Name:- Tushar Nepale

SE (B)
Sub:- Internet of Things
ROLL NO:- 88

Case study- 1
Title:- Various Sensors and Their Internal Operation
Introduction:-
Sensors play a vital role in our daily lives by converting physical or
chemical properties into electrical signals. These electrical signals are processed and used to
control various devices, machines, and systems. There are various types of sensors available
in the market, and each sensor has a unique operating principle. Sensors are devices that
convert physical quantities, such as temperature, pressure, light, or magnetic fields, into
electrical signals that can be interpreted and processed by electronic devices. Here's a brief
introduction to some commonly used sensors and their internal operation.

1. Temperature Sensor:
A temperature sensor is an electronic device that measures the temperature of its environment
and converts the input data into electronic data to record, monitor, or signal temperature
changes. There are many different types of temperature sensors. Some temperature sensors
require direct contact with the physical object that is being monitored (contact temperature
sensors), while others indirectly measure the temperature of an object (non-contact
temperature sensors).Non-contact temperature sensors are usually infrared (IR) sensors. They
remotely detect the IR energy emitted by an object and send a signal to a calibrated electronic
circuit that determines the object's temperature.

Among the contact temperature sensors are thermocouples and thermistors. A thermocouple
is comprised of two conductors, each made of a different type of metal, that are joined at an
end to form a junction. When the junction is exposed to heat, a voltage is generated that
directly corresponds to the temperature input. This happens on account of the phenomena
called the thermoelectric effect. Thermocouples are generally inexpensive, as their design and
materials are simple. The other type of contact temperature sensor is called a thermistor. In
thermistors, resistance decreases as temperature increases. There are two main types of
thermistors: Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) and Positive Temperature Coefficient
(PTC). Thermistors are more precise than thermocouples (capable of measuring within 0.05-
1.5 degrees Celsius), and they are made of ceramics or polymers. Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTD) are essentially the metal counterpart of thermistors, and they are the most
precise and expensive type of temperature sensors.
Temperature sensors are used in automobiles, medical devices, computers, cooking
appliances, and other types of machinery.

2.Pressure Sensors:
A pressure sensor is a device for pressure measurement of gases or liquids. Pressure is an
expression of the force required to stop a fluid from expanding, and is usually stated in terms
of force per unit area. A pressure sensor usually acts as a transducer; it generates a signal as a
function of the pressure imposed. For the purposes of this article, such a signal is
electrical.Pressure sensors are used for control and monitoring in thousands of everyday
applications. Pressure sensors can also be used to indirectly measure other variables such as
fluid/gas flow, speed, water level, and altitude. Pressure sensors can alternatively be called
pressure transducers, pressure transmitters, pressure senders, pressure indicators, piezometers
and manometers, among other names.
Pressure sensors can vary drastically in technology, design, performance, application
suitability and cost. A conservative estimate would be that there may be over 50 technologies
and at least 300 companies making pressure sensors worldwide. There is also a category of
pressure sensors that are designed to measure in a dynamic mode for capturing very high
speed changes in pressure. Example applications for this type of sensor would be in the
measuring of combustion pressure in an engine cylinder or in a gas turbine. These sensors are
commonly manufactured out of piezoelectric materials such as quartz.
Some pressure sensors are pressure switches, which turn on or off at a particular pressure. For
example, a water pump can be controlled by a pressure switch so that it starts when water is
released from the system, reducing the pressure in a reservoir.
Types of Pressure Sensors:-
a) Absolute pressure sensor:
This sensor measures the pressure relative to perfect vacuum. Absolute pressure sensors are
used in applications where a constant reference is required, like for example, high-
performance industrial applications such as monitoring vacuum pumps, liquid pressure
measurement, industrial packaging, industrial process control and aviation inspection. [1]
b)Gauge pressure sensor:
This sensor measures the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure. A tire pressure gauge is
an example of gauge pressure measurement; when it indicates zero, then the pressure it is
measuring is the same as the ambient pressure. Most sensors for measuring up to 50 bar are
manufactured in this way, since otherwise the atmospheric pressure fluctuation (weather) is
reflected as an error in the measurement result.
c)Vacuum pressure sensor:
This term can cause confusion. It may be used to describe a sensor that measures pressures
below atmospheric pressure, showing the difference between that low pressure and
atmospheric pressure, but it may also be used to describe a sensor that measures absolute
pressure relative to a vacuum.
d)Differential pressure sensor:
This sensor measures the difference between two pressures, one connected to each side of the
sensor. Differential pressure sensors are used to measure many properties, such as pressure
drops across oil filters or air filters, fluid levels (by comparing the pressure above and below
the liquid) or flow rates (by measuring the change in pressure across a restriction).
Technically speaking, most pressure sensors are really differential pressure sensors; for
example a gauge pressure sensor is merely a differential pressure sensor in which one side is
open to the ambient atmosphere.
e)Sealed pressure sensor:
This sensor is similar to a gauge pressure sensor except that it measures pressure relative to
some fixed pressure rather than the ambient atmospheric pressure (which varies according to
the location and the weather).

3.Light sensors:-
Light sensors are a type of photodetector (also called photosensors) that detect
light. Different types of light sensors can be used to measure illuminance, respond to changes
in the amount of light received, or convert light to electricity.
Common types of light sensors are photodiodes, photoresistors, phototransistors, and
photovoltaic light sensors. These components can be used in applications such as light
sensing in mobile devices, automatic outdoor lighting, proximity sensors, and renewable
energy. Photodiodes convert light into an electrical current. They are p-n junction devices that
are similar to normal diodes. A p-n junction device consists of a p-type and an n-type
semiconducting material. The “p” stands for “positive” due to the material’s excess of
electron holes, and the “n” stands for “negative” due to an excess of electrons. This means
that current can only flow in one direction through the boundary. In a photodiode, these
electron hole pairs are formed when the energy from the incident light is absorbed by the
device. Also see the related term avalanche photodiode.
Photoresistors (also known as light-dependent resistors or LDRs) are passive devices that
decrease resistance in proportion to the amount of light received. Light forming electron hole
pairs increases conductivity and therefore decreases resistivity.Phototransistors switch or
amplify signals similarly to regular transistors, with the current applied to the terminals being
created from exposure to light.
Photovoltaic (or solar cells) convert light into electricity in a process known as energy
harvesting. Voltage and electric current are generated by way of the photovoltaic effect
exhibited by the cell's semiconducting components.

How do light sensors work?:-

Light sensors work by the photoelectric effect. Light can behave as a particle, referred to as a
photon. When a photon hits the metal surface of the light sensor, the energy of the light is
absorbed by the electrons, increasing their kinetic energy and allowing them to be emitted
from the material. This movement of electrons, and therefore charge, is electrical current.
The photovoltaic effect is similar to the photoelectric effect in that the light is absorbed by
electrons, causing them to be in a higher-energy state. In the photoelectric effect, the
electrons are ejected from the material completely. In the photovoltaic effect, the electrons are
excited from the valence band into the conduction band, but remain within the same material.

4.Motion Sensors:-
A motion sensor (or motion detector) is an electronic device that is designed
to detect and measure movement. Motion sensors are used primarily in home and business
security systems, but they can also be found in phones, paper towel dispensers, game
consoles, and virtual reality systems. Unlike many other types of sensors (which can be
handheld and isolated), motion sensors are typically embedded systems with three major
components: a sensor unit, an embedded computer, and hardware (or the mechanical
component). These three parts vary in size and configuration, as motion sensors can be
customized to perform highly specific functions. For example, motion sensors can be used to
activate floodlights, trigger audible alarms, activate switches, and even alert the police.
There are two types of motion sensors: active motion sensors and passive motion sensors.
Active sensors have both a transmitter and a receiver. This type of sensor detects motion by
measuring changes in the amount of sound or radiation reflecting back into the receiver.
When an object interrupts or alters the sensor’s field, an electric pulse is sent to the embedded
computer, which in turn interacts with the mechanical component. The most common type of
active motion detector uses ultrasonic sensor technology; these motion sensors emit sound
waves to detect the presence of objects. There are also microwave sensors (which emit
microwave radiation), and tomographic sensors (which transmit and receive radio waves).

Unlike an active motion sensor, a passive motion sensor does not have a transmitter. Instead
of measuring a constant reflection, the sensor detects motion based on a perceived increase of
radiation in its environment. The most widely used type of passive motion sensor in home
security systems is the passive infrared (PIR) sensor. The PIR sensor is designed to detect the
infrared radiation emitted naturally from the human body. The receiver is contained in a filter
that only allows infrared to pass through it. When a person walks into the PIR sensor’s field
of detection, the difference in radiation creates a positive charge within the receiver; this
perceived change causes the sensing unit to send electrical data to the embedded computer
and hardware component.

5.Humidity Sensors:-
A humidity sensor is an electronic device that measures the humidity in its
environment and converts its findings into a corresponding electrical signal. Humidity
sensors vary widely in size and functionality; some humidity sensors can be found in
handheld devices (such as smartphones), while others are integrated into larger embedded
systems (such as air quality monitoring systems). Humidity sensors are commonly used in the
meteorology, medical, automobile, HVAC and manufacturing industries.
Humidity sensors can be divided into two groups, as each category uses a different method to
calculate humidity: relative humidity (RH) sensors and absolute humidity (AH) sensors.
Relative humidity is calculated by comparing the live humidity reading at a given
temperature to the maximum amount of humidity for air at the same temperature. RH sensors
must therefore measure temperature in order to determine relative humidity. In contrast,
absolute humidity is measured without reference to temperature.

The two most common RH sensors are the capacitive and resistive humidity sensors.
Capacitive sensors use two electrodes to monitor the capacitance (i.e. the ability to store an
electric charge) of a thin metal strip placed between them. The metal’s capacitance increases
or decreases at a rate that is directly proportional to the change of humidity in the sensor’s
environment. The difference in charge (voltage) generated by an increase in humidity is then
amplified and sent to the embedded computer for processing. Resistive humidity sensors
operate on a different principle. These sensors utilize a small polymer comb that increases
and decreases in size as the humidity changes, which directly affects the system’s ability to
store charge.
Thermal humidity sensors are used to measure absolute humidity. Unlike RH sensors, thermal
humidity sensors utilize two probes, one to measure dry nitrogen and one to measure the air
of its surrounding environment. When humidity is collected on the exposed probe, the
difference in thermal conductivity is perceived by the sensor, and AH is calculated.

conclusion:-
In conclusion, sensors are an essential component of various devices and
systems. The internal operation of each sensor varies based on its operating principle.
Understanding the internal operation of sensors is crucial for selecting the right sensor for a
particular application and for designing the appropriate electronic circuitry for processing the
sensor output.