Learn More / Supporting Materials / Source of Further Reading

Suggested Reading:
1. Beachy, R. N., Loesch-Fries, S., and Tumer, N. E. (1990) Coat protein-mediated
resistance against virus infection. Ann. Rev. Phytopathol. 28: 451-474.
2. Bent, A. F., and Mackey, D. (2007) Elicitors, effectors, and R genes: the new paradigm
and a lifetime supply of questions. Ann. Rev. Phytopathol. 45: 399-436.
3. Ding, S. W., and Voinnet, O. (2007) Antiviral immunity directed by small RNAs. Cell
130: 413-426.
4. Fauquet, C. M., Mayo, M. A., Maniloff, J., Desselberger, U., and Ball, L. A. (2005).
"Virus taxonomy: eighth report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of
Viruses." Elsevier academic press, London.
5. Fuchs, M., and Gonsalves, D. (2007). Safety of virus-resistant transgenic plants two
decades after their introduction: lessons from realistic field risk assessment studies.
Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 45: 173-202.
6. Gonsalves, D. (1998). Control of Papaya ringspot virus in papaya: A case study. Annu.
Rev. Phytopathol. 36: 415-437.
7. Hull, R. (2002). “Matthew’s Plant Virology”, 4th edn., Academic Press, New York.
8. Hull, R. (2009). “Comparative Plant Virology”, 2nd edn., Elsevier Academic Press, New
York.
9. Kang, B. C., Yeam, I., and Jahn, M. M. (2005). Genetics of plant virus resistance.
Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 43: 581-621.
10. Patil, B. L., et al. (2011). RNAi-mediated resistance to diverse isolates belonging to two
virus species involved in Cassava brown streak disease. Mol. Plant Pathol. 12(1): 31-
41.
11. Reddy, D. V., Sudarshana, M. R., Fuchs, M., Rao, N. C., and Thottappilly, G. (2009).
Genetically engineered virus-resistant plants in developing countries: current status
and future prospects. Adv. Virus Res. 75: 185-220.

Plant Genetic Engineering

Botany
Strategies for resistance to plant viral diseases
 12. Soosaar, J. L., Burch-Smith, T. M., and Dinesh-Kumar, S. P. (2005). Mechanisms of
plant resistance to viruses. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 3(10): 789-98.
13. Sudarshana, M. R., Roy, G., and Falk, B. W. (2007). Methods for engineering
resistance to plant viruses. Methods Mol. Biol. 354: 183-95.
14. Thresh, J. M. (2006). Control of tropical plant virus diseases. Adv. Virus Res. 67: 245-
95.
15. Vanderschuren, H., Stupak, M., Futterer, J., Gruissem, W., and Zhang, P. (2007).
Engineering resistance to geminiviruses-review and perspectives. Plant Biotechnol. J.
5: 207-220.

Some references are missing in the reference list, for example Yadav et al. 2011

· Glossary
· Timeline
· Did you know
· Web links / references
· Interesting facts

4.1 Glossary

Starting Term Defination Related Term

Character
<Character> Coat Protein The outer protein coat of a virus is also Capsid
called Capsid. The capsid surrounds the
viral genome (protects it from the
environment and aids in attachment of
virus to host cell). The capsid is usually
inside the viral envelope (which
facilitates attachment to host cell
receptors).
<Character> RNA RNA replicase, is an enzyme that RNA-dependent
replicase catalyzes the replication of RNA from RNA
an RNA template. This is in contrast to polymerase
a typical DNA-dependent RNA (RdRP)

Plant Genetic Engineering

Botany
Strategies for resistance to plant viral diseases
 polymerase, which catalyzes the
transcription of RNA from a DNA
template.
<Character> Ribosome A ribosome inactivating protein is a
inactivating protein synthesis inhibitor that acts at
protein the ribosome. A number of bacterial and
plant toxins act by inhibiting protein
synthesis in eukaryotic cells. All these
toxins are structurally related. RIPs
have been of considerable interest
because of their potential use,
conjugated with monoclonal antibodies,
as immunotoxins to treat cancers.
Further, trichosanthin has been shown
to have potent activity against HIV-1-
infected T cells and macrophages.
Elucidation of the structure-function
relationships of RIPs has therefore
become a major research effort. It is
now known that RIPs are structurally
related.
<Character> Plantibody A plantibody (derived from plant and
antibody) is an antibody produced by
genetically engineered crops. Antibodies
are part of animal immune systems, and
are produced in plants by transforming
them with antibody genes from animals.
Although plants do not naturally make
antibodies, plantibodies have been
shown to function in the same way as
normal antibodies. The production of
plantibodies might be used to make
(genetically modified) crops resistant to
plant pathogens.
<Character> Systemic The systemic acquired resistance is a Hypersensitive
acquired "whole-plant" resistance response that Reaction
resistance occurs following an earlier localized
exposure to a pathogen. SAR is
(SAR) analogous to the innate immune system
found in animals, and there is evidence
that SAR in plants and innate immunity
in animals may be evolutionarily
conserved. Plants use pattern-
recognition receptors to recognize
conserved microbial signatures and this

Plant Genetic Engineering

Botany
Strategies for resistance to plant viral diseases
 triggers an immune response. Plants
also carry immune receptors that
recognize highly variable pathogen
effectors, which mainly include the NBS-
LRR class of proteins. SAR is important
for plants to resist disease, as well as to
recover from disease.
Secondary Secondary metabolites are organic
metabolites compounds that are not directly
involved in the normal growth,
development, or reproduction of an
organism. Unlike primary metabolites,
absence of secondary metabolites does
not result in immediate death, but
rather in long-term impairment of the
organism's survivability. Secondary
metabolites often play an important role
in plant defenses.

4.2 Time-Line

Timelines Image Description

1930s Cross protection is a type of induced
resistance developing in plants against
viruses. Its basis is that prior infection
with one virus gives protection against
closely related ones. Its history started
about eighty years ago, when the
Thung and Salaman described the
phenomenon independently.

This picture shows mild strain cross-

protection in Eureka lemon against
Citrus tristeza virus: A, non-
inoculated; B, cross-protected; C,
inoculated with the virulent strain.

Source:
http://www.dpvweb.net/dpv/showfig

Plant Genetic Engineering

Botany
Strategies for resistance to plant viral diseases
 1986 In 1986, Dr. Roger Beachy’s group at
Washington University (St. Louis,
USA) first reported resistance against
Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) in
transgenic tobacco expressing the
TMV CP gene. The phenomenon is
referred to as coat-protein-mediated
resistance (CP-MR), and has
similarities to cross protection.

Reference: Beachy RN. (1999) Coat-

protein-mediated resistance to tobacco
mosaic virus: discovery mechanisms
and exploitation. Phil.Trans. R. Soc.
Lond. 354, 659-664.
1995
Field trial of transgenic 'UH Rainbow'
and 'UH SunUp' established in Puna
in October 1995. Pictures show the
progress of the disease caused by
PRSV in rows of nontransgenic
papaya (left in each picure) as
compared to the resistance in rows of
'UH Rainbow' (right in each picture).

Source: Dr. Dennis Gonsalves; In:

Methods in Molecular Biology, Vol.
286.

2011- Transgenic RNA interference (RNAi)-

2012 derived field resistance to cassava
brown streak disease in Uganda
(Africa).
Source: VIRCA (VIrus Resistant
Cassava for Africa), Donald Danforth
Plant Science Center, St. Louis, USA

Plant Genetic Engineering

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Strategies for resistance to plant viral diseases
 4.3 Did you know?

Description Image Source

Recovery in tobacco http://www.nature.com
plants infected with /nature/journal/v431/n7
tobacco ringspot virus 006/fig_tab/nature0287
(TRSV): The original 4_F1.html
legend to the figure
reads 'Turkish
tobacco plant 23 days
after inoculation with
ringspot. Note the
gradual decline in the
development of
ringspot symptoms on
the upper leaves until
finally the top leaves
appear perfectly
normal'. We now
know that the virus
causing the initial
symptoms had
activated viral RNA
silencing that
inhibited spread of
the infection into the
upper leaves, and
caused them to be
specifically immune to
tobacco ringspot virus
secondary infection.

Plant Genetic Engineering

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Strategies for resistance to plant viral diseases
 Aerial view of http://www.apsnet.org/
transgenic field trial publications/apsnetfeat
in Puna that was ures/Pages/Papaya.asp
started in October x
1995. The solid block
of green papaya trees
are 'UH-Rainbow'
while the surrounding
papaya trees that are
nearly dead are
nontransgenic papaya
trees severely infected
by PRSV.

4.4 WebLinks

Web links

http://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/Pages/default.aspx
http://www.danforthcenter.org/science/programs/INTERNATIONAL_PROGRAMS/VIRCA/
http://www.ibioseminars.org/lectures/global-health-a-energy/roger-beachy.html

http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/354/1383.toc
http://www.pb.ethz.ch/research/cassava_projects

4.5 Interesting Facts

Interesting Facts

Cross protection is a type of induced resistance developing in plants against viruses. Its
basis is that prior infection with one virus affords protection against closely related ones.
Its history started about seventy years ago, when the Dutchman Thung and the
Englishman Salaman described the phenomenon independently. During the 1930s,
several virologists confirmed the discovery, which was considered the first possibility to
protect plants against virus infection. Growing interest also led plant virologists to
formulate the first hypotheses on its mechanism, with the onset of a still unsolved
debate. The molecular detail of cross protection still remains unclear, although several
lines of evidence imply that the resistance is protein and/or RNA mediated (RNAi).
During the 1980s, cross protection came to a standstill because of the development of
new resistant or tolerant cultivars. Its story is by no means ended, and much work is
needed to understand its limits and possibilities.

Plant Genetic Engineering

Botany
Strategies for resistance to plant viral diseases
 RNA interference (RNAi) also called post transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS), is a
biological process in which RNA molecules inhibit gene expression, typically by causing
the destruction of specific mRNA molecules. Historically, it was known by other names,
including co-suppression, post transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS), and quelling. Only
after these apparently unrelated processes were fully understood did it become clear
that they all described the RNAi phenomenon. In 2006, Andrew Fire and Craig C. Mello
shared the Nobel Prize for their work on RNA interference in the nematode worm C.
elegans.

Plant Genetic Engineering

Botany
Strategies for resistance to plant viral diseases