure determined by most instruments and gauges, usually
expressed in psig. Barometric pressure must be considered to obtain true or absolute
pressure (psig).
Horsepower, Brake - Horsepower delivered to the output shaft of a motor or engine, or the
horsepower required at the compressor shaft to perform work.
Impeller -Is a rotor inside a shaped housing forced the gas to rim of the impeller to increase
velocity of a gas and the pressure in compressor.
Inlet Pressure - The actual pressure at the inlet flange of the compressor typically measure
in psig.
Inlet volume flow: The flow rate expressed in volume flow units at the conditions of
pressure, temperature, compressibility, and gas composition, including moisture content at
the compressor inlet flange.
Intercooler - After compression, gas temperature will rise up but it is limited before entering
to the next compression. Temperature limitation is depending to what sealing material to be
used and gas properties. Intercooler is needed to decrease temperature before entering to
the next compression.
Isentropic process - An adiabatic process that is reversible. This isentropic process occurs
at constant entropy. Entropy is related to the disorder in the system; it is a measure of the
energy not available for work in a thermodynamic process.
Isobaric process – Means that the volume increases, while the pressure is constant.
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Isochoric process - Is a constant-volume process, meaning that the work done by the
system will be zero. I n an isochoric process, all the energy added as heat remains in the
system as an increase in internal energy.
Isothermal- This model assumes that the compressed gas remains at a constant
temperature throughout the compression or expansion process. In this cycle, internal energy
is removed from the system as heat at the same rate that it is added by the mechanical work
of compression. Isothermal compression or expansion more closely models real life when
the compressor has a large heat exchanging surface, a small gas volume, or a long time
scale (i.e., a small power level). Compressors that utilize inter-stage cooling between
compression stages come closest to achieving perfect isothermal compression. However,
with practical devices perfect isothermal compression is not attainable. For example, unless
you have an infinite number of compression stages with corresponding intercoolers, you will
never achieve perfect isothermal compression.
Leakage - is an amount of liquid or gas that is escaping from a pipe or container by

means of a crack, hole, or other fault.
Maximum allowable temperature – The maximum continuous temperature for the

manufacturer has designed the equipment.
Maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) - This is the maximum continuous

pressure for which the manufacturer has designed the compressor when it is operating at
its maximum allowable temperature.
Maximum inlet suction pressure – The highest inlet pressure the equipment will be subject
to in service.
Multi-Stage Compressors - Compressors having two or more stages operating in series.
Normal operating condition – The condition at which usual operation is expected and
optimum efficiency is desired. This condition is usually the point at which the vendor
certifies that performance is within the tolerances stated in this standard.
Piston - is a component of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas compressor,

hydraulic cylinder and pneumatic cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is the
moving component that is contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings.
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Piston Displacement - The volume swept by the piston; for multistage compressors, the
piston displacement of the first stage is the overall piston displacement of the entire unit.
Polytropic - This model takes into account both a rise in temperature in the gas as well as
some loss of energy (heat) to the compressor's components. This assumes that heat may
enter or leave the system, and that input shaft work can appear as both increased pressure
(usually useful work) and increased temperature above adiabatic (usually losses due to
cycle efficiency). Compression efficiency is then the ratio of temperature rise at theoretical
100 percent (adiabatic) vs. actual (polytropic).
Positive Displacement - air compressor works by drawing air into a compression chamber
through an intake valve and mechanically reducing the volume of the chamber through
motion until a set pressure is reached.
Process compression stage - Is defined as the compression step between two adjacent
pressure levels in a process system. It may consist of one or more compressor stages.
Radially split - A joint which is perpendicular to the shaft centerline.
Rated discharge pressure - Is the highest pressure required to meet the conditions
specified by the purchaser for the intended service.
Rated discharge temperature - Is the highest predicted operating temperature resulting

from any specified operating condition.
Reciprocating compressor - is a positive displacement compressor that uses piston

deliver gases at high pressure. Pressures of up to 5,000 PSIG are commonly produced by
multistage reciprocating compressors
Reversible process - The process which can be revered back completely. The process can
be perfectly reversible only if the changes in the process are infinitesimally small. The
changes which occur during reversible process are in equilibrium with each other. Inversely,
a process that is not reversible is said to be irreversible.
Rod reversal - Is a change in direction of force in the piston-rod loading (from tension to
compression or vice versa) that results in a load reversal at the crosshead pin during each
revolution.
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Rotary Screw Compressor - is a type of gas compressor, such as an air compressor, that
uses a rotary-type positive-displacement mechanism. These compressors are common in
industrial applications and replace more traditional piston compressors where larger
volumes of compressed gas are needed, e.g. for large refrigeration cycles such as chillers,
or for compressed air systems to operate air-driven tools such as jackhammers and impact
wrenches.
Rotor - The rotors are usually of forged solid design. Welded hollow rotors may be applied
to limit the moment of inertia in larger capacity compressors. Balancing pistons to achieve
equalization of rotor axial thrust loads are generally integral with the rotor. Rotating blades
are located in peripheral grooves in the rotor.
Scroll Compressor - (also called spiral compressor, scroll pump and scroll vacuum pump)
is a device for compressing air or refrigerant.[1] It is used in air conditioning equipment, as
an automobile supercharger (where it is known as a scroll-type supercharger) and as
a vacuum pump.
Straight Lobe Compressor - The pneumatic transportation of materials, the aeration of

liquids, the extraction of gases and vapors, the provision of low-pressure air and gas, the
supercharging of engines, and the drying of materials are just a few applications for straight-
lobe compressors.
Surge - The volume flow capacity below which a centrifugal compressor becomes
aerodynamically unstable.
Theoretical Horse Power - This is the horse power required to compress adiabatically the
air delivered by a compressor through specified pressure range, without any provision for
lost energy.
Valve - is a device or natural object that regulates, directs or controls the flow of a fluid (gases, liquids,
fluidized solids, or slurries) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various passageways. Valves are
technically fittings, but are usually discussed as a separate category. In an open valve, fluid flows in a
direction from higher pressure to lower pressure
Volumetric Efficiency - This is the ratio of the capacity of a compressor to the piston
displacement of compressor.
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NOMENCLATURE
p = absolute pressure (lb/ft2)

v = specific volume (ft3/lb)
T = absolute temperature (oR)
R
R = = individual gas constant (ft-lb/lb-°R)
MW
V = volume (ft3)
n = mole mass (kmol)
R = universal gas constant = 1545 (ft-lb/mol-°R)
Qh = heat into the system (Btu)
Ww = work by the system (Btu)
ΔE = change in system energy (Btu)
Q = capacity, million standard ft3/day
Qstd = capacity, million standard ft3/day (ref 14.7 psia, 520oR)
Ps = suction pressure, psia (flange)
Ts = suction temperature, oR
Zstd = compressibility factor at standard conditions
Zs = compressibility factor at suction conditions
DISP = cylinder displacement, ft3/min
CL = cylinder clearance volume as decimal fraction of displaced volume
Rp = pressure ratio across cylinder (flange to flange)
N = isentropic volume exponent at operating conditions (specific heat ratio for ideal gas)
Ap = piston area, in2
Ar = piston rod area, in2
S = stroke, in.
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rpm = rotative speed

Nt = isentropic temperature exponent defined by real gas properties
Rs = stage pressure ratio
Rt = total ratio
Ns = number of stages
Nc = compression efficiency
Nm = mechanical efficiency
k = polytropic exponent

m = mass flow rate, lbm/min
cylinder clearance volume
C = cylinder clearance, % ( x 100 )
displaced volume
L = loss factor, %
Ps(atm) = suction pressure in atm
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REFERENCES
1. Bloch HP. A Practical Guide to Compressor Technology. United States of America:

John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2006.
2. J. M. Smith HCVN, M. M. Abbott. Introduction to Chemical Engineering

Thermodynamics: McGraw-Hill, 2001.
3. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, A Practical Guide to Compressor Technology. New
Jersey, 2006.
4. Paolo Bendinelli MC, Marco Giachi, Eugenio Rossi. Compressor Performance –

Dynamic. In: Hanlon PC, editor. Compressor Handbook. McGraw-Hill, 2001.
5. R M Price Lecture Notes-Fluid Transportation. 2000.
6. Silla H. Chemical Process Engineering. Marcell Dekker, Inc., 2003.
7. Tony Giampaolo M, PE. Compressor Handbook: Principles and Practice: The

Fairmont Press, Inc., 2010.
8. K Kolmetz et al, Kolmetz Handbook of Process Equipment Design, Safety in Fluid

Flow, Engineering Design Guidelines, 2011.
9. K Kolmetz et al, Kolmetz Handbook of Process Equipment Design, Piping Fluid Flow
Hydraulics, Engineering Design Guidelines, 2018
10. K Kolmetz et al, Kolmetz Handbook of Process Equipment Design, Pump Selection,
Sizing and Troubleshooting, Engineering Design Guidelines, 2021

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COMPRESSOR SELECTION SIZING AND TROUBLESHOOTING, Kolmetz Handbook

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COMPRESSOR SELECTION Author / Editor:

(ENGINEERING DESIGN GUIDELINES)

(A) Dynamic Compressor 40

Practical Engineering COMPRESSOR Rev: 04

(B) Positive-Displacement Compressor 50

(C) Scroll Compressor 65

(D) Straight Lobe Compressor 67

(E) Diaphragm Compressors 68

Major Component of Compressor 71

Selection and Sizing 104

Stage of Compression 147

Calculated Limitations 148

Figure 1 : Range of Compressor Application 10

Practical Engineering COMPRESSOR Rev: 04

Figure 13. Reciprocating compressor 62

Practical Engineering COMPRESSOR Rev: 04

Figure 38 : Inlet Guide Vane 156

Table 1 : Operating Range of Compressors 11

Practical Engineering COMPRESSOR Rev: 04

Table 18 : Rotary Compressors versus Reciprocating Compressor (Service 112

Practical Engineering COMPRESSOR Rev: 04

The theory section includes thermodynamics as a basic theory of gas compression,

Practical Engineering COMPRESSOR Rev: 04

Operating conditions have a significant impact on compressor selection and compressor

Practical Engineering COMPRESSOR Rev: 04

Practical Engineering COMPRESSOR Rev: 04

Figure 1. Range of Compressor Application

Practical Engineering COMPRESSOR Rev: 04

A comprehensive selection guide for compressor technology is represents in Table 1.

Table 1 : Operating Range of Compressors (Begg, 1966)

Type of Compressor Normal Normal Max. Normal Max. Differential

Practical Engineering COMPRESSOR Rev: 04

Figure 2. Type of Compressor (Begg, 1966)

Practical Engineering COMPRESSOR Rev: 04

Thermodynamics is a branch of science which deals with energy. It is core to engineering

pxV nxR xT Eq (1b)

(II) First Law of Thermodynamics

Practical Engineering COMPRESSOR Rev: 04

(III) Second Law Thermodynamics

1. Heat cannot move from a colder to a hotter body on its own.

4. Heat, energy, or water will always flow downward on their own.

Ideal or Perfect Gas Law

P2.V2 = P1.V1 = constant Eq (4)

Practical Engineering COMPRESSOR Rev: 04

P = Absolute Pressure (KPa)

v = Specific Volume (cm3/g)

R = Gas Constant (8.3144 kN.m/kmol o K)

Practical Engineering COMPRESSOR Rev: 04

Gas and Vapor

Practical Engineering COMPRESSOR Rev: 04

occupies is said to be saturated by that component. Sometimes a volume is described as

In these equations, R0 is 1545 and pis lb/ft2

Practical Engineering COMPRESSOR Rev: 04

Practical Engineering COMPRESSOR Rev: 04

Table 2 : Specific Volume and Density

Specific lb/mol and