Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

HKDSE Chemistry
Topic 2: Microscopic World I
Unit : Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

Name: __________________________ Class: F. _________ (______)

Metallic Bonding
 All metals conduct electricity.
Special Feature in Metallic Structures that Make Metals Good Conductors of Electricity: Metallic Bond
 Metallic bond refers to the electrostatic attraction (i.e. attraction between
opposite charges) between negatively charged delocalized electrons and
positively charged metal ions . Not metal atoms
 The term ‘delocalized electrons’ is more accurate than the term ‘free electrons’.
 Will learn why metals can conduct electricity in Ch. 9.
 These positive ions are fixed in position and arranged in a regular way.
 More details about the term ‘ion’ later.
 Metallic bond is non-directional .
 It acts in all directions.
Examples
 Sodium
 Considering a piece of sodium, the sodium atoms in the metal pack closely together.
 A sodium atom has the electronic arrangement 2,8,1.
 This single outermost shell electron is far away from the nucleus and is not strongly attracted, so it can
escape easily to leave a positively charged sodium ion.
 The outermost shell electrons of all sodium atoms move freely and randomly among the sodium ions.
 These are delocalized electrons, since each electron is no longer held by the nucleus of its original atom.
 Magnesium
 Magnesium (2,8,2) is a Group II metal which has 2 outermost shell electrons.
 In Mg metal, each Mg atom loses their 2 outermost shell electrons to form positive magnesium ion Mg2+ .

 We can say that the metal ions are surrounded by a ‘sea’ of delocalized electrons .
 The electrostatic forces of attraction between the ‘sea’ of
delocalized electrons and the positive metal ions acts as the
‘glue’ that binds the metal ions together.
 The movement of delocalized electrons makes metals good
conductors of electricity.
In a metal, positively charged metal ions are surrounded by a ‘sea’ of
negatively charged delocalized electrons.
 For transition metals, electrons other than those in the outermost shell may also be delocalized.
7.1
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

Practice 1
Aluminium has the electronic arrangement 2,8,3.
(a) How many outermost shell electrons does an aluminium atom have?
3

(b) How many delocalized outermost shell electrons does each aluminium atom in the metal contribute to
the formation of metallic bond?
3

(c) What is the name given to the bonding type, i.e electrostatic attraction exists between the ‘sea’ of
delocalized electrons and the aluminium ions?
Metallic bonding

Conductors, Electrolytes and Non-Conductors

Classification of Substances based on Electrical Conductivity
Based on the electrical conductivity (ability of conducting electricity) of a substance,
substances can be classified as follows.
The difference is mainly due to the difference in the nature of chemical bonds between
particles holding them together.

Electrolytes
 Electrolytes are usually compounds of metals and non-metals .
 In the solid form, electrolytes consist of ions (charged atoms or groups of atoms) held
together by strong attraction and are not
free to move.
 When electrolytes are molten, the ions become
mobile (free to move).

7.2
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

Practice 2
Classify the following substances into conductors, electrolytes and non-conductors.
Substance Conductors, Electrolytes or Non-Conductors
(a) calcium conductor
(b) lithium conductor
(c) nitrogen non-conductor
(d) calcium chloride electrolyte
(e) sodium bromide electrolyte
(f) glucose non-conductor

Examples Indicating the Presence of Ions in Electrolytes

Evidence of Ions from Passing Electricity through Molten Zinc Chloride (ZnCl2)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tBgQjPdAiaU
ZnCl2: made up of zinc (a metal) and chlorine (a non-metal),
consists of positive zinc ions (Zn2+) and negative chloride ions (Cl–).

Light bulb does not light up as there is Light bulb lights up as there is mobile ion
no mobile ion in solid zinc chloride. in molten zinc chloride.

greenish yellow

Zn2+ + 2e–  Zn
2Cl–  Cl2 + 2e–

2 Cl atoms will join shiny solid

together to form Cl2.
Cl2 is toxic!!

Note
 ‘Ion’ comes from a Greek word meaning ‘wanderer’, i.e., moving towards different electrodes

7.3
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

Migration of Coloured Ions

 The migration (movement) of ions under the influence of an electric field provides
evidence that the particles in ionic compounds are charged.
Migration of Permanganate Ions (purple) and Potassium Ions
 The migration of coloured ions under the influence of an electric field can be shown using
the set-up below.
To show the migration of purple permanganate ions under the influence of an electric field (using a strip of filter paper
on a microscope slide)

 Moisten a piece of filter paper with sodium sulphate solution

(to increase its electrical conductivity ).
 Then place a small crystal of potassium permanganate in the middle of the paper.
 The ions in ionic compounds become mobile when the ionic compounds are molten
or in aqueous solution.
 After the circuit is closed, a purple spot moves slowly towards the positive electrode.
 This is because permanganate ions MnO4– are purple in colour and negatively
charged.
 They are attracted to the positive electrode.
 Potassium ions K+ which are positively charged are attracted to the negative electrode.
 As potassium ions are colourless, we do not find any colour patch moving towards the negative
electrode.
Migration of Copper(II) Ions (blue) and Chromate Ions (yellow)

Blue positive copper(II) ions (+) are Yellow negative chromate ions (–)
attracted and migrate to are attracted and migrate to the
the negative terminal (–). positive terminal (+).

 More copper(II) ions and chromate ions move towards the negative electrode and positive electrode
respectively. The colours will then deepen gradually.
7.4
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

Example: Showing the Migration of Ions Using a Set-Up with a U-Tube

The set-up shown in the diagram below is used to study the migration of copper(II) ions and dichromate ions under the
influence of an electric field.

(a) State the use of the dilute hydrochloric acid in the set-up.
This is to provide mobile ions for the conduction of electricity.
(b) Why is a gel containing copper(II) dichromate, rather than an aqueous solution of the compound, used in this
experiment?
 This is to slow down the mixing of the copper(II) dichromate with the dilute hydrochloric acid.
 It also slows down the migration of Cu2+(aq) and Cr2O72–(aq) ions to make the results more easily observed.
(c) Suggest what would be observed around each of the following electrodes when an electric current has passed
through the circuit for some time. Explain your answer.
(i) Carbon electrode X
 An orange colour gradually appears around carbon electrode X.
 This is because dichromate ions are orange in colour and negatively charged.
 They are attracted to the positive electrode.
(ii) Carbon electrode Y
A blue colour gradually appears around carbon electrode Y.
This is because copper(II) ions are blue in colour and positively charged.
They are attracted to the negative electrode.
Note:
 Gas bubbles also appear on the surface of each electrode after the circuit is closed for some time.
 Hydrogen evolves at the negative electrode.
 Oxygen and chlorine evolve at the positive electrode.
 The reasons will be discussed later.

7.5
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

Practice 3
1. Migration of Copper(II) Ions (Cu2+) and Dichromate Ions (Cr2O72– )

(a) What is the observation of the experiment?

Blue/green colour appears around the cathode (negative electrode).
Orange colour appears around the anode (positive electrode).

(b) What ions are responsible for the colours?

The copper(II) ions are responsible for the blue colour.
The dichromate ions are responsible for the orange colour.

(c) What happens to the ions when a current is passed through the solution?
The copper(II) ions move toward the negative electrode and the dichromate ions move toward
the positive electrode.
2. A set-up for studying the movement of ions is shown below.

(a) After the circuit is closed for some time, what would be observed on the filter paper? Explain
briefly.
 A green spot moves slowly towards the negative electrode.
 This is because chromium(III) ions are green in colour and positively charged.
 They are attracted to the negative electrode.

(b) Towards which electrode would sulphate ions migrate? Can we see the movement of sulphate
ions? Explain your answer.
 Sulphate ions move towards the positive electrode.
 However, we cannot see its movement because sulphate ions are colourless.

7.6
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

Chemical Bonding  A description of the way in which atoms join together.

 In the microscopic world, atoms or ions are held together by chemical bonds.
 A chemical bond refers to the electrostatic attraction that holds atoms or ions together.
 There are three main types of chemical bonds:
 Metallic bond
 Ionic bond
 Covalent bond (Ch. 8)
 Metallic bond is a type of chemical bond.
 Apart from metallic bond, ionic bond and covalent bond are two other types of chemical bond.
 Ionic bond is mainly found in compounds formed between metals and
non-metals .
 Ionic bonds can be found in compounds made up of nonmetals only, e.g. NH4NO3.
 Covalent bond is mainly found in non-metals and in compounds formed from non-
metals only.
 Note
 There are intermediate types of bond between ionic and covalent.
Examples
 The H–Cl bond is a covalent bond with some ionic character.
 It is an example of a polar covalent bond.
 On the other hand, silver chloride is basically ionic, but with some covalent character.
 Details of ‘polar covalent bond’ will be discussed in ‘Microscopic World II’.
Stability of the Electronic Arrangement of Noble Gases’ Atoms
Noble gases (except helium He) are generally unreactive because they have a stable outermost shell
electronic arrangement of 8 electrons, this is known as the octet rule ( octet structure).
 He is also unreactive because its outermost shell is completely filled with 2 electrons
( duplet structure). The n-th shell can hold up to 2n2 electrons.

Formation of Ions from Atoms

 Atoms of elements other than those of the noble gases are usually not stable.
 In chemical reactions, these atoms tend to attain a stable electronic arrangement of the nearest noble
gas atoms by gaining or losing outermost shell electrons.
 Elements other than noble gases tend to attain such stable electronic structures of nearest noble gases by:
 Losing outermost shell electrons to form positive ions (+). (Usually for metals)
 Gaining electrons to form negative ions (–). (Usually for non-metals)
 Sharing electrons with others (between non-metal atoms)
 When an atom gains or loses one or more electrons, an ion forms.
7.7
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

Formation of Positive Ions

 A metal atom has few outermost shell electrons (usually 1 to 3).
 To attain the electronic arrangement of a noble gas atom, the easiest way is to lose these
electrons, forming a cation (positively charged ion).
 Formation of Sodium Ions from Sodium Atoms
 A sodium atom has an electronic arrangement 2,8,1.
 It tends to lose one electron to attain the
electronic arrangement of a neon atom (2,8).
 Thus, a sodium ion (2,8) forms.
 In a sodium atom (Na), there are 11 protons
and 11 electrons.
 It is overall electrically neutral.
 When it loses one electron, a sodium ion forms.
 A sodium ion contains 11 protons and 10 electrons, so it has an overall charge of 1+.
Na Atom Na+ Ion
Number of Protons 11 11
Number of Electrons 11 10
Overall Charge 0 1+
 Formation of Magnesium Ions from Magnesium Atoms
 The electronic arrangement of a magnesium atom (Mg) is 2,8,2.
 It tends to lose two electrons to attain the
electronic arrangement of a neon atom (2,8).
 Thus, a magnesium ion (2,8) forms.
 The magnesium ion has an overall charge of
2+.

Mg Atom Mg2+ Ion

Number of Protons 12 12
Number of Electrons 12 10
Overall Charge 0 2+
 Drawing Electron Diagrams to Represent Cations
 Note the following points when drawing the electron diagram of a cation (e.g. a sodium ion).

7.8
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

Example: Predicting the Cation formed by an Atom

Formation of Negative Ions

 Compared with a metal atom, a non-metal atom has more outermost shell electrons.
 To attain the electronic arrangement of a noble gas atom, the easiest way is to gain electrons,
forming an anion (negatively charged ion).
 Formation of Chloride Ions from Chlorine Atoms
 A chlorine atom has an electronic arrangement 2,8,7.
 It tends to gain one electron to attain the electronic arrangement of an argon atom (2,8,8).
 Thus, a chloride ion (2,8,8) forms.
 In a chlorine atom (Cl), there are 17 protons and 17
electrons.
 When it gains one electron, a chloride ion forms.
 A chloride ion contains 17 protons and 18
electrons, so it has an overall charge of 1–.

Cl Atom Cl– Ion

Number of Protons 17 17
Number of Electrons 17 18
Overall Charge 0 1–

7.9
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

 Formation of Oxide Ions from Oxygen Atoms

 The electronic arrangement of an oxygen atom (O) is 2,6.
 It tends to gain two electrons to attain the electronic
arrangement of a neon atom (2,8).
 Thus, an oxide ion (2,8) forms.
 An oxide ion has an overall charge of 2–.
O Atom O2–Ion
Number of Protons 8 8
Number of Electrons 8 10
Overall Charge 0 2–
 Drawing Electron Diagrams to Represent Anions
 Note the following points when drawing the electron diagram of an anion (e.g. a chloride ion).

Simple Ions and Polyatomic Ions

 So far, we have seen several simple ions like sodium ion, magnesium ion, chloride ion
and oxide ion.
 A simple ion is derived from a single atom .
 A polyatomic ion, while, is derived from a group of atoms.
 The atoms in these polyatomic ions are held together by covalent bond, which is another type of chemical
bond.
 More details about covalent bond will be discussed in Chapter 8.
 Examples of polyatomic ions include ammonium ion, hydroxide ion, sulphate ion and carbonate ion.

Name ammonium ion hydroxide ion carbonate ion sulphate ion

Formula NH4+ OH– CO32– SO42–

Atoms 1 N, 4 H 1 O, 1 H 1 C, 3 O 1 S, 4 O

Overall Charge 1+ 1– 2– 2–

7.10
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

2 Ways in Classifying of Ions

Number of Atoms in an Ion Charge
Simple ion or Monatomic ion: Cation = positive (+) ion
an ion formed from a single atom Anion = negative (–) ion

Polyatomic ion:
an ion formed from a group of atoms

Practice 4
1. The table below shows 10 ions.
(a) Complete the table below.
Number of Number of Number of
Ion Electronic Arrangement
Protons Electrons Neutron

Li+ 3 2 2

9
Be2+ 4 2 5 2

N3– 7 10 2,8

19 –
F 9 10 10 2,8

Al3+ 13 10 2,8

S2– 16 18 2,8,8

39
K+ 19 18 20 2,8,8

Ca2+ 20 18 2,8,8

89
Y 3 39 36 50 2,8,18,8

209
Bi3+ 83 80 126 2,8,18,32,18,2

(b) Which of the above ions have the same electronic arrangement of a neon atom?
N3–, 19F– & Al3+

(c) Which of the above ions have the same electronic arrangement of an argon atom?
S2–, 39K+ & Ca2+

(d) Which of the above ions do not have an octet structure?

Li+, 9Be2+ & Bi3+
(e) Which of the above ions do not have an electronic arrangement of a noble gas atom?
Bi3+

7.11
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

64
2. How many electrons and neutrons are there in a doubly charged cation formed from a 30 Zn atom?

Number of electrons: 28;

number of neutrons: 34

3. Which of the following statements concerning the formation of a fluoride ion from a fluorine atom is
correct?
A. The atomic number of fluorine increases by 1.
B. The number of neutrons increases by 1.
C. The number of electrons decreases by 1.
D
D. The number of occupied electron shells in a fluoride ion is equal to that in a fluorine atom.
4. The following electron diagram for a sulphide ion (i.e. a simple ion formed from the sulphur atom) is
wrong. Can you re-draw it?

5. The following table shows the numbers of protons, electrons and neutrons inside the particles
represented by the letters W to Z. The particles are either atoms or ions. (The letters W to Z are not
atomic symbols.)
Number of
Particle
Protons Electrons Neutrons
W 15 18 16
X 12 10 12
Y 12 12 12
Z 10 10 10
(a) Which of the above particles is an atom of a noble gas?
Z

(b) Which of the above particles is/are ion(s)?

W and X

(c) (i) Which TWO particles represent an atom and an ion of the same element?
X and Y

7.12
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

(ii) Draw the electron diagrams of the particles mentioned in (c)(i). (Use the letters of the
particles to represent the atomic symbols.)

6. Lead (Pb) is an element in Group IV of the Periodic Table and can form Pb2+ ion.
A student makes comparisons of Pb atom and Pb2+ ion. In each case, indicate whether you think the
comparison is true or false. Explain your answer.
(a) Both Pb atom and Pb2+ ion have the same number of protons.
True.
Ion formation only involves electrons NOT protons. Number of protons is unchanged.

(b) Both Pb atom and Pb2+ ion have the same number of outermost shell electrons.
False.
2 outermost shell electrons are lost from Pb atom to form Pb2+ ion.

(c) Both Pb atom and Pb2+ ion have the same number of occupied electron shells.
True.
Both Pb atom (2,8,18,32,18,4) and Pb2+ ion (2,8,18,32,18,2) have 6 occupied electron shell.

Ionic Bonding and Ionic Compounds

 Ionic bond refers to the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.
 An ionic bond forms by the transfer of one or more electrons from one
atom (or group of atoms) to another.
 Only electrons ( e– ) but NOT protons ( p+ ) and neutrons can be transferred in chemical reactions.
 In chemical reactions, the number of protons and the number of neutrons do not change.
 The numbers of protons and neutrons can only be changed in nuclear reactions.  Physics
 Ionic bond extends in all directions, so it is non-directional .

Formation of Ionic Bond between Sodium and Chlorine in Sodium Chloride (Table Salt)
 When sodium reacts with chlorine, each sodium atom loses one electron and each chlorine atom gains
one electron.
 As a result of the transfer of electron, sodium ions and chloride ions form.

7.13
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

Transfer of an electron from a sodium atom to a chlorine atom forming a sodium ion and a chloride ion respectively
when sodium reacts with chlorine
p+ 11 17 11 17

e– 11 17 10 (↓1) 18 (↑1)

2,8,1 2,8,7 2,8 2,8,8

 Electrons of sodium and chlorine atoms are represented by different symbols (dots and crosses
respectively).
 Electrons of all atoms are in fact identical .
 The sodium and chloride ions formed have opposite charges, so they attract each other
strongly.
 The electrostatic attraction which holds the oppositely charged ions together is called ionic bond.
Structure of NaCl Greater Detail in Ch. 9
 In the reaction between sodium and chlorine, trillions of sodium and chlorine atoms are converted into
sodium ions and chloride ions.
 The ions pack closely and regularly to form a three-dimensional
giant structure / lattice .
 In the structure of sodium chloride, sodium ions and chloride ions are held together by ionic
bonds.
 An ionic crystal of sodium chloride consists of sodium
ions and chloride ions held together by ionic bonds.
 Note: This figure just shows several Na+ and Cl–
ions.
 Even a single sodium chloride crystal
contains trillions of ions.
 In the reaction between sodium and chlorine, only the outermost shell electrons are
involved.
 This is true for most chemical reactions.
 For simplicity, electron diagrams in the latter part will show the outermost shells only.

7.14
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

 Not preferred Simplified Electron Diagrams

 In these much more simplified electron diagrams, the circle representing the valence shell is not
drawn.
 The valence electrons are just drawn around the symbol of element.
 Not preferred The electron diagram of a sodium ion can also be drawn as follows:

 This is because the outermost shell of the ion is now the second shell, which has 8 electrons.
More Examples on Ionic Bonding
Formation of Ionic Bond between Magnesium and Fluorine
 When magnesium reacts with fluorine, a magnesium atom loses two electrons, while a fluorine atom
gains one electron.
 As a result of the transfer of electrons, magnesium ions and fluoride ions form.
The transfer of electrons from a magnesium atom to two fluorine atoms to form one magnesium ion and two fluoride
ions respectively when magnesium reacts with fluorine

 Not preferred
 The electron diagram of magnesium fluoride can also be drawn as:

 Not preferred
Formation of Ionic Bond between Lithium and Oxygen
 When lithium reacts with oxygen, a lithium atom loses one electron, while an oxygen atom gains two
electrons.
 As a result of the transfer of electrons, lithium ions and oxide ions form.
The transfer of electrons from two lithium atoms to one oxygen atom to form two lithium ions and one oxide ion
respectively when lithium reacts with oxygen

7.15
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

Ionic Compounds
 In the above examples, the positively charged ions are attracted to the negatively
charged ions by ionic bonds.
 An ionic compound is a compound consisting of ions.
 The compounds formed (sodium chloride, magnesium fluoride and lithium oxide) are called ionic
compounds.
 They all consist of ions.
 From the electron diagrams of ionic compounds, it is clear that the charges on the positively charged
ions balance those on the negatively charged ions.
 Thus, ionic compounds are electrically neutral .

 Note: It is inappropriate to draw the electron diagrams of magnesium fluoride and lithium oxide as:

Keypoints
 An ionic bond is the strong non-directional electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely
charged ions,
which is formed when electron(s) is / are transferred from one atom (or group of atoms) to another
(or group of atoms).
 When a metal and a non-metal combine to form an ionic compound, electrons are usually transferred
from atoms of the metal to atoms of the non-metal.
 ‘ Salt ’ is another name for ‘ionic compound’, while ‘salt’ emphasizes on the nature of the
‘ionic compound’ being formed from the neutralization of acid and alkali. (F. 2 IS & F. 4 Chemistry)
 Ions in a salt are packed together in a regular arrangement called a lattice.
Example: Drawing Electron Diagrams of Ionic Compounds

7.16
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

Practice 5
For each of the following pairs of elements, draw the electron diagram for the compound formed, showing
electrons in the outermost shells only.
1. Sodium hydride 2. Magnesium sulphide

3. Sodium and iodine 4. Magnesium and oxygen

5. Calcium oxide 6. Potassium and sulphur

7. Calcium and bromine 8. Sodium and nitrogen

9. Aluminium fluoride 10. Aluminium oxide

11. Lithium combines with sulphur to form lithium sulphide. The particles in lithium sulphide are packed
in an ionic lattice.
(a) Draw the electron diagram for lithium sulphide, showing electrons in the outermost shells only.

7.17
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

(b) Describe the meaning of ‘ionic lattice’, in terms of the type and arrangement of particles present.
The oppositely charged ions in an ionic compound are packed together in a regular
arrangement called a lattice.
12. In the lattice of potassium nitride, the ratio of potassium ions to nitride ions is 3 : 1.
Explain why the ratio of the ions is 3 : 1.
Potassium forms potassium ion carrying a charge of +1 while nitrogen forms nitride ion carrying a
charge of –3.
The ratio of potassium ions to nitride ions is 3:1 so that the charges balance / number of positive
charges equals the number of negative charges.

Names and Formulae of Ions

 We can refer to an element, a compound or an ion by its name.
 Alternatively, we can refer to it by its formula (plural: formulae).
 A formula is not merely chemical shorthand.
 It actually tells what makes up the smallest unit of a substance or an ion.
 For example, the name ‘ammonia’ does not tell us anything about its composition, whereas its formula
NH3 indicates that the smallest unit (molecule) of ammonia is composed of 1 nitrogen atom and 3
hydrogen atoms chemically joined together.
List of Some Common Cations (+)
With 1 positive charge (+) With 2 positive charges (2+) With 3 positive charges (3+)
Chemical formula Name Chemical formula Name Chemical formula Name
Li+ lithium ion Be2+ beryllium ion Al3+ aluminium ion
+ 2+
Na sodium ion Mg magnesium ion
K+ potassium ion Ca2+ calcium ion Name of a simple cation =
Rb +
rubidium ion Sr2+
strontium ion name of that element
Cs+ caesium ion Ba2+ barium ion
Ag+ silver ion Cr2+ chromium(II) ion Cr3+ chromium(III) ion
Cations from Non-Metals 2+ 3+
Mn manganese(II) ion Mn manganese(III) ion
H+ hydrogen ion Fe2+ iron(II) ion Fe3+ iron(III) ion
+ 2+ 3+
NH4 ammonium ion Co cobalt(II) ion Co cobalt(III) ion
2+
Ni nickel(II) ion
Metals forming more than one type of
Cu+ copper(I) ion Cu2+ copper(II) ion
cation, i.e. transition metals, use Roman
Zn2+ zinc ion
numeral to show no. of charges.
Sn2+ tin(II) ion
Pb2+ lead(II) ion Bi3+ bismuth(III) ion
2+
Hg mercury(II)
Hg22+ mercury(I)
Notes:
 All simple ions of metals (e.g. Na+, Mg2+) are cations.
 Group I to Group III elements tend to form cations (ions with positive charge).
+ +
 H and NH4 are non-metal cations.
 Hydrogen ion and ammonium ion are cations formed from atoms of non-metals.
 Metal atoms are not the only ones that can form cations.
7.18
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

 NH4+ is the only common polyatomic cation .

 If a metal forms only one cation, the ion has the same name as the metal, e.g. sodium metal (Na) forms
sodium ion (Na+).
 Some transition metals can form more than one simple cation with different charges.
 To name each ion, a Roman numeral indicating the charge is written in brackets after the name
of the metal.
 For example, iron metal (Fe) can form iron(II) ion (Fe2+) and iron(III) ion (Fe3+).
 Ions with charge 4+, 5+ are uncommon, i.e. U4+, Al3(OH)45+.
List of Some Common Anions (–)
With 1 negative charge (–) With 2 negative charges (2–) With 3 negative charges (3–)
Chemical Chemical Chemical
Name Name Name
formula formula formula

H– hydride ion O2– oxide ion N3– nitride

– 2– 3–
F fluoride ion S sulphide ion P phosphide
Cl– chloride ion Se2– selenide ion PO43– phosphate ion
– bromide ion Te 2–
telluride ion
Br
Simple anions & Polyatomic
I– iodide ion CO32– carbonate ion anions containing no oxygen (O)
OH– hydroxide ion SiO32– silicate ion or O as central atom:
CN– cyanide ion SO32– sulphite ion ending in -ide
– 2–
OCN cyanate ion SO4 sulphate ion
SCN– thiocyanate ion S2O32– thiosulphate ion
H+ can be attached to a multiply-
hydrogencarbonate charged anion to form a
HCO3– CrO42– chromate ion
ion ‘hydrogen-’ anion.
hydrogensulphate H+ + CO32–  HCO3–
HSO4– Cr2O72– dichromate ion
ion
MnO4– permanganate MnO42– manganate ion
– nitrate ion
NO3
Oxoanions (Polyatomic anions with oxygen O atoms):
NO2– nitrite ion
ending with –ate or –ite.
ClO4– perchlorate
 -ate: more O atoms
– chlorate
ClO3
 -ite: less O atoms
ClO2– chlorite
– hypochlorite
ClO
Notes:
 Group V to Group VII elements tend to form anions (ions with negative charge).
 In fact, Group V anions are NOT common except nitride N3– .
 All simple ions of non-metal (except H ) and most polyatomic ions (except NH4+) are anions (e.g.
+

OH–, HCO3–).
 Some polyatomic ions consist of non-metals only (e.g. NO3–, CO32–, SO42–) while some
consist of a metal and a non-metal (e.g. MnO4–, MnO42–, CrO42–, Cr2O72–).
 Simple anions have names ending in -ide .
 E.g.: An oxygen atom (O) forms an oxide ion (O2–).
 A sulphur atom (S) forms a sulphide ion (S2–).
–
 Exception: The hydroxide ion OH is not a simple ion, yet its name ends in -ide.
7.19
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

 Polyatomic anions containing oxygen often have names ending in -ate or -ite .
 Polyatomic anions with more oxygen are named as -ate, and those with less oxygen as -ite
 E.g.:
 SO42– sulphate ion
 SO32– sulphite ion
 NO3– nitrate ion
 NO2– nitrite ion
 Ions with charge 4–, 5– are uncommon, i.e. Si4–, B5–.
Relation between Ionic Charge and Group Number of an Element
 Atoms of metals with 1 to 3 electrons in their outermost shells (Groups I to III ) can obtain
stable electronic arrangements by losing electrons.
 For metals in Groups I, II and III, the number of positive charges on the simple ion formed is
equal to its group number in the Periodic Table.
 Atoms of Group I elements have only one outermost shell electron.
 These atoms form simple ions with one positive charge, e.g. Li+, Na+ and K+.
 Atoms of Group II elements have two outermost shell electrons.
 These atoms form simple ions with two positive charges, e.g. Mg2+ and Ca2+.
 Similarly, Group III elements form simple ions with three positive charges, e.g. Al3+.
The situation is different for atoms of Groups V to VII elements.
 Atoms of non-metals with 5 to 7 electrons in their outermost shells (Groups V to VII ) can
obtain stable electronic arrangements by gaining electrons.
 For non-metals in Groups V, VI and VII, the number of negative charges on the simple ion formed
is usually equal to ‘8 minus the group number’.
 Take oxygen as an example, an atom of oxygen (a Group VI element) gains (8 – 6) or 2 electrons to
attain the electronic arrangement of a noble gas atom (an octet), forming an oxide ion.
Group Charge of ion Group Charge of ion
+4 or –4  4 – 8
Seldom form ions as they have
0 IV (Seldom form ions as too many electrons have to be
completely filled outermost shells.
removed or gained to attain stable noble gas structure.)
I +1 V –3  5 – 8
II +2 VI –2  6 – 8
III +3 VII –1  7 – 8
 Like elements, the charges on the simple ions formed show a periodic pattern in the Periodic Table.

7.20
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

Practice 6
1. For each of the following formulae,
(a) State which of stand for simple ions and which for polyatomic ions respectively.
(b) Name each of these ions.
Ion Simple or Polyatomic? Name
H+ simple hydrogen ion
NH4+ polyatomic ammonium ion
OH– polyatomic hydroxide ion
Mn2+ simple manganese(II) ion
O2– simple oxide ion
Cu2+ simple copper(II) ion
MnO4– polyatomic permanganate ion

2. The atomic numbers of strontium and astatine are 38 and 85 respectively.

(Refer to the Periodic Table for atomic symbols and group numbers.)
(a) Write the charges of strontium ion and astatide ion respectively.
strontium ion: +2
astatide ion: –1

(b) Write the formulae for the ions.

strontium ion: Sr2+
astatide ion: At–

7.21
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

Names and Formulae of Ionic Compounds

Names of Ionic Compounds
 We can name ionic compounds according to the following rules:
 Refer to table before for the names of the cation and anion in an ionic compound.
 The cation is named first, followed by the anion.
 The word ‘ion’ is omitted.
Names of Some Ionic Compounds
Cation Anion Name of Compound
magnesium ion Mg2+ oxide ion O2– Magnesium oxide
aluminium ion Al3+ sulphate ion SO42– Aluminium sulphate
ammonium ion NH4+ carbonate ion CO32– Ammonium carbonate
sodium ion Na+ nitrate ion NO3– Sodium nitrate
sodium ion Na+ nitrite ion NO2– Sodium nitrite
copper(I) ion Cu+ oxide ion O2– Copper(I) oxide
copper(II) ion Cu2+ oxide ion O2– Copper(II) oxide
Note:
 The charge of copper ion in an oxide can be found based on the electrical neutrality of the compound.
 Since the charge of oxide ion is 2–, the charge of the copper ion in Cu2O is 1+.
 The charge of the copper ion in CuO is 2+.
Formulae of Ionic Compounds (Ionic Formulae)
 The formula of an ionic compound is a representation of the compound.
 It shows the types of ions and their simplest ratio in the compound.
 We can work out the formula for an ionic compound by following two simple rules.
 As ionic compound is overall electrically neutral , the total number of positive
charges must be equal to the total number of negative charges.
 The formula of the cation (+) is written first , followed by the anion (–).
 Formula for Sodium Oxide
 Sodium oxide consists of sodium ions (Na+) and oxide ions (O2–).
 As an ionic compound has no overall electric charge, every oxide ion needs two sodium ions to balance the
charges.
 Hence, the formula for sodium oxide is Na2O. The formula does not show the charges on the sodium or oxide
ions.
 Formula for Magnesium Nitrate
 For the compound made up of magnesium ions (Mg2+) and nitrate ions (NO3–), every magnesium ion needs
two nitrate ions to balance the charges.
 The formula for magnesium nitrate is written as Mg(NO3)2.
 Nitrate ion (a polyatomic ion) is placed in brackets and the subscript ‘2’ is written outside the bracket.
 Formula for Ammonium Carbonate
 For the compound made up of ammonium ions (NH4+) and carbonate ions (CO32–), every carbonate ion
needs two ammonium ions to balance the charges.
 The formula for ammonium carbonate is written as (NH4)2CO3.
 Ammonium ion is placed in brackets and the subscript ‘2’ is written outside the bracket.

7.22
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

Deduction of the Formulae for Sodium Oxide, Magnesium Nitrate and Ammonium Carbonate

Ionic Sodium Potassium Aluminium Iron(II) Ammonium

Calcium nitride
Compound chloride oxide oxide hydroxide sulphate
Cation(s) (+) Na+ K+ K+ Ca2+ Ca2+ Ca2+ Al3+ Al3+ Fe2+ NH4+ NH4+
1+ 2+ 6+ 6+ 2+ 2+
– 2– 3– 3– 2– 2– 2– – – 2–
Anion(s) (–) Cl O N N O O O OH OH SO4
1– 2– 6– 6– 2– 2–
Chemical
NaCl K2O Ca3N2 Al2O3 Fe(OH)2 (NH4)2SO4
Formula

Example: Constructing Formulae of Ionic Compounds

7.23
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

Remark:
 Brackets are ONLY used for indicating the same polyatomic ions having 2 or more in the chemical
formula.
(K)2O✘ FeOH2✘ Ca(Cl)2✘
K2O✔ Fe(OH)2✔ CaCl2✔
Example: Understanding the Formation of Metallic Bond and Ionic Bond
When potassium burns in oxygen, potassium oxide is produced.
(a) With the help of a simple diagram, describe the bonding in potassium metal.
The metallic bond holds the atoms in a piece of potassium metal together. The bonding is a result of the
electrostatic attraction between delocalized electrons and potassium ions.

In the drawing, the number of K+ ions which carry 1+ charge is equal to the number of delocalized electrons.
(b) Describe the formation of ionic bond in potassium oxide.
Each potassium atom loses one electron to form potassium ion and each oxygen atom gains two electrons to
form oxide ion in order to attain stable octet structures. Potassium ions are positively charged and oxide ions
are negatively charged. They are attracted to each other by electrostatic attraction (i.e. ionic bond).
(c) Draw the electron diagram for potassium oxide, showing electrons in the outermost shells only.

(d) With reference to your answer in (c), write the formula of potassium oxide.
K2O
Practice 7
1. Complete the table below by filling in the names and formulae of the compounds.
Cation Anion Name of Compound Formula of Compound
(a) Li+ H– Lithium hydride LiH

(b) Zn2+ SO42– Zinc sulphate ZnSO4

(c) Mg2+ OH– Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2

(d) NH4+ NO3– Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3

(e) Bi3+ SiO32– Bismuth(III) silicate Bi2(SiO3)3

(f) Hg22+ PO43– Mercury(I) phosphate (Hg2)3(PO4)2

7.24
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

2. Write the names of the following compounds.

Formula Name
(a) Ca(NO3)2 Calcium nitrate

(b) Fe2O3 Iron(III) oxide

(c) Al(OH)3 Aluminium hydroxide

(d) MgS Magnesium sulphide

Universal Convention of Chemical Symbols and Formulae

Today, there are more than 7 billion people all over the world. They live in different places or countries
and use different languages. Refer to the table below:

Can you complete the table by filling in the appropriate words? You may have difficulties in doing this
because you do not know Korean and/or German.
Dalton’s Atomic Symbols (Actually some of them are not elements.)
A set of universally accepted symbols and formulae have been adopted by
chemists in different parts of the world. In the 19th century, John Dalton
(1766 – 1844), a British scientist, invented a set of symbols to represent
elements. Some of these symbols are shown below:
After many modifications, the chemical symbols we used today is more
user-friendly than the one invented by John Dalton. Apart from easy
communication, it is more convenient to use chemical symbols and
formulae instead of using words to represent the names of elements and
compounds.
Some Elements in Different Languages
Symbol English German French Polish Russian Japanese Chinese
H Hydrogen Wasserstoff Hydrogène Wodór Водород 水素 氫
Li Lithium Lithium Lithium Lit Литий リチウム 鋰
C Carbon Kohlenstoff Carbone Węgiel Углерод 炭素 碳
N Nitrogen Stickstoff Azote Azot Азот 窒素 氮
O Oxygen Sauerstoff Oxygène Tlen Кислород 酸素 氧
F Fluorine Fluor Fluor Fluor Фтор フッ素 氟
S Sulphur Schwefel Soufre Siarka Сера 硫黄 硫
Cl Chlorine Chlor Chlore Chlor Хлор 塩素 氯
Fe Iron Eisen Fer Żelazo Железо 鉄 鐵
Cu Copper Kupfer Cuivre Miedź Медь 銅 銅
Au Gold Gold Or Złoto Золото 金 金
7.25
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

Colours of Ions in Ionic Compounds in Aqueous Solutions

 Some of the ions are coloured.
 We may deduce the colour of these ions by observing the colours of aqueous solutions of a series of
related compounds.
 Aqueous solutions of potassium chloride, potassium nitrate and potassium sulphate are all colourless.
 This shows that potassium ion, chloride ion, nitrate ion and sulphate ion are all colourless.
 Aqueous solutions of iron(II) chloride, iron(II) nitrate and iron(II) sulphate are all pale green.
 Therefore, we can infer that the common ion they contain, the iron(II) ion, is pale green in colour.
 The colours of aqueous solutions of ionic compounds, rather than solids, are observed.
 This is because though a hydrated salt has the same colour as its aqueous solution.
 Its anhydrous (completely dry) salt may look different.
Example
 NOT all compounds containing copper(II) ions are blue in colour.
 However, copper(II) oxide is insoluble in water and is black in colour.
 Transition metals usually form coloured ions in aqueous solution,
which include simple cations (e.g. Cu2+) and polyatomic anions (e.g. MnO4–).
 Elements in the main groups of the Periodic Table form colourless ions
in aqueous solution (e.g. Na+, K+, Cl–, Br–,etc.).
Colours of Some Common Ions in Aqueous Solution
Ion Colour Ion Colour
Chromium(II) Cr2+ blue Iron(II) Fe2+ pale green
green yellow-brown
Chromium(III) Cr3+ Iron(III) Fe3+
(pH < 0: violet) (pH < 0: violet)

Chromate CrO42– yellow Cobalt(II) Co2+ pink

Dichromate Cr2O72– orange Cobalt(III) Co3+ blue-green
colourless
Manganese(II) Mn2+ Nickel(II) Ni2+ green
or very pale pink
blue
Permanganate MnO4– purple Copper(II) Cu2+
(presence of Cl–: green)

Manganate MnO42– green Titanium(III) Ti3+ purple

Manganese(III) Mn3+ red Vanadium(II) V2+ violet
Platinum(II) Pt2+ yellow Vanadium(III) V3+ green
Palladium(II) Pd2+ yellow-brown Oxovanadium(IV) VO2+ blue
3+ +
Molybdenum(III) Mo yellow Dioxovanadium(V) VO2 yellow
Aqueous Solutions containing Some Common Ions

7.26
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

Gemstones
 The Imperial State Crown is made with lots of gemstones.
 Most gemstones have a characteristic colour.
 The coloration of some gemstones is due to the traces of one or more
coloured metal ions in their minerals.

Practice 8
1. Predict the colour of each of the following aqueous solutions.
Solution containing Colour Solution containing Colour

(a) Magnesium nitrate colourless (b) Iron(II) sulphate green

(c) Sodium chromate yellow (d) Copper(II) sulphate blue

(e) Iron(III) chloride yellow-brown (f) Chromium(III) sulphate green

(g) Ammonium dichromate orange (h) Potassium permanganate purple

(i) Manganese(II) bromide colourless / pale pink (j) Cobalt(II) nitrate pink

(k) Nickel(II) sulphate green (l) Barium manganate green

7.27
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

2. Complete the following table.

Cation (+) Anion (–) Ionic Formula of
Name of the Ionic Compound
Ion Name Formula Ion Name Formula the Compound

(a) Lithium chloride Lithium Li+ Chloride Cl– LiCl

(b) Magnesium oxide Magnesium Mg2+ oxide O2– MgO

(c) Sodium nitrate Sodium Na+ nitrate NO3– NaNO3

(d) Calcium carbonate Calcium Ca2+ carbonate CO32– CaCO3

(e) Copper(II) sulphate Copper(II) Cu2+ sulphate SO42– CuSO4

(f) Potassium hydride Potassium K+ hydride H– KH

(g) Silver sulphide Silver Ag+ sulphide S2– Ag2S

(h) Rubidium sulphite Rubidium Rb+ sulphite SO32– Rb2SO3

(i) Barium bromide Barium Ba2+ bromide Br– BaBr2

(j) Chromium(III) iodide Chromium(III) Cr3+ iodide I– CrI3

(k) Lithium nitride Lithium Li+ nitride N3– Li3N

(l) Aluminium hydroxide Aluminium Al3+ hydroxide OH– Al(OH)3

(m) Zinc hydrogencarbonate Zinc Zn2+ hydrogencarbonate HCO3– Zn(HCO3)2

(n) Lead(II) permanganate Lead(II) Pb2+ permanganate MnO4– Pb(MnO4)2

(o) Iron(III) chromate Iron(III) Fe3+ chromate CrO42– Fe2(CrO4)3

(p) Ammonium dichromate Ammonium NH4+ dichromate Cr2O72– (NH4)2Cr2O7

3. Chemistry Detective Game
Consider the following information of metal X:
 X reacts with water to give hydrogen gas.
 X forms an oxide with the chemical formula XO.
 An atom of X has five occupied electron shells.
What might X be? Explain your answer. (You may refer to a Periodic Table.)
X reacts with water to give hydrogen gas. It is probably a reactive metal.
X forms an oxide XO. X is probably a Group II metal.
An atom of X has five occupied electron shells. X is probably a Period 5 element.
Hence X is strontium.

7.28
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

Extension: Metals & Alloys

Metals
 Metals account for about two thirds of all the elements. They are all around us.

 Use of Some Common Metals

Iron: Copper: Aluminium:
Steel building structures Electric wires Aluminium foil
Soft drink cans
Aeroplane
Car
Casing of electronic devices
Power cables
Gold: Silver: Nickel:
jewellery Electrical wire Coins

 Metals are widely used because of their properties:

 Strength
 Ductility
 High melting point
 Thermal conductivity
 Electrical conductivity

Occurrence and Extraction of Metals

 Some metals like gold ( Au ), platinum ( Pt ) exist in nature in their free metallic
form and can be extracted physically, i.e. picking up.
 Most metals do not exist in their metallic form but are combined chemically with other elements as
ionic compounds. These ionic compounds deposit in different types of rocks known as ores .
 Metals can be extracted from their ores by the following procedures:
1. Mine the ore.
2. Separate the impurities by physical methods , i.e. breaking and washing the ore.
 Obtain the purer ionic compound(s) containing the metal.
3. Use chemical methods to extract the metals from the purer ionic compound(s).

7.29
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

 One type of the purer ionic compounds from some metal ores is the oxides of the metals. Oxides of
some metals can be heated with carbon (C) to get the free metal and carbon dioxide as by-product.
This chemical method is known as carbon reduction .
metal oxide + carbon 
heating
 metal + carbon dioxide
Example:
Word Equation Copper(II) oxide + carbon 
heating
 Copper metal + carbon dioxide

‘Δ’ means ‘heating’.


2 CuO + C   2 Cu + CO2
Balancing Chemical Equation: Coefficient ‘2’
Chemical Equation
2 sets of CuO are needed to react with 1 set of C completely, forming 1 set of CO2.
 No. of each type of atoms on LHS = No. of each type of atoms on RHS
without changing the formula

CuO + C   Cu + CO ✘

 The ease of extraction of different metals affect the history of the use of metals.
Copper Age  Bronze Age (Alloy of Copper and Tin)  Iron Age
Ease of Extraction: Cu > Sn > Fe

 Abundance of the metals in the Earth’s crust also affect the history of the use of metals.

7.30
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

Structures of Metals  Metals have giant metallic structures. Some Common Types of Metallic Structures:
Cubic Close-Packed /
Hexagonal Close-Packed Body-Centred Cubic
Face-Centred Cubic
(h.c.p.) (b.c.c.)
(c.c.p. / f.c.c.)
74% (highest)
Packing
Close-packed structures have 74% of space being packed with metal 68%
Efficiency
atoms (metal ions + delocalized electrons).

Arrangement of
Atoms

Unit Cell
(Smallest repeating
entity which, by
repeated translation
in three dimensions,
builds up the whole
structure)

6 4 2

Number of Atoms
in 1 Unit Cell

12 12 8

Coordination
Number
(Number of its
nearest neighbouring
atoms)

Examples Magnesium (Mg), Zinc (Zn) Copper (Cu), Aluminium (Al) Sodium (Na), Lithium (Li)

7.31
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

Alloys
 Mixtures of metals ; or
 Mixtures of a metal and a non-metal, usually carbon (C) but sometimes phosphorus (P)

Structures of Alloys
Substitutional Alloy (取代合金) Interstitial Alloy (間隙合金)
 For alloys made of metals only  For alloys made of a metal and a non-metal
(The metals making the alloys are usually of  Atoms of much smaller size (usually non-
atoms of similar sizes.) metallic elements) fill the holes present in the
 Some of the atoms of the host metal are main metallic structure.
substituted (replaced) with atoms of another
metal.

7.32
 Unit 7: Metallic Bonding & Ionic Bonding

Reasons of Using Alloys

Alloys have improved properties (harder and stronger) than pure metals and are usually more suitable to
make tools.

Explanation

(a) The position of the particles in a pure metal before a force is applied.
(b) After the force is applied, slippage of particles has taken place.
(c) In an alloy, slippage of particles is hindered because of the introduction of particles of different sizes
into the structure, because adding the different-sized atoms distorts the original regular arrangement
of atoms.

Environmental Problems related to the Use of Metals and Alloys

 Mining of metal often involves deforestation and the use of explosives, leading to destruction of
habitats.
 Extraction of metals from ores consume lots of fossil fuels and energy resources and produce
pollutants such as carbon dioxide to air and toxic materials like heavy metals (e.g. Mercury Hg) and
their compounds to rivers, seas and underground water.
 Improper disposal of metal waste like used batteries, electrical appliances and computer parts, which
contain toxic materials like heavy metals (e.g. Mercury Hg) and their compounds, may damage urban
and country scenery, and cause serious pollution.

Solutions to Environmental Problems: The ‘4R’ Principle

 Reduce

 Reuse

 Recycle

 Replace

7.33