SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

1. To learn about the philosophy of Christian Norberg

Schulz.
2. To learn about the building techniques that is used in
modern period and was used in ancient period.
3. To gain knowledge about the design process and
techniques.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

1. For completing this project, and reaching the

objectives, study on philosophy of Christian Norberg
Schulz will be studied.
2. Similarly, the materials and methods of building
techniques will be searched.
3. Also, typology of system of techniques will be studied.

LIMITATIONS OF RESEARCH

This project will contain and research on the necessary

information and data required for developing building
techniques. The research will be limited with only the
information, philosophy, typology, methods and
materials for building.
INTRODUCTION

While in the process of building, the construction is the

necessary means of solving the building task.

The ultimate purpose of building techniques is to create stable

structure. In mechanical terms, structure are stable when all
their parts are in a state of equilibrium or rest. Walls and roofs
can buckle, crack, or collapsed if they are not properly
designed. The stability of the total structure whose single
members are all in equilibrium is achieved by diverting the
loads from all of them downward so that they maybe resisted
by the upward supporting forces of the ground.

A certain technique (building technique) is required to learn

and with the term “technical system”, it designated an order
repetition of a number of technical elements.

The technical element held either the materials such as

wooden construction, reinforced concrete construction while
the other element held inward the construction does such as
foundation, walls and ceiling.
PHILOSOPHY

By saying of Christian Norberg Schulz, “it is difficult to build the

house with dissimilar pieces of materials especially if the house
should have a regular shape.”
A rational production of a limited number of parts will reduce
the waste to a minimum and the process of construction itself
is simplified through a repetition of the same operation. Also,
the construction should have a certain regularity both because
more favorable statical conditions result and because the
calculations of an irregular structure is difficult or impossible.
For example: “in a dome over a circular plan, all the segments
running from the periphery to the center are essentially alike; a
barrel vault maybe sub divided in equal arches, and skeleton
structures repeat the same elements through out.”
TYPOLOGY

The technical system may be divided into classes with

characteristics properties. The technical system proper came
into existence through the development of building methods
which were adopted to more differentiate building tasks and
formal structures.
The system may conveniently be divided into two classes:
1. Massive system
2. Skeleton system
Both classes have many variant and their exists transitory types
and combine system but both the basic system types served
two purposes; the building of bounding walls, and the covering
of the spaces formed in this way.
1. MASSIVE SYSTEM

A massive system is defined as consisting of elements

which are simultaneously bounding and supporting. The
element of the massive enclosing system are thus isotropic
masses which are either built up through addition of
subordinate elements (such as bricks) or caste as a
monolithic mass.

Massive enclosing system therefore usually has been

combined with covering of the skeleton types (beams,
girders, trusses).

They are exemplified by domes ad vaults, where the

material is subject to compression.
The roman method of concrete construction realized a
complete massive system permitting the covering of large
spaces and offering a certain freedom of space forms and
placing of openings.

A real massive system is thus characterized by the

approximate equivalence of all technical elements. They
can only serve building tasks possessing a simple
functional structure. The insufficiency of the massive
system thus has been counteracted by an approach to the
skeleton system. This fact explain the aversion of modern
architect to massive construction.
2. SKELETON SYSTEM

A skeleton system is defined through the distinction of

bounding and supporting elements. It consists of primary
and secondary part and has richer surface structure than
the massive structure. Trusses and frames of steel or shells
corrugated slabs in reinforced concrete permit the
covering of areas. The primary members of a skeleton
system form a tri dimension grid which may be more or
less regular. One of the most interesting possibility offers
by the skeleton system is the formation of flexible
structure.

The secondary parts can be of different types can be of

different kinds. The secondary may be divided in covering,
filling and free standing elements. A problem of great
importance when planning skeleton system is the
technical connection of the individual parts, ”joints”. They
offered the possibilities for articulation. A modern
concrete techniques as developed by Nervi, realizes a
unique synthesis of possibilities. The technical system of
the past were relatively a simple and could never play a
leading part. A clear construction not only gives coherence
to the building because of its repetition. This is the new
and decisive role of the technical dimension in the
architectural totality.
MATERIALS

In the designing process materials are the most important to

show in physical form. So, many materials are used widely to
construct the design in given site from the ancient period to
modern period. Most of the materials that are vastly used in
the world are such as:

1. Stone

In most area where stone is available, it has been favored

over other material for the construction of other material for
the construction of monumental architecture.
Its advantages are:
i. Durability
ii. Adaptability
iii. Sculptural treatment

But it is difficult to quarry, transport, cut, and its weakness in

tension limits its use for beams, lintels and floor supports.

Fig. stone structure

2. Bricks

Brick compares favorably with stone as a structural material

for its fire and weather resisting qualities and for the ease of
of production, transportations and laying. The size of bricks is
limited by the need of efficient drying, firing, and handling,
but shape, along with the technique of brick laying, have
varied widely throughout history. The commonest ancient
roman brick were cut into triangle and laid with the base out
and apex, set into a concrete filling that provided additional
strength. Brick, which has been used since the 4th millennium
BCE, was the chief building materials in the ancient near east.
It was widely used in the 20th century, often for non -bearing
walls in steel framed construction.

Fig. brick building

 3. Wood

Wood is easier to acquire, transport, and work then other

natural material. All part of the building can be efficiently
constructed of wood except foundation. The strength of wood
in both tension and compression arises from its organic nature,
which give it and internal structure of longitudinal and radial
fibers that is not impaired by cutting or long exposure. The
principal solid system, called log construction.

The history of wood construction can be traced consistently in

China, Korea, and Japan and in the domestic architecture of
northern Europe and North America.

They can be used in heavy framing system with compound

beams and girders, interior and exterior facing with plywood
and other composite panel, and arch and truss system with
laminated and members that can be design to meet particular
structural demands.
 4. Iron and steel

The development of construction method in iron and steel was

the most important innovation in architecture in ancient time.
This method provide far stronger and taller structure with less
expenditure of material than stone, brick or wood and produce
greater on supported spans over openings and interior or
exterior.

Steel structure members are rolled in a variety of shapes, the

commonest of which are plates, angles, I-beams, U-shaped
channels. Steel must be protected against corrosion by surface
covering but alloys such as stainless steel have been developed
for exposed surfaces.

Fig. iron and steel structure

 5. Concrete

Concrete is a manufactured mixture of cement and water, with

aggregate of sand and stone which hardens rapidly by chemical
combination to a stone-like water and fire resisting solid of
great compressive strength.

Concrete was employed In ancient Egypt and was highly

developed by the ancient Romans which resulted in the
development of domes and vaults.

Fig. concrete structure

 METHODS

1. Walls

A wall is the essential component of a building

whose function is to enclosed or divide space of a
building to make it more functional and useful. They
provide security, privacy, and give protection from
natural forms.
They should be therefore designed to have
provision of adequate.
a. Strength and stability.
b. Weather resistance.
c. Durability.
d. Fire resistance.
e. Thermal insulation.
f. Sound insulation.
The walls are may divided into two kinds.

i. Load bearing wall

Load bearing wall is a wall that is an active
strucutural element of a building which holds the
weight of the element by conducting its weight to a
foundation structure below it. It is the earliest form
of construction.
Advantages of load bearing walls:
a. The construction of the load bearing wall is highly
solid and durable.
b. They poses high resistance fire.
c. In the different colors and textures, the masonry
units are available and provide freedom of
creativity to the user.
d. For masonry construction tools and equipments
are simple and cheap.

Disadvantages of load bearing walls:

a. During the action of earthquake, load bearing
wall structure perform badly.
b. The construction of the load bearing walls is
slow.
c. They are very poor thermal insulation properties.
 Fig . Load bearing walls.
ii. Cavity walls
Cavity walls is constructed with two separate
walls for single wall purpose with some space
or cavity between them.
The separate walls are called as leaves of
cavity wall. The inner wall is called internal
leaves.
Fig . Cavity walls.

Construction method:
The two leaves are constructed like normal
masonry. The cavity size should be in between
4-10 cm. The internal and external wall have at
least 10mm. thickness. The cavity maybe filled
with lean concrete with some slope at top up to
few cm above ground as shown in figure.
 Fig . Cavity walls.

Advantages of cavity walls:

a. It gives better thermal insulation than solid
walls.
b. They also act as good sound insulators.
c. Outer efflorescence is also prevented.

iii. Partition walls

A partition wall is a thin internal wall which is
constructed to divide the space within the building
into rooms or areas. It may either be load bearing
or non-load bearing. A load bearing partition wall is
called an internal walls.
 2. Lintels and arches
A. LINTELS.

Lintels as well as arches are structural members designed to

support the load. Of the portion of the wall situated above
openings and then transmit the load to the adjacent wall
portions over which this are supported.
The bearing of lintels should be the minimum of the following:
i. 10 cm
ii. Height of lintels.
iii. 1/10th to 1/12th of the span of the lintels.

CLASSIFICATION OF LINTELS
Lintels are classified into the following types, according
to the materials of their construction:
i. Timber lintels: Timber lintels are oldest type of
lintels, thought they are not commonly used
nowadays, except hilly areas.

Fig . Wooden lintel.

ii. Stone lintels: A stone lintel consist of a simple
stone slab of greater thickness. The depth of stone
lintel is kept = 10 cm per meter of span, with a
minimum of 15 cm. They are used upto span of 2m.

Fig . Stone lintels.

iii. Brick lintel: brick lintel are not structurally strong,

and they are used only when the opening is small,
less than 1 m and loads are light, the depth of brick
lintel varies from 10 to 20 cm.

Fig . Brick lintels.

iv. Steel lintel: it consist of rolled steel joints or

channel section either used singly or in
combination of 2 or 3 unit.
 Fig . Steel lintels.

v. Reinforced cement concrete lintel: It have replaced

partically all other type of lintel because of their
strength, rigidity, economy.fire resistance and ease
in construction.

Fig . R.C.C. lintel

B. ARCHES.
An arch is a structure constructed of wedge-shaped units
(bricks or stone), joined together with mortar and
spanning and opening to support the weight of the wall in
above it along with other super imposed load. Arches are
constructed where loads are heavy , span is more, strong
 abutment are available and special architectural
appearance is required.

Fig . Elements of sefmental arch.

CLASSIFICATION OF ARCHES:
An arch can be classified according to
i. Shape.

Fig . Types of arches.

 ii. Number of centers.

Fig . Bull’s eye arch. fig . Three-centred arch.

Fig . Four-centred arch. fig . Five-centred arch.

iii.Classification based on material and workmanship.
On the basis of material of construction and
workmanship, arches maybe classified as follows:
a. Stone arches
i. Rubble arch.
ii. Ashlar arch.
b. Brick arches.
i. Rough arch.
ii. Axed or rough-cut arch.
iii. Gauged arch.
iv. Purpose made brick arch.
c. Concrete arches.
i. Concrete block-unit arch.
ii. Monolithic arch.
Those types are being described in the subsequent articles
CONCLUSION
Through the completion of the report and study, we have
gained the knowledge about the building techniques methods,
materials, typologies, and the philosophy of architect Christian
Norberg Schulz that is vastly used in ancient period to modern
period of architectural world.
REFERENCE

1. Intention in architecture by Christian Norberg Schulz.

2. https://www.britannica.com/topic/architecture/Methods