STRUCTURAL

GEOLOGY
INTRODUCTION

Structural Geology is the

branch of geology that focuses on
the study of the deformation,
folding, faulting, and other
structural features of rocks in the
Earth’s crust. It involves the
analysis of the orientation, shape,
and distribution of rocks and
geological structures to
understand the geological history
of an area.
 INTRODUCTION

Structural geologists study

how rocks respond to stresses over
time and how those stresses cause
rocks to deform and break. They
use various techniques, such as
field observations, mapping,
laboratory experiments, and
computer simulations, to study the
structure of rocks and geological
formations.
 INTRODUCTION

The field of structural geology has practical

applications in a variety of industries, such as mining,
oil and gas exploration, civil engineering, and
environmental geology. By understanding the
geological structures and their properties, structural
geologists can better predict the behavior of rocks and
identify potential hazards, such as landslides,
earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions.
 ATTITUDE OF BEDS

When strata are affected by

tectonic forces and structures have
developed, they can be studied by
their attitude. Attitude gives
details of the position of
occurrence or orientation of rocks
(three-dimensional) in place.
Attitude comprises two factors
known as strike and dip.
 ATTITUDE OF BEDS

Strike refers to the direction in which a geological structure is

present. When a bedding plane (or a joint plane, or a fault plane) is cut by a
horizontal plane, a line of intersection will be obtained at the surface. The
strike direction may be defined as the direction of the trace of the
intersection between the bedding plane and a horizontal plane. Its direction
of inclination and amount of inclination can be actually measured directly by
a clinometer (a magnetic compass-like instrument).

Dip literally means slope or inclination. In structural geology, dip is

expressed both as direction and amount. The dip direction is the direction
along which the inclination of the bedding plane occurs.
ATTITUDE OF BEDS
 Any geological formation exposed on the surface is called an
outcrop. It is also used as a general term to refer exposed folds,
O faults, joints, etc. The shape and width of the outcrop of the
U inclined bed depends upon the direction and amount of its dip and
the surface slope of the region as the following illustration reveal.
T
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O
P
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 GEOLOGICAL MAPS

Definition and Purpose of Geological Maps

Geological maps provide a visual
representation of the geology of a region,
including rock types, faults, folds, and
other geological features. The purpose of
these maps is to help geologists
understand the geological history and
structure of a given area, which can be
used for a variety of purposes, such as
mineral exploration, natural resource
management, and hazard assessment.
GEOLOGICAL MAPS
Map Symbols and Conventions
Geological maps use a variety of symbols
and conventions to represent different geological
features. These symbols can include colors,
patterns, and line types, which represent
different rock types, faults, folds, and other
features.
Scale and Accuracy
Geological maps are created at different
scales, depending on the size of the area being
studied. The accuracy of these maps is also an
important consideration, as errors or
inaccuracies can have significant implications
for natural resource management, hazard
assessment, and engineering projects.
Types of Geological Maps
Bedrock Maps

These maps show the location and

distribution of different types of rock
formations at or near the Earth’s surface.
Bedrock maps can be used to identify the
age, composition, and structure of rocks in
an area, as well as their potential for use as
natural resources.

Bedrock Map
of Michigan
Types of Geological Maps
Surficial Maps

These maps show the distribution of

different types of surficial materials, such as soils,
sediments, and glacial deposits. Surficial maps
can be used to study the history of climate change,
the location of natural resources like water and
minerals, and the potential for soil erosion and
landslides.

Surficial Map of
Manitoba, Canada
Types of Geological Maps
Structural Maps

These maps show the

orientation and location of
different types of geologic
structures, such as faults and
folds. Structural maps can be
used to study the history of
tectonic activity in an area, as
well as the potential for
earthquakes and other natural
hazards.
Structural Map of Central and Western Zagros, Iran
 Types of Geological Maps
Mineral Maps

These maps show the

location and distribution of
different types of minerals and
mineral resources in an area.
Mineral maps can be used to
study the geology of an area, as
well as the potential for economic
development through mining
and other resource extraction.
Mineral Map of South Sudan
 Types of Geological Maps
Geologic Hazard Maps

These maps show the

potential for natural hazards,
such as earthquakes, landslides,
and volcanic eruptions, in an
area. Geologic hazard maps can
be used to identify areas that are
at risk for these types of events,
as well as to develop strategies
for mitigating their effects.
Turkey Earthquake Hazard Map
 STUDY OF
STRUCTURES
 FOLDS

Folds are one of the

most common geological
structures found in rocks.
When a set of horizontal
layers are subjected to
compressive forces, they
bend either upward or
downward. The bend
noticed in rocks are called
folds.
Parts of Folds
Limbs and Flanks
These are the sides of a fold. There are two limbs for every fold
and one limb common to the adjacent fold.
Parts of Folds

Crest and Trough

The curved portions
of the fold at the top and
bottom are called the crest
and trough respectively.
Some geologists refer to
crests and troughs as
hinges.
Parts of Folds
Axial Plane
This is the imaginary plane which divides the fold into two
equal (or nearly equal) halves. It passes through either the crest or
trough i.e., in between the limbs.
Parts of Folds
Axis
This is the trace of the intersection between the axial plane
and the crest (or trough) of the fold. When it is inclined, the angle
between the axis and the horizontal plane is called the plunge or
pitch.
Parts of Folds
Wavelength
The distance between the successive crest or troughs.
Classifications and Types of Folds

Folds are classified on the basis of:

• Symmetrical Character
• Upward or Downward Bend
• Occurrence of Plunge
• Uniformity of Bed Thickness
Classifications and Types of Folds
Anticline and Syncline
When the beds are bent upwards, the resulting fold is called
anticline (anti = opposite, cline = inclination). This fold is convex
upwards. Naturally, in such a fold, the older beds occur towards the
concave side, In a simple case, the limbs of anticline slope in opposite
directions with reference to its axial plane. But when the anticline is
refolded, the inclined character of limbs will be complicated.
Syncline is just opposite to anticline in its nature, i.e., when the beds
are bent downwards the resulting fold is called syncline. This fold is
convex downwards. In this the younger beds occur towards the concave
side and, in a simple type of syncline, its limbs dip towards each other with
reference to the axial plane.
Classifications and Types of Folds
Classifications and Types of Folds

Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Folds

When the axial plane divides a fold into two equal
halves in such a way that one half is the mirror image, then
the fold is called as symmetrical fold.
If the compressive forces responsible for folding are
not of the same magnitude, asymmetrical folds are
formed.
Classifications and Types of Folds
Classifications and Types of Folds

Plunging and Non-Plunging Folds

The plunge of a fold has already been described as the
inclination of the fold axis to the horizontal plane. Based on this, i.e.
whether the axis of a fold is inclined or horizontal, the folds are
grouped as plunging folds or non-plunging folds.
In geological maps, when strike lines are drawn for both the
limbs, for a non-plunging fold, they will be mutually parallel and for
a plunging fold they will be either converging or diverging but not
parallel.
Classifications and Types of Folds
Classifications and Types of Folds
Open and Closed Folds
Depending on the intensity of deformation, the beds of the fold may or
may not have uniform thickness. If the thickness of beds is uniform throughout
the folds, it is called an open fold. On the other hand, in a fold, if the beds are
thinner in the limb portions and thicker at crest and trough, such a fold is called
closed fold.
 FAULTS
From the Civil engineering point of
view, faults are the most unfavorable and
undesirable geological structures at the
site for any given purpose. This is
because faults considerably weaken the
rocks and render the sites in which they
occur as unfavorable places for all
constructional purposes. Further, as long
as the faults are active, the site is unstable
and susceptible to upward, downward or
sideward movement along the fault plane,
thereby making the places highly
hazardous for foundation purposes.
Parts of a Fault
Fault Plane
This is the plane along which
the adjacent blocks were relatively
displaced. In other words, this is
the fracture surface on either side
of which the rocks had moved past
one another. Its intersection with
the horizontal plane gives the
strike direction of the fault. The
direction along which the fault
plane has the maximum slope is its
true dip direction.
Parts of a Fault

Foot Wall and Hanging Wall

When the fault plane is
inclined, the faulted block which lies
below the fault plane is called the
“foot wall” and the other block
which rests above the fault plane is
called “hanging wall”. In this case
of vertical faults, naturally the
faulted blocks cannot be described
as foot wall or hanging wall.
Parts of a Fault

Slip
The displacement that occurs
during faulting is called the slip.
The total displacement is known as
the next slip. This may be along the
strike direction or the dip direction
or along both.
Parts of a Fault

Heave and Throw

The horizontal
component of displacement
is called “heave” and the
vertical component of
displacement is called
“throw.” In vertical faults,
there is only throw, but no
heave. In horizontal faults,
there is only heave, but no
throw.
Classifications and Types of Folds

Like folds, faults also have been classified on the basis of

different principles as:
• Types of displacement along the plane
• Relative movement of foot wall and hanging wall
• Types of slip involved
• Mode of occurrence of faults
Classifications and Types of Folds

Types of Displacement along the Plane

Based on this principle, faults are divisible into transitional

faults and rotational faults. In the case of transitional faults, the
type of displacement of the foot wall with reference to the
hanging wall is uniform along the fault plane. In the case of the
rotational fault the displacement varies from place to place.
Classifications and Types of Folds

Relative Movement of the

Footwall and the Hanging Wall

In the case of inclined faults, if the

hanging wall goes down with reference
to the footwall, it is called normal fault
or Gravity fault. These terms are very
appropriate because of the hanging
wall is normally expected to move down
along the slope of the fault plane under
the influence of gravity.
Classifications and Types of Folds

Relative Movement of the

Footwall and the Hanging Wall

If the kind of displacement of the

hanging wall is opposite to this, the fault
is called Reverse faults or thrust fault.
These terms also are appropriate
because in such fault plane and,
therefore the type of displacement is the
reverse of the normally expected
downward movement of the hanging
wall under such a condition.
Classifications and Types of Folds
Relative Movement of the Footwall and the Hanging Wall

If the relative displacement of the hanging wall is neither upwards nor

downwards with reference to the inclined fault plane, but sideward, then such
faults are described as Dextral Faults or Sinistral Faults depending on
whether the displacement of the hanging wall is towards right-hand side or
left-hand side, when the fault plane is inclined downwards towards the
observer.
Classifications and Types of Folds
Types of Slip Involved

Slip has been already described as the displacement along the fault
plane. If the displacement is along the strike direction of the fault plane, such
a fault is described as strike slip fault. On the other hand. If the
displacement occurs partly along the strike direction of the fault plane, such
a fault is called an oblique slip fault.
Classifications and Types of Folds

Mode of Occurrence of Faults

• Radial Faults – When a set of faults occur on the surface and

appears to be radiating from a common point, they are called
radial faults.
• En Echelon Faults – These refer to a series of minor faults
which appear to be overlapping one another.
• Arculate or Peripheral Faults – These also refers to a set of
relatively minor faults which have curved outcrop and are
arranged in a peripheral manner, enclosing more or less a
circular area.
Classifications and Types of Folds
 JOINTS
Joints are fractures found in all types of rocks. They are cracks or openings
formed due to various reasons. Naturally, the presence of joints divides the rock
into number of parts or blocks. In simple terms, through the joints may be
described as mere cracks in rocks, they differ mutually. Joints, like cleavages of
minerals, occur oriented in a definite direction and as a set.
Parts of a Joint

Joints like faults, refer to

the fracture in rocks. Hence, like
faults, inclined and vertical
joints also can be described by
their attitude. However, in joints
the fracturing blocks are not
named as footwall or hanging
wall.
Classifications of Joints
Classification Based on the Relative Attitude of Joints
When the joints are parallel to the strike and dip of adjacent beds,
they are called Strike Joints or Dip Joints, respectively. If the strike
direction of joints is parallel neither to the strike nor dip direction of
adjacent beds, then such joints are called Oblique Joints. If the strike
direction, dip direction and dip amount) coincides completely with the
attitude of adjacent beds, they are called bedding joints.

Classification Based on the Origin of Joints

Most of the joints are formed due to either tensional forces or
shearing forces. Accordingly, they are described as Tension or Shear
Joint.
Classifications of Joints
 ROCK
MECHANICS
 ROCK MECHANICS

Rock mechanics is the theoretical and applied science of the mechanical

behavior of rock. It is that branch of mechanics concerned with the response
of rock to the force fields of its physical environment.

Engineering rock mechanics is applied in human activities including

civil engineering, engineering geology, mining, petroleum, and environmental
engineering while geological rock mechanics deals with the rock’s response
caused by natural geological processes such as faults, folds or fractures.

Rock mechanics is an important field in civil engineering as it applies in

the majority of infrastructure projects including dams, roads, tunnels,
bridges, buildings, and protection of slopes.
Branches of Rock Mechanics

a. Structural rock mechanics, which is concerned with the stability of engineering

structures in which the material is predominantly rock.

b. Comminution, which is concerned with the reduction of rock to small

fragments by the application of external forces as in drilling, blasting, cutting
and grinding.

Both these branches of rock mechanics involve the control of rock

deformation and fracture processes. In the first case, excessive rock failure (failure
is taken to mean either excessive deformation or fracture) must be avoided in order
to preserve the stability of the structure. In the second case, rock fracture must be
induced with the minimum input of external energy.
Rock Fracture (Rockburst)
Rockburst is defined as damage to
underground workings caused by the
uncontrolled disruption of rock associated
with a violent release of energy additional
to that derived from falling rock fragments.
The main causes of rockbursts are
associated with the energy changes
induced by mining in the rocks
surrounding large excavations. From the
rock mechanics point of view, the main
characteristic of a rockburst is the fact that
it occurs in hard, brittle, highly competent
rocks. Effects of Rockburst in a
Deep-level Gold Mine
Factors Governing Fracture
Fracture of Anisotropic Rock
An extreme example of a rock in
which inherent cracks are not randomly
distributed is slate. If it is assumed that
slate contains two crack systems, one
preferentially oriented system of large
bedding plane cracks and one
randomly oriented set of small grain
boundary cracks, it becomes possible
to calculate the stress levels at which
fracture would initiate under various
conditions. Relationship between Bedding Plane
Orientation and Strength of Slate
Factors Governing Fracture

Influence of Environment upon Rock Strength

The influence of temperature upon the strength of rock is

probably not significant within the normal range of temperatures
encountered by the civil or mining engineer. However, at great depths
where the temperatures approach the melting point of some of the
rock constituents, the reduction in strength may be significant and
could be of importance to those concerned with the overall behavior
of the earth's crust and with the origin of deep-level earthquakes.
Factors Governing Fracture

Influence of Fluid Pressure

A further threat to the stability of a rock structure occurs when

water is present under pressure. This fluid pressure reduces the
compressive stress acting across a fissure or fracture plane and hence
the frictional resistance which causes interlocking of blocks of rocks
can be reduced. In an extreme case, one block can be literally floated
off another by the buoyance effect of water pressure. The role of fluid
pressure in determining the strength of a rock mass is fairly well
understood and its influence can be allowed for in strength calculations.
Factors Governing Fracture

Time-dependent Failure of Rock

One of the least understood aspects of the mechanical behavior of rock
is the influence of time upon its deformation and fracture. It is convenient to
consider this subject under:
a. Weathering, which is the gradual deterioration of an exposed rock
surface. This deterioration may take place in the absence of applied
stress and is due mainly to physical and chemical processes which are
governed by the environment to which the rock is exposed.
b. Time-dependent Mechanical Behavior, which involves the deformation
or fracture of rock under conditions of constant applied stress
(frequently referred to as “creep”).
 PHYSICAL
AND MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
 Physical properties of rocks
are those properties that
can be observed or
measured without causing
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES any change in the
composition or internal
POROSITY structure of the rock. These
PERMEABILITY properties include porosity,
permeability, and density.
DENSITY

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
 Porosity refers to the amount of open space, or
pores, within a rock. It is a measure of how
much water or other fluids the rock can hold.
Porosity is important for understanding of
aquifers, oil reservoirs, and other geological
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
formations that store fluids. Rocks with high
porosity are generally more permeable and can
POROSITY hold more fluids.

PERMEABILITY

DENSITY

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

STRENGTH
 Permeability refers to the ability of
rock to allow fluids to flow through it.
It is related to porosity but also
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
depends on the connectivity of the
POROSITY pores. Rocks with high permeability
are generally easier to extract fluids
from, such as oil or water.
PERMEABILITY

DENSITY

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

STRENGTH

HARDNESS
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES Density is the mass of a rock per unit
volume. It is an important property
POROSITY for determining the weight and
strength of a rock, and it can be used
PERMEABILITY
to distinguish between different types
of rocks.
DENSITY

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

STRENGTH

HARDNESS

ELASTICITY
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

POROSITY

PERMEABILITY
Mechanical properties of
DENSITY rocks are properties that
describe how rocks behave
MECHANICAL
under stress or strain. These
PROPERTIES
properties include strength,
STRENGTH hardness, elasticity, and
plasticity.
HARDNESS

ELASTICITY

PLASTICITY
 POROSITY

PERMEABILITY
Strength refers to the ability of a rock
DENSITY
to resist deformation and breaking
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES under stress. It depends on a variety
of factors, such as the mineral
composition, structure, and history of
STRENGTH
rocks. Strength is an important
property of determining the stability
HARDNESS of geological formations and designing
structures that rely on the strength of
ELASTICITY
rock, such as dams or bridges.
PLASTICITY
 PERMEABILITY
Hardness is a measure of a rock’s resistance to
DENSITY scratching or abrasion. It is determined by the
mineral composition of the rock and is often
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES used to identify different types of rocks.
Hardness is an important property for
STRENGTH
determining the suitability of a rock for
various purposes, such as construction
HARDNESS materials or decorative purposes.

ELASTICITY

PLASTICITY
 DENSITY
Elasticity is the ability of a rock to deform and
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES then return to its original shape when the stress
is removed. It is related to the strength of the
STRENGTH
rock and depends on the mineral composition
HARDNESS and structure. Elasticity is important for
understanding the behavior of rocks under
stress and designing structures that can
ELASTICITY withstand deformation.

PLASTICITY
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Plasticity is the ability of a rock to deform
STRENGTH permanently under stress, without fracturing
or breaking. It is related to the strength and
HARDNESS elasticity of the rock and depends on the
mineral composition and structure. Plasticity is
ELASTICITY
important for understanding the long-term
behavior of rocks under stress and designing
PLASTICITY structures that can withstand permanent
deformation.
DYNAMIC PROPERTY
OF ROCKS
DYNAMIC PROPERTY OF ROCKS
 WAVE
THEORY
 WAVE THEORY

In 1678, Dutch physicist, Christiaan Huygens,

believed that light was made up of waves vibrating up
and down perpendicular to the direction of light, and
therefore formulated a way of visualizing wave
propagation. Wave theories provide a mathematical
description of changes in the form of waves, and the
orbital motion associated with them, from deep water to
the breaker line and into the surf zone.
Types of Wave Theory
Body Waves
1. P-Wave – It is the primary seismic
wave detected by seismographs that
able to move through both liquid
and solid rock.

2. S-Wave – Secondary body waves

that oscillate the ground
perpendicular to the direction of
wave travel. They travel about 1.7
times slower than P waves.
Types of Wave Theory
Surface Waves
1. Love Waves – surface waves that
move parallel to the Earth’s surface
and perpendicular to the direction
of wave propagation.

2. Rayleigh Waves – surface waves

that move in an elliptical motion,
producing both a vertical and
horizontal component of motion in
the direction of wave propagation.