REFRIGERATION,

COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS

& EFFICIENT USE OF ENERGY

1
 Principles of Refrigeration
Refrigeration means to

COOL AN OBJECT BELOW ITS

SURROUNDING TEMPERATURE

2
 Vapour Compression Cycle
Basic Components of the vapour
compression refrigeration system

3 2
• Compressor CONDENSER

• Condenser EXPANSION VALVE COMPRESSOR

• Throttling Device
EVAPORATOR

• Evaporator 4 1

3
 Vapour Compression Cycle
PRESSUR
KN/m2E
CONDENSER HEAT REJECTION

CONDENSATION
3 2
Pd CONDENSER
3 2
COMPRESSION
THROTTLING
EXPANSION VALVE COMPRESSOR

Pe EVAPORATOR
4 EVAPORATION
1 4 1

ENTHALPY
WORK DONE KJ/Kg
REFRIGERATION EFFECT

4
VAPOUR COMPRESSION
CYCLE
COMPONENTS

5
REFRIGERANTS
CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS (CFC)
• R-11
• R-12

HYDROCHLOROFLUOROCARBONS (HCFC)
R- 22
R-123

HYDROFLUOROCARBONS (HFC)
R-32
R-125
R-134a
R-143a

INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
R- 717
R- 718
R- 729
6
 Unit of Refrigeration
The unit of refrigeration is
TON OF REFRIGERATION ( TR )
1 TR = 12’000 Btu/hr BRITISH UNITS
1 TR = 3.517 KW SI UNITS

7
Refrigeration Cycle Efficiency

The refrigeration cycle efficiency is known as

COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE (COPREF)
(COPREF) = Refrigeration Effect KJ/Kg
Work Done KJ/Kg

(COPHP) = Condenser Heat Rejection KJ/Kg

Work Done KJ/Kg

8
 Refrigeration Equipment
Efficiency
The equipment efficiency is given as EER or kW/TR
ENERGY EFFICIENCY RATIO (EER)
Use for smaller capacity equipment such as Window type & Split type
equipment
(EER) = Capacity Btu/hr
Power Input Watts

kW/TR Use for large capacity equipment such as Chillers

(kW/TR) = Power Input kW

Capacity TR

9
P-h DIAGRAM FOR REFRIGERANT 134a

10
MONTRÉAL PROTOCOL OBLIGATIONS

1. Face-out of CFC in year 2005

2. Introduction of Quota for HCFC in
year 2015
3. Face-out of HCFC in year 2040

11
 ASHRAE Standard 34-1992
Refrigerant Safety Classifications

Higher
Flammability Group A3 Group B3
INCREASING FLAMMABILITY

Lower
Flammability Group A2 Group B2

No Flame
Propagation Group A1 Group B1

INCREASING TOXICITY

Lower Higher
Toxicity Toxicity
12
 Refrigerant Data &
Safety Classifications

REFRIGERANT CHEMICAL CHEMICAL REFRIGERANT AMOUNT OF TLV-TWA

FORMULA NAME SAFETY REFRIGERANT (ppm)
CLASSIFICATION PER OCCUPIED
SPACE (ppm)

R-11 CCl3 Trichlorofluoromethane A1 4’000 C1’000

R-12 CCl2F2 Dichlorodifluoromethane A1 40’000 1’000
R-22 CHClF2 Chlorodifluoromethane A1 42’000 1’000
R-134a CH2FCF 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane A1 60’000 1’000
3

R-717 NH3 Ammonia B2 500 25

13
 AMMONIA (NH3) R-717
• In-expensive Refrigerant best suited for industrial
use
• Higher refrigeration effect 474 Btu/lb,
comparison; R-12 = 50 Btu/lb , R-22 = 70 Btu/lb,
R-134a = 64 Btu/lb, R-404A = 48 Btu/lb
7- times higher refrigeration effect!!!

• Specific volume of suction gas is high 8 ft3/lb

compare to 1.2 ft3/lb of R-22, needs larger pipes,
compressors

• Higher delivery temperatures 210 ºF, needs water

cooled heads for compressor

14
COOLING TOWER (CT)
INDUCED DRAUGHT

15
COOLING TOWER (CT)
CROSS FLOW

16
COOLING TOWER (CT)
FORCED DRAUGHT

17
WATER PUMPS
VERTICAL IN-LINE

18
 FAILURES
DETECTION OF SIMPLE FAILURES
 Refrigeration Plant should function properly, if the
following checks are OK.
 At a glance
• Suction sweat
• Warm liquid line & clear sight glass from bubbles
• Condenser outlet air warm
• Condenser water in & out has significant feel of temp
deference
 Using measuring equipment
• Manifold Gauge Set - measure the pressure of refrigerant
• Clip-on Ammeter - measure the current flow and
voltage
• Sling Psychrometer - measure the dry bulb & wet bulb
temp.
• Anemometer - measure the air flow 19
 FAILURES
DETECTION OF SIMPLE FAILURES …cont.
Detection by observation - A/C unit malfunction if the
following observations are found
• Sweating down stream of the Filter/dryer – Filter Block
• Ice build up at compressor – Over Charge, damaged
comp. valves
• Ice build up at evaporator – Under charge, gas leak, air
filter clogged, cooling coil blocked, fan belts are loose
• Bubbles in the sight glass- lack of refrigerant or blocked
filter/drier
• Oil drops near refrigerant pipe fittings, components etc.
– Refrigerant leaks in the system.
• Condenser shell cooler & evaporator shell warmer
(Centrifugal Chiller) – at low condensing temperatures,
refrigerant migrates to evaporator
20
COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS

21
 Compressed air system provides……..

 Provides air under

compression to pneumatic
drives
 Use reciprocating or screw
compressors with storage
receiver
 Use pressure regulators at
the air user point to reduce
the air pressure
 Use water separators to
prevent water vapour
entering the air user
equipment

22
 ROTARY SCREW
COMPRESSORS

 Pulsation free air

 100% continuous duty
 Quiet operation
 Energy efficient at full load
 Extended service intervals
 Reliable long life
 Improved air quality

23
 TIPS FOR COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS

 Locate the compressor closest to the largest air

user to reduce pressure drop through the air line
 Ventilate the compressor well
 Keep 3 feet around the compressor unit
 Surrounding temperature should be below 115 ºF
 Avoid extreme humidity
 Keep air filters clean all the time
 Use refrigerated and desiccant dryers to reduce
water vapour concentration

24
EFFICIENT USE OF ENERGY
Resources are limited and conserve energy

Refrigeration
 Reduce heat transfer
 Select energy efficient equipments

Compressed air systems

 Fix all leaks in the piping
 Regulate lowest pressure at air user
 Reduce blow-offs
 Shut-off air supply to off-line air users
 Consider multi staged compressors

25
COMMERCIAL REFRIGERATION
COMPRESSORS
 UNIT OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, the reader should be
able to
• Explain the function of the compressor
• Discuss the concept of compression ratio
• List common compressors found in refrigeration
systems
• Describe four different methods of compression
• Describe the component parts of reciprocating
compressors
 Compressors in Refrigeration
 Refrigerant compressors compress the
gaseous refrigerant from the evaporator
pressure level to the condenser pressure
level. The mechanical energy is added into
the refrigeration cycle via the compressor.
Generally the compressors are driven
electrically, but there is also the drive via a
standard internal combustion engine
(vehicle air conditioning system).
4/22/2023 28
A special case is the steam jet
refrigeration system. Here a partial fl ow of
the refrigerant steam is used for the
compression itself. Steam jet refrigeration
systems are driven thermally and can
directly use alternative energy sources
such as solar heat or waste heat.

4/22/2023 29
 FUNCTION OF THE
COMPRESSOR
 Considered the heart of the refrigeration
systems
 Compressors are vapor pumps
 Responsible for lowering the pressure on the
suction side of the system
 Responsible for increasing the pressure on the
discharge side of the system
 Suction gas from the evaporator enters the
compressor
 Refrigerant is discharged to the condenser
4/22/2023 31
4/22/2023 32
 TYPES OF COMPRESSORS
 Reciprocating
 Fully welded, hermetic compressors
 Semi-hermetic compressors
 Open-drive compressors
 Belt-driven and direct-drive compressors
 Screw compressors
 Rotary compressors
 Scroll compressors
 Centrifugal compressors
 Compressor designs in
refrigeration

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 Housing designs

Hermetic compressor
• drive motor and compressor in a welded housing
without seals (capsule)
• cooling via intake gas
• maintenance-free, must be replaced in case of a fault
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Semi-hermetic compressor
• drive motor and compressor in a screwed housing
• cooling via intake gas
• can be repaired if damaged

4/22/2023 36
Open compressor
• compressor in a screwed housing
• combined intake gas and air cooling
• drive via an external motor, output can be adjusted
via the transmission of the belt drive
• shaft feedthrough prone to failure
•4/22/2023
can be repaired if damaged 37
 WELDED HERMETIC
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
 Motor and compressor contained in a welded
shell
 Cannot be field serviced
 Typically a “throw-away” compressor
 Considered to be a low-side component
 Cooled by suction gas from the evaporator
 Lubricated by the splash method
 SEMI-HERMETIC
COMPRESSORS
 Bolted together, can be field serviced
 Housing is made of cast iron
 Has a horizontal crankshaft
 Smaller compressors are splash lubricated
 Larger compressors use pressure lubrication
systems
 Often air cooled
 Piston heads are located at the top of the
compressor
 OPEN DRIVE COMPRESSORS
 Can be direct drive or belt-driven compressors
 Must have a shaft seal to prevent leakage
 Bolted together, can be filed serviced
 Belt-driven compressors have the compressor
and motor shafts parallel to each other
 Belt-driven compressors use belts and pulleys
 Direct drive compressors have the compressor
and motor shafts connected end to end
 OTHER COMPRESSOR TYPES
 Screw compressor
 Used in large commercial/industrial applications
 Uses two matching, tapered gears, and open motor
design
 Rotary compressor
 Used in residential and light commercial
applications
 Scroll compressor
 Uses a matched set or scrolls to achieve
compression
 Centrifugal compressors
 Used extensively for air conditioning in large
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
COMPONENTS
 Crankshaft
 Transfers motor motion to the piston
 Creates the back and forth motion of the piston
 Connecting rods
 Connects the crankshaft to the pistons
 Pistons
 Slide up and down in the cylinder
 Used to compress and expand the refrigerant
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
COMPONENTS (cont’d)
 Refrigerant cylinder valves (suction)
 Durable, flexible steel
 Located on the bottom of the valve plate
 Open when refrigerant is introduced to the pump
 Refrigerant cylinder valves (discharge)
 Durable, flexible steel
 Open when refrigerant is discharged from the
pump
 Located on the top of the valve plate
 Suction line Discharge line
Head Discharge valve
Valve plate Rings
Suction valve Piston

Connecting Rod Crankshaft

 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
COMPONENTS (cont’d)
 Compressor head
 Holds the top of the cylinder and its components
together
 Contains both high and low pressure refrigerant
 Mufflers
 Designed to reduce compressor noise
 Compressor housing
 Encases the compressor and sometimes the motor
 BELT-DRIVE MECHANISMS
 Motor pulley is called the drive pulley
 Compressor pulley is called the driven pulley
 Pulleys can be adjusted to change compressor
speed
 Drive size x Drive rpm = Driven size x Driven
rpm
 Shafts must be properly aligned
 Pulleys with multiple grooves must used
matched sets of belts
 DIRECT-DRIVE COMPRESSOR
CHARACTERISTICS
 Direct drive compressors turn at the
same speed as the motor used
 Motor shaft and compressor shaft must
be perfectly aligned end to end
 Motor shaft and compressor shafts are
joined with a flexible coupling
 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
EFFICIENCY
 Determined by initial compressor design
 Four processes take place during the
compression process
 Expansion (re-expansion)
 Suction (Intake)
 Compression
 Discharge
COMPRESSION PROCESS - EXPANSION
 Piston is the highest point in the cylinder
 Referred to as top dead center
 Both the suction and discharge valves are
closed
 Cylinder pressure is equal to discharge
pressure
 As the crankshaft continues to turn, the piston
moves down in the cylinder
 The volume in the cylinder increases
 The pressure of the refrigerant decreases
Suction valve
closed Discharge valve
closed
Pressure of the
refrigerant in the
cylinder is equal to Refrigerant
the discharge trapped in the
pressure cylinder

Piston moving downward in the cylinder

 COMPRESSION PROCESS – SUCTION
 As the piston moves down, the pressure
decreases
 When the cylinder pressure falls below suction
pressure, the suction valve opens
 The discharge valve remains in the closed
position
 As the piston continues downward, vapor from
the suction line is pulled into the cylinder
 Suction continues until the piston reaches the
lowest position in the cylinder (bottom dead
center)
 At the bottom of the stroke, suction valves close
Suction valve
open Discharge valve
closed
Pressure of the
refrigerant in the
cylinder is equal to Suction gas
the suction pulled into the
pressure compression
cylinder

Piston moving downward in the cylinder

 COMPRESSION PROCESS -
COMPRESSION
 Piston starts to move upwards in the cylinder
 The suction valve closes and the discharge
valve remains closed
 As the piston moves upwards, the volume in the
cylinder decreases
 The pressure of the refrigerant increases
 Compression continues until the pressure in the
cylinder rises just above discharge pressure
Suction valve
closed Discharge valve
closed
Pressure of the
refrigerant in the
cylinder is equal to Volume is
the suction decreasing,
pressure compressing the
refrigerant

Piston moving up in the cylinder

 COMPRESSION PROCESS -
DISCHARGE
 When the cylinder pressure rises above
discharge pressure, the discharge valve opens
and the suction valve remains closed
 As the piston continues to move upwards, the
refrigerant is discharged from the compressor
 Discharge continues until the piston reaches
top dead center
Suction valve
open Discharge valve
closed
Pressure of the
refrigerant in the
cylinder is equal to Discharge gas
the discharge pushed from the
pressure compression
cylinder

Piston moving up in the cylinder

 COMPRESSION RATIO
 Compares pumping conditions for compressors
 Defined as the high side pressure (psia) divided
by the low side pressure (psia)
 High compression ratio can lead to overheated
compressor oil
 High compression ratio leads to reduced
refrigerant flow through the system
 Reduced refrigerant flow reduces system
capacity
COMPRESSION RATIO EXAMPLES
 R-12 compressor
 169 psig high side, 2 psig low side
 183.7 psia high side, 16.7 psia low side
 183.7 psia ÷ 16.7 psia = 11:1 compression ratio
 R-134a compressor
 184.6 psig high side, 0.7 in. Hg. vacuum low side
 199.3 psia high side, 14.35 psia low side
 199.3 psia ÷ 14.35 psia = 13.89:1 compression
ratio
 TWO-STAGE COMPRESSION
 Lowers the compression ratio
 Utilizes two compressors
 One compressor discharges into suction of the
other
 Also referred to as compound compression
 Often used when the compression ratio of a
single compressor system exceeds 10:1
 Often used in low-temperature commercial and
industrial storage applications
 TWO-STAGE COMPRESSION

Discharge Discharge

Suction

Suction

21 psig 100 psig 169 psig

FIRST STAGE SECOND STAGE

 LIQUID IN THE COMPRESSION
CYLINDER
 Ifliquid enters the cylinder, damage will occur
 Liquids cannot be compressed
 Liquid slugging can cause immediate damage
to the compressor components
 Common causes of liquid slugging include an
overfeeding metering device, poor evaporator
air circulation, low heat load, defective
evaporator fan motor and a frosted evaporator
coil
 SYSTEM MAINTENANCE AND
COMPRESSOR EFFICIENCY
 High suction pressures and low discharge
pressures keep the compression ratio low
 Dirty evaporators cause suction pressure to
drop
 Low suction reduces compressor pumping
capacity
 Dirty condensers increase head pressure
 Compression ratio is increased by dirty or
blocked condenser and evaporator coils


4/22/2023 71


4/22/2023 72


4/22/2023 73
 To reduce the discharge temperature and
the work of compression, the compressor
cylinder is normally cooled either by water
jacketing as in the case of ammonia or
simply by surrounding air by natural
convection as in the case of R12

4/22/2023 74
 Effect of Valve Pressure Drops


4/22/2023 75
 Leakage Loss


4/22/2023 76
 Overall Volumetric Efficiency


4/22/2023 77
 The methods of improving the
VE include the following:
 Providing clearance as small as possible,
 Maintaining low pressure ratio
 Cooling during compression
 Reducing pressure drops at the valves by
designing a light-weight valve mechanism,
minimizing valve overlaps
 Choosing suitable lubricating oils

4/22/2023 78
 Effect of Clearance Work


4/22/2023 79
 One cubic meter of a gas is compressed
adiabatically from 1 bar to 5 bar in a
reciprocating compressor with 8%
clearance. If the exponent of the re-
expansion curve is 1.1 instead of 1.4, find
the percentage increase in the work of
compression.

4/22/2023 80
 Principal Dimensions of RC


4/22/2023 81


4/22/2023 82
 Performance Characteristics of
RC


4/22/2023 83
 A R22 reciprocating compressor 4%
clearance ,7.5 TR
 Eb]vaporating temperature 4 deg C
 Condensing temperature 40 deg C
 Compression index = 1.15
 Mean speed = 3m/s
 Stroke to bore ratio = 0.8
 Pressure drops at suction 0.2 bar
 Pressure drops at discharge valve 0.4 bar

4/22/2023 84
 UNIT SUMMARY - 1
 The compressor is responsible for pumping
refrigerant through the refrigeration system
 The compressor lowers the pressure on the low
side of the system and increases the pressure
on the high side of the system
 The compression ratio compares pumping
conditions for compressors
 Comp. Ratio = High side (psia) ÷ Low side
(psia)
 UNIT SUMMARY - 2
 Two-stage compression uses two
compressors where one compressor
discharges into the suction of the second
compressor
 Used when the compression ratio for
single-stage compression is higher than
10:1
 Common compressor types include the
rotary, the reciprocating, the scroll, the
screw and the centrifugal
 UNIT SUMMARY - 3
 Hermetic compressors are factory welded
and not field serviceable
 Semi-hermetic compressors are bolted
together and can be serviced in the field
 Open drive compressors have the motor
separate from the compressor
 Open drive compressors can be direct drive
or belt-driven
 UNIT SUMMARY - 4
 Reciprocating compressors are equipped with
suction and discharge valves
 The suction and discharge valves open and
close to facilitate the expansion, suction,
compression and discharge processes
 Compressors can become damaged if liquid
enters
 High suction pressures and low discharge
pressures will help keep the compression ratio
low
THANK

89