Unit 8: Covalent Bonding

HKDSE Chemistry
Topic 2: Microscopic World I
Unit : Covalent Bonding

Name: __________________________ Class: F. _________ (______)

Covalent Bonding and Covalent Compounds

⚫ In Chapter 7, we have learnt that when atoms of a metal and atoms of a non-metal combine, the metal
atoms tend to lose electrons and the non-metal atoms tend to gain electrons.
◼ Both atoms of the metal and those of the non-metal can attain the electronic arrangement of a
noble gas through the transfer of electrons.
⚫ However, when atoms of non-metals combine, they attain the electronic arrangement of a noble gas
atom by the sharing of electrons.
⚫ A covalent bond forms by the sharing of outermost shell electrons between two
atoms.
⚫ Covalent bond refers to the electrostatic attraction between the
shared electrons (negatively charged) and the two nuclei (positively charged)
of the bonded atoms.
Formation of Single Covalent Bond
Formation of Single Covalent Bond in a Hydrogen Molecule (Element Hydrogen)
⚫ Under room conditions, hydrogen exists as discrete (separate) molecules .
⚫ Most molecules consist of two or more atoms chemically combined together.
◼ Molecules of an element consist of atoms of the same kind.
◆ For example, a hydrogen molecule consists of hydrogen atoms only.
◼ Molecules of a compound consist of atoms of different kinds.
◆ For example, a water molecule consists of hydrogen and oxygen atoms.
⚫ A hydrogen molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms.
A gas jar of hydrogen gas.
For simplicity, only five hydrogen molecules are shown.

⚫ Hydrogen atoms (H) are very unstable because they have only one outermost shell electron i.e. one
electron less than a duplet.
◼ They need one more electron to attain the electronic arrangement of a helium atom.
◼ Each hydrogen atom shares its outermost shell electron with another hydrogen atom, forming a
single covalent bond.
⚫ Therefore, each hydrogen molecule (H2) consists of two hydrogen atoms

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⚫ Hydrogen exists as diatomic molecules as there are two atoms per molecule. In the
molecule, each hydrogen atom has a stable duplet .
⚫ A shared pair of electrons (i.e. a bond pair of electrons, or simply, a bond pair) makes a single covalent
bond.
Electron diagrams showing the sharing of a pair of electrons in the formation of a hydrogen molecule
BP: A pair of electrons
shared between 2 atoms

Molecular Formula
H2 (Chemical Formula of a
Molecule)

Structural Formula
One bond pair of electrons makes (Formula showing how
a single covalent bond, different atoms in a molecule
represented by a single line “–”. are joined together)

Remark:
⚫ When atoms share electrons, they are joined together to form a molecule .
⚫ Covalent bond is directional .
◼ It acts only between two atoms involved in the covalent bond.
◼ Covalent bond is directional in nature because the bonded atoms prefer a specific orientation
relative to one another.

Chlorine
⚫ Chlorine atoms Cl are very unstable because they have seven outermost shell electrons i.e.
one electron less than an octet.
⚫ They need one more electron to attain the electronic arrangement of an argon atom 2,8,8.
⚫ Each chlorine atom shares one of its outermost shell electrons with another chlorine atom, forming a
single covalent bond.
⚫ Therefore, each chlorine molecule Cl2 consists of two chlorine atoms.
⚫ In a chlorine molecule, a bond pair of electrons makes a single covalent bond.
⚫ Besides, there are three lone pairs of electrons (or simply, lone pairs) on each chlorine atom.
⚫ These are unshared pairs of the outermost shell electrons.

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Only the outermost shell electrons are shown:

Molecular Formula: Cl2 LP: A pair of
Structural Formula: Cl—Cl electrons in the
outermost shell of
one of the atoms in a
molecule which is
not involved in
bonding

On each Cl atom on the

Formation of Multiple Covalent Bonds chlorine molecule, there are
Formation of Double Covalent Bond in an Oxygen Molecule 1 BP and 3 LP.
⚫ Oxygen atoms O are very unstable because they have six outermost shell electrons i.e. two electrons
less than an octet.
⚫ They need two more electrons to attain the electronic arrangement of a neon atom 2,8.
⚫ Each oxygen atom shares two of its outermost shell electrons with another oxygen atom, forming a
double covalent bond.
⚫ Therefore, each oxygen molecule O2 consists of two oxygen atoms.
Double Bond :
⚫ In an oxygen molecule, each oxygen atom has a stable octet.
2 pairs of electrons shared
Molecular Formula: O2 between 2 atoms in a molecule,
Structural Formula: O=O represented by 2 lines “=”.

On each O atom on the

oxygen molecule, there are
2 BP and 2 LP.

Formation of Triple Covalent Bond in a Nitrogen Molecule

⚫ Nitrogen atoms N are very unstable because they have five outermost shell electrons i.e. three
electrons less than an octet.
⚫ They need three more electrons to attain the electronic arrangement of a neon atom 2,8.
⚫ Each nitrogen atom shares three of its outermost shell electrons with another nitrogen atom, forming
a triple covalent bond.
Triple Bond :
⚫ Therefore, each nitrogen molecule N2 consists of two nitrogen atoms.
3 pairs of electrons shared
⚫ In a nitrogen molecule, each nitrogen atom has a stable octet.
between 2 atoms in a molecule,
Molecular Formula: N2 represented by 3 lines “≡”.
Structural Formula: N≡N
On each N atom on the
nitrogen molecule, there are
3 BP and 1 LP.

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A Summary of the Formation of Different Covalent Bonds in Some Molecules

Molecular Formulae and Structural Formulae

⚫ Scientists often communicate their ideas through the use of chemical symbols and formulae.
⚫ A single covalent bond is often represented by a stroke (–) between the chemical symbols of the
bonded atoms.
⚫ Hence, a chlorine molecule Cl2 can be written as Cl–Cl, and HCl as H–Cl.
◼ The structural formula of chlorine (i.e. Cl–Cl) shows that two chlorine atoms in a molecule are
joined together by a single covalent bond.
⚫ A double covalent bond and a triple covalent bond can be represented by ‘=’ and ‘≡’ respectively.
⚫ O2 can be written as O=O, and N2 as N≡N.
⚫ Cl2, HCl, O2 and N2 are the molecular formulae, while Cl–Cl, H–Cl, O=O and N≡N are the structural
formulae of these molecules.
◼ In examinations, students may wrongly wrote ‘N’, ‘H’ and ‘O’ as the molecular formulae for nitrogen,
hydrogen and oxygen respectively.
⚫ The molecular formula of a molecular substance is the formula which shows the actual number of
each kind of atoms in one molecule of the substance.
⚫ The structural formula of a molecular substance is the formula which shows the way that the atoms
are joined together in one molecule of the substance.

Number of Atom(s) in a Molecule

⚫ Other elements that exist as diatomic molecules include chlorine, oxygen, nitrogen, etc.
⚫ Noble gases (e.g. argon, neon) exist as monoatomic molecules as their molecules consist of only one
atom.

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Number of Atom(s) in a Molecule Name Example

Monatomic Molecule
1 He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe
(Atom)
2 Diatomic Molecule H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2 , I2

3 Triatomic Molecule O3 (Ozone)

⋮ ⋮ ⋮

8 Octatomic Molecule S8 (Normal Sulphur)

Sulphur molecule (S8)

Practice 1
1. Fluorine (atomic number 9) exists as diatomic molecules.
(a) State the electronic arrangement of a fluorine atom. 2,7
(b) What is meant by the term ‘diatomic’?
A diatomic molecule is a molecule made up of two atoms bonded together.

(c) With the aid of an electron diagram, describe how fluorine atoms make a molecule.
Two fluorine atoms share a pair of electrons in their outermost shells to make a fluorine
molecule.

2. Which of the following elements/compounds consist of molecules? Circle them.

NaCl, CH3OH, I2 , KBr, Fe2O3, HCl, NaNO3, NH4Cl, Ag

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Covalent Bonding in Compounds

⚫ In the previous pages, we have already seen electron diagrams of the molecules of some elements
(e.g. hydrogen, chlorine, oxygen and nitrogen) and a compound (hydrogen chloride).
⚫ Atoms of different non-metals (and metalloids) bond together to form covalent compounds .
Hydrogen chloride: Formation of Single Covalent Bond in a Hydrogen Chloride Molecule
⚫ As mentioned before, both the hydrogen atom H and the chlorine atom Cl are very unstable.
⚫ A hydrogen atom needs one more electron to attain the electronic arrangement of a helium atom
while a chlorine atom needs one more electron to attain the electronic arrangement of an argon atom.
⚫ When they react, each hydrogen atom shares its outermost shell electron with a chlorine atom,
forming a single covalent bond.
⚫ Therefore, each hydrogen chloride molecule HCl consists of one hydrogen atom and one chlorine
atom.
⚫ In a hydrogen chloride molecule, the hydrogen atom has a stable duplet and the chlorine atom has a
stable octet.
Molecular Formula: HCl
Structural Formula: H—Cl
H atom: Cl atom:
LP: 0 LP: 3
BP: 1 BP: 1
Single Bond: 1
Double Bond: 0
Triple Bond: 0

⚫ Hydrogen chloride is a compound NOT an element because it is made up of two elements hydrogen
and chlorine chemically combined together.

Carbon tetrachloride
(Tetrachloromethane) Molecular Formula: CCl4

Structural Formula:

C atom: Cl atom:
LP: 0 LP: 3
BP: 4 BP: 1
Single Bond: 4
Double Bond: 0
Triple Bond: 0

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Ammonia
Molecular Formula: NH3
N atom: H atom:
LP: 1 LP: 0
BP: 3 BP: 1
Single Bond: 3
Double Bond: 0
Triple Bond: 0

Structural Formula:

Water Molecular Formula: H2O Structural Formula: H—O—H

H atom: O atom:
LP: 0 LP: 2
BP: 1 BP: 2
Single Bond: 2
Double Bond: 0
Triple Bond: 0

Carbon dioxide Molecular Formula: CO2

C atom: O atom:
Structural Formula: O=C=O
LP: 0 LP: 2
BP: 4 BP: 2
Single Bond: 0
Double Bond: 2
Triple Bond: 0
Multiple covalent bonds:
double & triple bonds
Number of Electrons Contributed for Sharing & Number of Single Covalent Bonds Atoms of
Elements of Different Groups Can Form
Methane (5 Atoms)
Molecular Formula: CH4

Structural Formula:

C has 4 outermost shell electrons and its needs 4

more electrons to have octet structure. 4 + 4 = 8

The 4 more electrons come from the 4 covalent

bonds.

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⚫ After studying the molecules just mentioned, we may notice that an atom involved in the formation of
covalent bond contributes a certain number of electrons for sharing.
⚫ This number is equal to the additional number of electrons needed to attain the electronic arrangement
of the nearest noble gas atom.
Number of electrons contributed by an atom for sharing when forming covalent bonds

Add up to 8.

Number of Outermost Number of Covalent Bond(s) Examples of

Group Examples
Shell Electrons Its Atom Can Form Compound Formed

IV 4 4 C, Si, Ge, (Sn) CH4 , CCl4 , SiCl4

V 5 3 N, P, As, Sb NH3 , PCl3

VI 6 2 O, S, Se, Te H2O , SCl2 , H2O2

VII 7 1 F, Cl, Br, I HF , HCl , Cl2O

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Molecular Models
⚫ Other than molecular formulae and structural formulae, scientists use molecular models to represent
molecules.
⚫ A molecular model not only shows the way that the atoms are joined together, but also shows how the
bonded atoms are arranged in space.
⚫ There are two common kinds of models, namely, ball-and-stick models and space-filling models.
◼ Ball-and-Stick Models: Balls represent atoms and sticks represent bonds.
◼ Space-Filling Models: No sticks, giving a better idea of how close together different atoms are in
molecules
Molecular formulae, structural formulae, ball-and-stick models and space-filling models of some molecules

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Example: Writing the structural formula and molecular formula of ethanoic acid

Practice 2
1. Complete the following table with molecular formulae, electron diagrams (showing electrons in the
outermost shells only) and structural formulae of the following substances.
Molecular Formula Electron Diagram Structural Formula

(a) HF H—F

(b) H2S H—S—H

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Molecular Formula Electron Diagram Structural Formula

(c) CF4 F C F

Cl

(d) SiCl4 Cl Si Cl

Cl

Cl P Cl
(e) PCl3
Cl

(f) OF2 F—O—F

(g) SCl2 Cl—S—Cl

(h) Cl2O Cl—O—Cl

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Molecular Formula Electron Diagram Structural Formula

HCN
(i)
(Hydrogen cyanide)
H—C≡N

H2O2
(j)
(Hydrogen peroxide)
H—O—O—H

2. Element X has an electronic arrangement of 2,6. X is a gas at room temperature and pressure and it
consists of diatomic molecules.
(a) Draw the electron diagram of a molecule of X, showing electrons in the outermost shells only.

(b) What is the type of chemical bond that joins the atoms together in a molecule of X? Describe
how it forms.
⚫ Covalent bonding.
⚫ It forms when each atom of X contributes two outermost shell electrons for sharing.

(c) Find the number of bond pairs and the number of lone pairs on each atom of X.
There are two bond pairs and two lone pairs on each atom of X.

3. Compound Y forms when silicon reacts with fluorine. The atomic number of silicon is 14 and that of
fluorine is 9.
(a) Write the electronic arrangement of a silicon atom and that of a fluorine atom.
⚫ Electronic arrangement of a silicon atom: 2,8,4
⚫ Electronic arrangement of a fluorine atom: 2,7

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(b) Draw the electron diagram of a molecule of Y, showing electrons in the outermost shells only.

(c) State the number of bond pairs and that of lone pairs on each type of atom(s) in a molecule of Y.
There are four bond pairs on the silicon atom, and there are one bond pair and three lone pairs
on each fluorine atom in a molecule of Y.

4. Compound Z forms when nitrogen reacts with chlorine.

(a) Draw an electron diagram (showing electrons in the outermost shells only) of a molecule of
compound Z.

(b) Find the number of bond pairs and the number of lone pairs on the nitrogen atom in the molecule
of Z.
There are three bond pairs and one lone pair on the nitrogen atom.

(c) Write the molecular formula and structural formula of Z.

Molecular formula: NCl3
Structural formula:

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5. The following electron diagrams for HCl and NH3 are wrongly drawn. Can you re-draw the correct
ones?

6. Both ethanol and carbon disulphide are examples of carbon-containing compounds.

(a) Ethanol is commonly known as ‘alcohol’.
(i) Complete the following electron diagram for an ethanol molecule by filling in the outermost
shell electrons in each atom. (You are required to use dots ˙ and crosses × only to
represent the electrons of the atoms.)

(ii) Write the (1) structural formula and (2) molecular formula of ethanol.
H H

H C C O
H
(1) H H CH3CH2OH (2) C2H6O
(b) Carbon disulphide is a covalent compound formed between carbon and sulphur. It has an electron
diagram similar to that of carbon dioxide.
(i) Draw the electron diagram for a carbon disulphide molecule, showing electrons in the
outermost shells only.

(ii) Write the (1) structural formula and (2) molecular formula of carbon disulphide.
(1) S=C=S (2) CS2

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Writing Chemical Formulae of Covalent Compounds (Molecular Formulae)

⚫ The formula of a covalent compound indicates the ratio of one atom to the other(s) in the molecule.
◼ When we talk about the ‘formula’ of a molecular substance, we usually refer to its ‘molecular
formula’.
⚫ There is a quick method to predict the formula of a covalent compound.
Compound formed from Compound formed from Compound formed from
Step
silicon and hydrogen sulphur and chlorine carbon and sulphur
1. Identify the group of
the element.
(Write down the C Gp IV Gp VI S
electronic 2,4 2,8,6
arrangements of the
atoms involved.)
2. Decide the number of
electrons that each
atom needs to obtain a
C S
stable electronic
4 2
arrangement. Write
8-4 = 4 8-6 = 2
down the number at
the bottom of each
atom.
3. Decide the number of
C S
each type of atom in
4 2
one molecule (cross
multiply the numbers
C2 S4
and the symbols).
4. Combine the symbols
and simplify the ratio SiH4 SCl2 CS2
if necessary.

Order in Writing Element Symbols in Molecular Formulae

Group IV → Group V → Hydrogen (H) → Group VI (excluding O) → Group VII (excluding F) → O → F
Examples:
C3N4 NH3 SCl2 OF2
N2O3 H2O Cl2O ClF Elements down the
group write first.
SO2 BrCl ⚫ I > Br > Cl > F

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Practice 3
Give the chemical formula of the covalent compound formed when each pair of elements combine:

(a) Hydrogen and bromine HBr

(b) Nitrogen and chlorine NCl3

(c) Carbon and fluorine CF4

(d) hydrogen and sulphur H2 S

(e) phosphorus and hydrogen PH3

(f) silicon and chlorine SiCl4

(g) Silicon and sulphur SiS2

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Naming Covalent Compounds

Writing Names of Covalent Compounds Containing 2 Non-Metals ONLY
⚫ The system for naming covalent compounds is different from that used for naming ionic compounds.
⚫ Covalent compounds formed from two elements should be named according to the following rules:

1. The element that occurs first in the following series is named first:
Group IV → Group V → Hydrogen (H) → Group VI (excluding O) → Group VII (excluding F) → O → F
e.g. B, Si, C, P, N, H, S, I, Br, Cl, O, F

2. Give the name of the first non-metal in the chemical formula. Then add the name of the second non-
metal, changing the ending of its name to ‘-ide’. (Similar to naming ionic compounds)
◼ The name of the second element should end with -ide .
E.g.
1st → HCl 2nd
1st → hydrogen chloride 2nd

3. Use a prefix to tell the number of each type of atom in the chemical formula of the compound.
◼ A prefix (mono-, di-, tri-, tetra- and so on) is usually used to indicate the number of atoms of that
element in a molecule of the compound.
Number of Atom Prefix Number of Atom Prefix
1 mono- 6 hexa-

2 di- 7 hepta-

3 tri- 8 octa-

4 tetra- 9 nona-

5 penta- 10 deca-
◼ The prefix ‘mono’ is often omitted in the name of the first element in the compound.
E.g.
Carbon (C) + Oxygen (O)
CO CO2
carbon monoxide carbon dioxide
For ease of pronunciation, when the prefixes are applied to oxygen atoms, the vowels ‘a’ and ‘o’ of
the prefixes are dropped.
monooxide → monoxide
tetraoxide → tetroxide
but dioxide, silicon tetraiodide (SiI4)
◼ The prefix ‘mono’ is only used for the second non-metal. But other prefixes will be applied for
the first non-metal.
N2O
dinitrogen monoxide

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Covalent Compounds Generally Called by Common Name

⚫ Nevertheless, the names of some covalent compounds do not follow the above rules.
CH4 NH3 H2 O H2O2
Methane Ammonia Water Hydrogen peroxide
Practice 4
Complete the following table with molecular formulae and names of the covalent compounds.
Name Molecular Formula Name Molecular Formula

(a) hydrogen fluoride HF (b) iodine monobromide IBr

(c) dichlorine monoxide Cl2O (d) water H2O

(e) nitrogen monoxide NO (f) nitrogen dioxide NO2

(g) dinitrogen trioxide N2O3 (h) hydrogen peroxide H2O2

(i) nitrogen trifluoride NF3 (j) ammonia NH3

(k) silicon tetrachloride SiCl4 (l) phosphorus pentachloride PCl5

(m) methane CH4 (n) sulphur hexafluoride SF6

(o) sulphur dioxide SO2 (p) iodine heptafluoride IF7

(q) sulphur trioxide SO3 (r) selenium tetraiodide SeI4

Covalent Bonds in Polyatomic Ions

⚫ Atoms inside a polyatomic ion, i.e. O and H in OH– , C and N in CN– , C and O in CO32– , are held
together by covalent bonds.
Examples
Hydroxide ion OH– 4 Ways Drawing the
Structural Formulae:

–
This e– comes from the cation. O—H
e.g.
Na losing e– forming Na+
H—O–

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Cyanide ion CN–

This e– comes from the cation.

e.g.
4 Ways Drawing the Structural
Na losing e– forming Na+
Formulae:
– –
:C≡N: C≡N
[:C≡N:]– N≡C–

Carbonate ion CO32– Hydrogencarbonate ion HCO3–

O O

H C
C O O
-
- -
O O
⚫ Ionic compounds with polyatomic ions contain both ionic and
covalent bonds.
Practice 5
(a) Draw the electron diagram of hydrosulphide SH– . (b) Draw the structural formula of nitrite NO2– .
(Showing electrons in the outermost shells only.)

N -
O O

Dative Covalent Bonds

⚫ A dative covalent bond ( coordinate bond) is a type of covalent
bond in which both electrons come from the same atom.
◼ A dative covalent bond is a covalent bond formed between two atoms where both electrons in
the shared pair are contributed by the same atom
◼ In a single covalent bond we have discussed so far, each atom contributes one electron for the
shared pair.
◼ When both electrons in a shared pair come from the same atom, the bond is called a dative
covalent bond.

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Occurrence of Dative Covalent Bonding

⚫ One atom having a lone pair of electrons (LP)  Electron-Pair Donor
⚫ A second particle having a vacant site in its outermost shell to accept the LP,
i.e., an electron-deficient chemical species  Electron-Pair Acceptor
Examples
Ammonium ion NH4+
Electron Diagrams and Electron microscope
Structural Formulae experiments show that
showing the Formation dative covalent bond is
as strong as a normal
of an Ammonium Ion NH4+ Dative Covalent Bond
covalent bond, as all 4
H atoms are
indistinguishable.

If “→” is not used for

representing dative
covalent bond, normal
LP line can be used.

But the charge of the

Electron- donor ↑ (e.g. N → N+),
Pair while the acceptor ↓
Electron-Pair Acceptor “→” can be used to represent dative covalent bond. (e.g. H+ → H).
Donor ⚫ Tail: Donor
⚫ Head: Acceptor

⚫ When an ammonia molecule combines with a hydrogen ion to form an ammonium ion, the N atom in
NH3 shares its lone pair of electrons with the H+ ion, forming a dative covalent bond.
◼ H+ does not have electrons in its outermost shell.
◼ It has a high tendency to get two more electrons in order to attain the electronic arrangement of
a helium atom.
◼ The N atom in NH3 has a lone pair of electrons.
◼ When NH3 combines with H+, a lone pair of electrons on the N atom in an NH3 molecule is shared
with an H+ ion to form a dative covalent bond.
⚫ An arrow ‘→’ is often used to represent the dative covalent bond.
⚫ It points from the atom contributing the electrons for sharing to the atom accepting the electrons.
◼ We should NOT include any electrons in writing structural formulae.
◼ The lone pair of electrons on the N atom is included here for better understanding.
⚫ The ammonium ion NH4+ has an overall charge of 1+ distributed all over the structure.
Dative Covalent Bond Same as Normal Covalent Bond
⚫ In fact, a dative covalent bond and a covalent bond differ only in the way they form.
⚫ Once a dative covalent bond has formed, it cannot be distinguished from the covalent bond.
⚫ This means that all the four N–H bonds in ammonium ion are identical and
indistinguishable .

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Hydronium (Hydroxonium) ion H3O+

Electron-Pair Acceptor

Electron-Pair Donor

⚫ Formation of Hydronium ion

◼ When hydrogen chloride gas
is bubbled into water,
hydrogen chloride molecules
break down to give hydrogen
ions H+ and chloride ions Cl–.
◼ The O atom in an H2O
molecule can share one of its
lone pairs of electrons with
an H+ ion, forming a dative
covalent bond.
◼ A more stable ion,
hydronium ion or
+
hydroxonium ion H3O , is
obtained as a result.
Nitrate ion NO3–

O O

+
N N
- - -
O O O O
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Example: Understanding the dative covalent bond in tetrafluoroborate ion BF4–

Practice 6
1. When gaseous borane BH3 reacts with ammonia NH3, a solid H3NBH3 forms. The electron diagram
of an ammonia borane H3NBH3 molecule is shown below.

Identify the dative covalent bond in H3NBH3. Explain your answer.

⚫ B–N bond
⚫ The N atom in an NH3 molecule shares a lone pair of electrons with the B atom in a BH3
molecule to form a dative covalent bond.

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2. Complete the following table with electron diagrams (showing electrons in the outermost shells only)
and structural formulae of the following substances.
Chemical Formula Electron Diagram Structural Formula

+
NF4+ F F
(a) F N F +
(Tetrafluoroammonium) F N F

F F

BH4–
(b) (Tetrahydridoborate /
Borohydride)

F H

F B N H

(c) BF3NH3 F H
F H
- +
F B N H

F H

CO
(d)
(Carbon monoxide) –
C≡O+

O3
O=O→O
(e)
(Ozone)
O=O+—O–

N3–
(f)
(Azide)

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N2O
(g) (Dinitrogen
monoxide)

SO32–
(h)
(Sulphite)

SO42–
(i)
(Sulphate)

Some chemical species like S in

SF6 may not follow the octet rule.
They will be discussed in
Microscopic World II (F. 4 – 5).
Sulphate SO42–

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Chemical Bonding and the Constituent Particles in Different Substances

Metallic Bond, Ionic Bond and Covalent Bond — a Summary
⚫ In the previous sections, we have discussed metallic bonding, ionic bonding and covalent bonding.
⚫ Some information about them is summarized.
Metallic bonding Ionic bonding Covalent bonding
Nature electrostatic attraction electrostatic attraction electrostatic attraction
between negatively holding the oppositely between the shared
charged delocalized charged ions together electrons and the two
electrons and positively nuclei of the bonded
charged metal ions atoms
Formation escape of outermost transfer of one or more sharing of outermost
shell electrons from electrons from one atom shell electrons between
metal atoms (or group of atoms) to two atoms
another
Substances in which the metals ionic compounds non-metals and covalent
bonding can be found (usually formed compounds (usually
between metals and formed between
non-metals) nonmetals)
Note:
⚫ WRONG Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 is made up of only non-metals, so it is considered as a covalent compound.
⚫ CORRECT Ammonium nitrate consists of ammonium ion NH4+ and nitrate ion NO3–.
Although it is made up of only non-metals, it is an ionic compound.
Particles that Make up Matter — a Summary
⚫ All matter is made up of particles.
⚫ Atoms, molecules and ions are different types of particles.
Constituent Particles in Various Substances

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Predicting Whether Ionic or Covalent Compound is Formed

Exceptions
Ammonium Compounds Some Metal Compounds
- Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 - Manganese(VII) oxide Mn2O7
- Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4 - Chromium(VI) oxide CrO3
- Ammonium carbonate (NH4)2CO3

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 Unit 8: Covalent Bonding

Practice 7
1. Decide whether each of the following formulae stands for an atom, a molecule or an ion.
Formula Species Formula Species

(a) CHCl3 molecule (b) Ar atom/molecule

(c) Cr2O72– ion (d) Mg atom

(e) S8 molecule (f) Ba2+ ion

(g) I2 molecule (h) P atom

2. Which of the following compounds have covalent bonding? Explain your answers.
Explanation
Ionic Compound Does it have
(M + N: metal + non-metal,
Compound (I) or Covalent covalent bonding?
N + N: non-metal + non-metal,
Compound (C)? (Y: yes / N: no)
Others: O)

(a) Hydrogen iodide C Y N+N

(b) Magnesium nitride I N M+N

(c) Silver chloride I N M+N

(d) Sulphur dioxide C Y N+N

(e) Ammonium fluoride I Y O

3. Atoms of elements X, Y and Z have 1, 16 and 19 electrons respectively.

Elements X and Y combine to form compound P while elements Y and Z combine to form compound
Q. For each compound,
(a) predict whether it is ionic (I) or covalent (C);
(b) draw the electron diagram,
(using symbols X, Y and Z and showing electrons in the outermost shells only);
(c) give its name.
Compound (a) I or C ? (b) Electron Diagram (c) Name

P C Hydrogen sulphide

Q I Potassium sulphide

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Formula Mass and Relative Molecular Mass

⚫ In Chapter 5, we have learnt that the relative atomic mass of an element is the weighted average of the relative
isotopic masses of all the naturally occurring isotopes of that element on the 12C = 12.00 scale.
⚫ Formula mass of a compound is the sum of the relative atomic masses (RAM) of all atoms in one
formula unit of the compound. (The compounds can be ionic or covalent.)
⚫ Relative molecular mass is the formula mass for a molecule.
◼ For an element or a compound existing as discrete molecules, the relative molecular mass (RMM)
is the sum of the relative atomic masses of all the atoms which make up one molecule.
⚫ Both Formula Mass and Relative Molecular Mass have NO UNITS.
⚫ Formula mass is a general term applicable to all substances (or species) with a formula, while relative
molecular mass only applies to molecular substances.

Relative Molecular Mass

⚫ Relative molecular mass of an element or a compound is given by the sum of the relative atomic
masses of all atoms present in a molecule of that element or compound.
⚫ It is also called molecular mass.
⚫ Relative molecular mass has no unit.
Relative molecular mass of an element or a compound
= Sum of the relative atomic masses of all atoms present in a molecule of the element or compound
Example:
Relative molecular mass of water H2O
= relative atomic mass of H × 2 + relative atomic mass of O
= 1.0 × 2 + 16.0
= 18.0

Formula Mass
⚫ Ionic compounds do not consist of molecules.
⚫ We use formula mass to describe their relative masses.
⚫ The formula mass of a substance (or species) is the sum of the relative atomic masses of all atoms
present in one formula unit of the substance (or species).
⚫ Formula mass has no unit.
Formula mass of a substance (or species)
= Sum of the relative atomic masses of all atoms present in a formula unit of the substance (or species)
Notes
⚫ A chemical species, which is often simply called a ‘species’, is made up of particles of the same kind.
◼ These particles can be atoms, ions or molecules.
◼ All species have a definite chemical composition, i.e. each species has its own chemical formula.
⚫ As ions and most atoms (except those of noble gases) are unstable under normal conditions, not all
species are separable.
◼ This helps us differentiate the two terms ‘substance’ and ‘species’.
◼ For example, sodium chloride is both a substance and a species, while sodium ions and chloride
ions are species but not substances.

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Examples:
⚫ In ionic compounds like magnesium chloride, the formula unit is MgCl2, which consists of one Mg2+ ion and two
Cl– ions.
◼ This is the simplest unit of magnesium chloride.
◼ Never speak of the relative molecular mass of magnesium chloride, as there are no molecules in this
compound.
Formula mass of magnesium chloride MgCl2
= relative atomic mass of Mg + relative atomic mass of Cl × 2
= 24.3 + 35.5 × 2
= 95.3
⚫ For hydroxide ion (which is a species, not a substance), the formula unit is OH–, corresponding to one OH– ion.
Formula mass of hydroxide ion OH–
= relative atomic mass of O + relative atomic mass of H
= 16.0 + 1.0
= 17.0
Chemical Atoms in 1
Formula Mass / Relative
Element / Compound Formula / Molecule / RAM
Molecular Mass
Formula Unit Formula Unit

2 × 14.0
= 28.0
Nitrogen N2 2N N = 14.0
Relative molecular mass of N2 is
28.0 NOT 14.0.

1 Na Na = 23.0 23.0
Sodium chloride NaCl 1 Cl Cl = 35.5 + 35.5
= 58.5

1C C = 12.0 1 × 12.0
Carbon tetrachloride CCl4 4 Cl Cl = 35.5 + 4 × 35.5
= 154.0

1 Mg Mg = 24.3 1 × 24.3
2N N = 14.0 + 2 ×14.0
Magnesium nitrate Mg(NO3)2
6O O = 16.0 + 6 × 16.0
= 148.3

2N N = 14.0 2 × 14.0
8H H = 1.0 + 8 × 1.0
Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4 1S S = 32.1 + 1 × 32.1
4O O = 16.0 + 4 × 16.0
= 132.1
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Calculating the formula masses of some substances or species

Practice 8
1. Work out the formula masses / relative molecular masses of the elements, species and compounds
below.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, C = 12.0, N = 14.0, O = 16.0, F = 19.0,
Si = 28.1, P = 31.0, S = 32.1, Cl = 35.5, K = 39.1, Ca = 40.1 , Cu = 63.5 , Cs = 132.9)
Element / Compound Formula Mass / Relative Molecular Mass

(a) Chlorine Cl2 2 × 35.5 = 71.0

(b) Oxygen O2 2 × 16.0 = 32.0

(c) Ammonia NH3 14.0 + 3 × 1.0 = 17.0

(d) Methane CH4 12.0 + 1.0 × 4 = 16.0

(e) Sodium oxide Na2O 23.0 × 2 + 16.0 = 62.0

(f) Silicon tetrafluoride

28.1 + 4 × 19.0 = 104.1
SiF4

(g) Phosphorus trifluoride

31.0 + 19.0 × 3 = 88.0
PF3

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(h) Potassium sulphide

2 × 39.1 + 32.1 = 110.3
K2S

(i) Caesium nitrate

132.9 + 14.0 + 3 × 16.0 = 194.9
CsNO3

(j) Carbonate ion CO32– 12.0 + 16.0 × 3 = 60.0

(k) Ethane C2H6 12.0 × 2 + 1.0 × 6 = 30.0

(l) Ammonium carbonate

2 × 14.0 + 8 × 1.0 + 12.0 + 3 × 16.0 = 96.0
(NH4)2CO3

(m) Calcium phosphate

3 × 40.1 + 2 × 31.0 + 8 × 16.0 = 310.3
Ca3(PO4)2

(n) Sucrose C12H22O11 12.0 × 12 + 1.0 × 22 + 16.0 × 11 = 342.0

(o) Cu(NO3)2․3H2O 63.5 + (14.0 + 16.0 × 3) × 2 + (1.0 × 2 + 16.0) × 3 = 241.5

2. Compound Z is made up of elements X and Y. Some information about X and Y are tabulated below.
Element Atomic Number Relative Atomic Mass
X 7 14.0

Y 17 35.5
(a) Predict, with explanation, the type of the particles that constitute Z.
⚫ Z is a covalent compound.
⚫ Thus, it is composed of molecules.

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(b) Deduce the chemical formula of Z.

⚫ X is a Group V element.
◼ Each atom of X requires three electrons to attain the electronic arrangement of a neon
atom.
⚫ Y is a Group VII element.
◼ Each atom of Y requires one electron to attain the electronic arrangement of an argon
atom.
⚫ Hence, the formula of Z is XY3.

(c) Calculate the formula mass of Z.

Formula mass of Z
= 14.0 + 35.5 × 3 = 120.5

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