CHAPTER 1 – Nature of Inquiry and Research

Lesson 1: Definition, Characteristics, and Types of Quantitative Research

DEFINITION
Research studies are done to discover new information or to answer a question
about
how we learn, behave and function with the end goal of benefitting society.
Some studies
might involve simple tasks like completing a survey, being observed among a
group of people,
or participating in a group discussion. Other studies might involve more risky
procedures like
invasive medical testing, testing new drugs, or participating in other activities
that might make
participants feel uncomfortable.

Some studies are also referred to as 'clinical trials' or 'health research. These
types of studies
test drugs, medical devices, vaccines, or other types of treatment that might
affect an
individual’s health or well-being.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative research methods include gathering and interpreting non-numerical
data.
The following are some sources of qualitative data:

Interviews, Focus groups, Documents

Personal accounts or papers, Cultural records, Observation
In the course of a qualitative study, the researcher may conduct interviews or
focus
groups to collect data that is not available in existing documents or records. To
allow freedom
for varied or unexpected answers, interviews, and focus groups may be
unstructured or semi-
structured.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative studies, in contrast, require different data collection methods.
These
methods include compiling numerical data to test causal relationships among
variables. Some
forms of data collection for this type of study include:

Experiments, Questionnaires, Surveys, Database reports

The Difference between QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

1. CONTAIN MEASURABLE VARIABLES

Data gathering instruments contain items that solicit measurable characteristics
of the
population. These measurable characteristics are referred to as the variables of
the study such
as age, the number of children, educational status, and economic status.

2. USE STANDARDIZED RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

The data collection instruments include questionnaires, polls, or surveys.
Standardized, pre-
tested instruments guide data collection thus ensuring the accuracy, reliability,
and validity of

data. Pre-testing helps identify areas in the research instruments that need
revisions. It makes
sure that respondents provide the expected answers or satisfies the intent of the
researcher to
meet the research objectives.

3. ASSUME A NORMAL POPULATION DISTRIBUTION

For more reliable data analysis of quantitative data, a normal population
distribution curve is
preferred over a non-normal distribution. This requires a large population, the
numbers of which
depend on how the characteristics of the population vary. This requires
adherence to the
principle of random sampling to avoid researcher’s bias in interpreting the
results that defeat
the purpose of research.

4. PRESENT DATA IN TABLES, GRAPHS, OR FIGURES

The data obtained using quantitative methods are organized using tables,
graphs, or figures
that consolidate large numbers of data to show trends, relationships, or
differences among
variables. This fosters understanding to the readers or clients of the research
investigation.

5. USE REPEATABLE METHOD

Researchers can repeat the quantitative method to verify or confirm the findings
in another
setting. This reinforces the validity of groundbreaking discoveries or findings
thus eliminating
the possibility of spurious or erroneous conclusions.

6. CAN PREDICT OUTCOMES

Quantitative models or formula derived from data analysis can predict
outcomes. If-then
scenarios can be constructed using complex mathematical computations with
the aid of
computers.

7. USE MEASURING DEVICES

Advanced digital or electronic instruments are used to measure or gather
quantitative data
from the field. The instruments ensure an objective and accurate collection of
data provided
that these are calibrated. Calibration means that the instruments used by the
researcher
matches the measurements of a reference instrument that is considered a
standard.
Types of Quantitative Research
It is easier to understand the different types of quantitative research designs if
you consider
how the researcher designs to control the variables in the investigation.

Survey Research:
Survey Research is the most fundamental tool for all quantitative outcome
research
methodologies and studies. Surveys used to ask questions to a sample of
respondents, using
various types such as online polls, online surveys, paper questionnaires, web-
intercept surveys,
etc.

This type of research can be conducted with a specific target audience group
and also
can be conducted across multiple groups along with comparative analysis.
There are two types of surveys, either of which can be chosen based on the time
in-hand and
the kind of data required:

Cross-sectional surveys: Cross-sectional surveys are observational surveys

conducted in
situations where the researcher intends to collect data from a sample of the
target population
at a given point in time.
Longitudinal surveys: Longitudinal surveys are also observational surveys but,
unlike
cross-sectional surveys, longitudinal surveys are conducted across various time
durations to
observe a change in respondent behavior and thought-processes.

Correlational research:
A comparison between two entities is invariable. Correlation research is
conducted to
establish a relationship between two closely-knit entities and how one impacts
the other and
what are the changes that are eventually observed. This research method is
carried out to
give value to naturally occurring relationships, and a minimum of two different
groups are
required to conduct this quantitative research method successfully. Without
assuming various
aspects, a relationship between two groups or entities must be established.

Researchers use this quantitative research design to correlate two or more

variables
using mathematical analysis methods. Patterns, relationships, and trends
between variables
are concluded as they exist in their original set up.

Example of Correlational Research Questions:

The relationship between stress and depression.
The equation between fame and money.
The relation between activities in a third-grade class and its students.
Causal-comparative research:

This research method mainly depends on the factor of comparison. Also called
quasi-
experimental research, this quantitative research method is used by researchers
to conclude
the cause-effect equation between two or more variables, where one variable is
dependent
on the other independent variable.
Example of Causal-Comparative Research Questions:

The impact of drugs on a teenager.

The effect of good education on a freshman.
The effect of substantial food provision in the villages of Africa.

Experimental research:
Also known as true experimentation, this research method is reliant on a theory.
Experimental research, as the name suggests, is usually based on one or more
theories. This
theory has not been proven in the past and is merely a supposition. In
experimental research,
an analysis is done around proving or disproving the statement. This research
method is used
in natural sciences. Traditional research methods are more effective than
modern techniques.

Strengths, Weaknesses, and Importance of Qualitative Research Across Fields.

STRENGTHS
1. The data in the Quantitative research is collected and presented in the
numbers, so
the result obtained from it will be reliable as the numbers state the truth and do
not lie.
Wherever the situation of the conflicts arises, the researchers prefer quantitative
research as it
gives an honest picture of the research conducted without any discrepancies and
is thus
extremely accurate.

2. It involves the statistics; it provides a wider scope of the data collection for
the
researchers.

3. Quantitative research is not based on the thinking or the perception of the

individual
or group of individuals conducting the research rather;, it is based on the
numbers; thus, it
removes the risk of personal biases being shown in the result of the research.

4. The data collected in the Quantitative research is less time consuming as the
research
is conducted on a group of respondents that represent a population and there is
the
involvement of the statistics for conducting and presenting results, so it is quite
straightforward,
thus less time-consuming.

WEAKNESSES
1. The Survey instruments used for the research are vulnerable to errors like the
mistakes
in measurement or the flawed sampling techniques as the numerical data is
involved. If the
error occurs when the research will not give the correct results for which the
research is
conducted.

2. Generally, the Quantitative research method requires the extensive statistical

analysis that
becomes difficult to perform, especially if the person conducting the research is
from the non
– statistical background.

3. In this method, a structured questionnaire is involved, which has close-ended

questions. Due
to this, limited outcomes can only be derived from the research, and thus the
results cannot
represent actual occurring always. Also, the respondents of the research have
limited options
for their responses as their responses will be based on the selection of the
question and their
options as made by the researcher.

IMPORTANCE
The Importance of Quantitative Research is that it helps tremendously help in
studying
samples and populations. It discusses detailed relevant questions like, where the
data come
from, the gap in the data, how robust is it, and what are the exclusions in the
data research.

What is the importance of quantitative research in the field of education?

Quantitative research in education provides numerical data that can prove or
disprove
a theory, and administrators can easily share the number-based results with
other schools and
districts.

Why quantitative research is important to a doctor?

In quantitative research, the findings will reflect the reliability and validity
(psychometric
characteristics) of the measured outcomes or dependent variables (such as
changes in
knowledge, skills, or attitudes) used to assess the effectiveness of the medical
education
intervention (the independent variable of ...

What is the importance or contribution of quantitative research to sports?

It gives coaches and athletes a way to gain solid information and apply it to
sport
performance. It helps coaches form beliefs about how to develop programs and
coaching
techniques.

Is quantitative research applicable to all fields?

Quantitative research is widely used in psychology, economics, demography,
sociology, marketing, community health, health & human development, gender
studies, and
political science; and less frequently in anthropology and history.
In the natural and social sciences, quantitative research is the systematic,
empirical
investigation of the observable. phenomena via statistical, mathematical.
Different Variables in Quantitative Research and their Uses

Variables are things you measure, manipulate and control in statistics and
research. All studies
analyze a variable, which can describe a person, place, thing, or idea. A
variable's value can
change between groups or over time.

1. Independent variables
An independent variable is a singular characteristic that the other variables in
your
experiment cannot change. Age is an example of an independent variable.
Where someone
lives, what they eat or how much they exercise are not going to change their
age.
Independent variables can, however, change other variables. In studies,
researchers often try
to find out whether an independent variable causes other variables to change
and in what
way.

2. Dependent variables
A dependent variable relies on and can be changed by other components. A
grade
on an exam is an example of a dependent variable because it depends on factors
such as
how much sleep you got and how long you studied. Independent variables can
influence
dependent variables, but dependent variables cannot influence independent
variables. For
example, the time you spent studying (dependent) can affect the grade on your
test
(independent) but the grade on your test does not affect the time you spent
studying.

3. Quantitative variables
Quantitative variables are any data sets that involve numbers or amounts.
Examples might
include height, distance or number of items. Researchers can further categorize
quantitative
variables into two types:
Discrete: Any numerical variables you can realistically count, such as the coins
in your wallet
or the money in your savings account.
Continuous: Numerical variables that you could never finish counting, such as
time.

4. Extraneous variables
Extraneous variables are factors that affect the dependent variable but that the
researcher did not originally consider when designing the experiment. These
unwanted
variables can unintentionally change a study's results or how a researcher
interprets those
results. Take, for example, a study assessing whether private tutoring or online
courses are more effective at improving students' Spanish test scores.
Extraneous variables that might
unintentionally influence the outcome include parental support, prior knowledge
of a foreign
language or socioeconomic status.
CHAPTER 2: Identifying the Inquiry and Stating the Problem
Lesson 1: Identifying the Area of Inquiry

1 Conduct preliminary research in the beginning stages of formulating a thesis,

when many
issues are unclear and thoughts need to be solidified. Conducting preliminary
research on
your area of study and specific topic will help you to formulate a research
question or thesis
statement that will lead to more specific and relevant research. Visit your
library, the internet
and electronic databases to find preliminary sources, such as books and
scholarly journals, for
your background study.

2 Read the information and develop a research question or thesis statement that
will guide
your thesis. You will need to take notes and keep accurate track of the sources
that you used
up to this point. Many people use note cards, but with current technology there
many
electronic note taking programs available. Use a method of recording source
information that
you are comfortable with. Be sure to cite the source of the information on each
note so you
don't forget where each piece of information came from, should you decide to
use it in your
thesis.
3 Write a thesis statement or research question. Think about what you've read
and look for
issues, problems or solutions that others have found and determine your own
opinion or stance
on the issue. Write out your opinion as a authoritative statement on the issue,
problem or
solution. At this point, you can do more detailed research and find sources that
are more
relevant to your thesis or research question.

4 Complete your research using your thesis statement and research question as
your guide.
You will find relevant sources that will provide insight into your specific thesis
issue or problem.
Make sure that your sources provide details on the history and past research
related to your
research question.

5 Create relevant sections as you write the background study. As you evaluate
your research
and begin to write the background study, create five separate sections that cover
the key
issues, major findings, and controversies surrounding your thesis, as well as
sections that provide
an evaluation and conclusion.

6 Conclude by identifying any further study that needs to be done in that area,
or provide
possible solutions to the issue that haven't been considered before.
7 Revise and edit your background study. Complete several drafts of your work,
revising and
filling in information as you go. Each time that you read over your work, try to
leave it better
than it was before. It's also a great idea to have someone else look it over as
well.

2: Research Problems and Questions

Why is a research question essential to the research process?

Research questions help writers focus their research by providing a path through
the research
and writing process. The specificity of a well-developed research question helps
writers avoid the “all-about” paper and work toward supporting a specific,
arguable thesis.

Steps to developing a research question:

1. Choose an interesting general topic. Most professional researchers focus on

topics they are genuinely interested in studying. Writers should choose a broad
topic about which they genuinely would like to know more. An example of a
general topic might be “Slavery in the American South” or “Films of the
1930s.”

2. Do some preliminary research on your general topic. Do a few quick searches

in current periodicals and journals on your topic to see what’s already been
done and to help you narrow your focus. What issues are scholars and
researchers discussing, when it comes to your topic? What questions occur to
you as you read these articles?
3. Consider your audience. For most college papers, your audience will be
academic, but always keep your audience in mind when narrowing your topic
and developing your question. Would that particular audience be interested in
the question you are developing?

4. Start asking questions. Taking into consideration all of the above, start asking
yourself open-ended “how” and “why” questions about your general topic. For
example, “Why were slave narratives effective tools in working toward the
abolishment of slavery?” or “How did the films of the 1930s reflect or respond
to
the conditions of the Great Depression?”

5. Evaluate your question. After you’ve put a question or even a couple of

questions down on paper, evaluate these questions to determine whether they
would be effective research questions or whether they need more revising and
refining.

Specificity and Feasibility of the Problem Posed

Usually, in social sciences, this research problem is stated in the form of a

question. The
purpose of a research problem or statement of a problem is to help the readers
understand
the significance of the topic being studied. It also establishes the problem into a
detailed
context that defines the parameters of what is to be investigated. This is the
backbone for
reporting the results and indicates what is probably necessary to conduct the
study and
explain how the findings will present this information (SH University, 2020).

a. Clarity and precision. The research problem must be clearly stated and must
be on
point to help readers directly know its purpose.

b. Identification of what would be studied, while avoiding the use of value-

laden words
and terms.

c. Identification of key factors or variables, and of an overarching question.

d. Identification of key concepts and terms.

e. Articulation of the studies’ delimitation or parameters.

f. Some generalizability in regards to applicability and bringing results into

general use.

g. Conveyance of the significance of the study, benefits, and justification.

h. Does not use unnecessary jargons.

i. Conveyance of more than the mere gathering of descriptive data providing

only a
snapshot of the issue or phenomenon under investigation.
CHAPTER 3 – Learning from others and reviewing Related Literature
Lesson 1: Selecting, Citing, and Synthesizing Related Literature

DEFINITION
Review of related literature or literature review is the process of obtaining
relevant and
important information or materials related that involves systematic
identification, location, and
analysis of documents containing the information related to the topic.
Reviewing the literature places the study in the context of all the available
information
about a topic. It helps to explain how the research problem to be investigated
fits into the
larger picture. It also gives the reader updated discourses in the discipline of a
topic and lets
you identify what has been done so as not to replicate other researchers’ work.

IMPORTANCE
⚫ Defines and refines the independent and dependent variables
⚫ Establishes the need, significance, and justification for conducting a study
⚫ Helps gauge the feasibility of pursuing a topic
⚫ Provides a logical rationale for the research hypothesis
⚫ This leads to potentially useful citations that might be helpful in the
development of a study
⚫ Allows to identify the strengths and weaknesses of previous investigations of
a topic

STEPS IN DOING A LITERATURE REVIEW

1. Identify Key Terms
Aside from the library, the Internet is a very rich source of information on your
topic.
You can search for information on Google or Google Scholar. You need to
identify
keywords that will lead to a successful search. Finding information on Google
or other
search engines is not hard if you follow these tips:

⚫ Identify keywords from your problem statement and research questions.

⚫ Go to the library and look for a related topic from journal articles and see
how your topic was in a title of an article.
⚫ Obtain handbooks, manuals, or encyclopedias where a general area of your
topic was used in a title of an article.
⚫ Trim down your topic by using Boolean operators Boolean operators are
words like and, or, not, or and not. These words can be used in your keywords
resulting in a more defined and narrower topic.

2. Locate the Literature

Once you have identified the keywords specific to your topic, you can now
begin
locating and retrieving the information you need. Consider primary and
secondary
sources of information. The primary source of information is journal articles
while
secondary sources are encyclopedias, books, manuals, magazines, and
handbooks.

Systematic way of recording important information from journal articles

Coding Sheet for Journal Articles

3. Evaluate Your Selected Literature

Strategies on how to evaluate your selected literature
⚫ Make sure that the journal where an article is published is reputable. This
means
that the journal has an editorial board.
⚫ Make sure that the research article has sections such as introduction,
methods,
discussion, and conclusion.
⚫ The article for inclusion in your review should be relevant, useful, and
related to your
proposed study.
⚫ The literature to be included in the review must be updated in the field of
your
study.
⚫ Rank the various sources gathered based on the degree of quality.
4. Organize your Sources
Tips on how to organize your sources
⚫ Group the literature according to the nuances and particulars of the study
⚫ Identify the major themes and patterns in the different literature
⚫ State the relationships among the different studies
⚫ Identify the gaps in the literature
⚫ Summarize your sources by using a table matrix or constructing a literature
map
⚫ Synthesize the literature before writing the review

5. Writing the Review

Three main parts of the Literature Review
The introduction sets the stage for the review. This is where you give an
overview,
define important keywords, and inform readers of the limitations of the review.

The body is the bulk of the review. This is the part where you lay out the
groundwork
and background information about your topic. It contains a discussion on the
similarities and differences of findings from several articles and how they are
related to
the present study.

The conclusion or synthesis of the review summarizes the trend and themes that
you have observed as you describe the findings from the different articles. This
is the
part where you reiterate how the review provides the necessary context and
rationale
for your problem statement and how the review falls short of advancing your
study.

Literature Review Checklist

Choosing Sources
1. Is it clear what is being synthesized? ( i.e. did you list all your sources and
cite
them correctly?)
2. Is the literature you have selected relevant?

Introduction to the Review

1. Is the area of interest explained? Is sufficient background given?
2. Is the purpose of the review made evident to the reader?
3. If terminology or concepts are being introduced as part of the review, are
these
defined or clarified?
4. Is the organization of the review made evident to the reader?

Organization and Writing Qualities of the Review

1. What is the organizational structure of your paper? Does it work?
2. How is each paragraph structured?
3. Are headings used to group the literature according to themes?
4. If there are sections within the review are these logically ordered and
explained
To the reader?
5. Does the author provide articulated transitions between sections? (Is the
storyline easy to follow?)
6. Is each item in the literature review cited appropriately?

Presentation of Studies Being Reviewed

1. Does the presentation of the studies within sections includes a storyline, that
is, is
the connection between each piece of literature made explicit for the reader?
2. Is it always clear which source you are talking about at any given moment?
3. Are the arguments of each of your sources clear? Have you summarized them
well? Have you failed to talk about any key points?
4. Can you tell exactly what each paragraph is about and how it relates to the
main
topic? Read the lead sentence in 5 or 6 successive paragraphs. If this were all
that was
written would the storyline in this literature review still be evident?

Evidence of Analysis, Synthesis, Critique Taking Place Within the Review

1. Does the author go beyond summarizing the studies? Is there evidence of

analysis and critique of individual studies?
2. Is there evidence of analysis and synthesis across the studies? Are the
messages
that emerge from the literature made evident? (This may involve comparing
results, and identifying differences among several studies).
3. Are the gaps, problems, or issues unresolved by the literature identified?
4. Does the author provide evidence to support the arguments, analysis, and
criticism being made? Is the evidence sufficient and convincing?
5. Is the author's voice separate and distinct from that of the authors they are
summarizing, critiquing, and reviewing?
Conclusion to the Review
1. Does the author provide some summary and conclusion that pulls together
their
entire review?
2. Does the author identify the contribution made by their review efforts?
3. Does the author make suggestions for research that needs to be conducted in
the future?

CITING REFERENCES
Citing References is an important process when writing a literature review. It
allows the
reader of your research to have a more thorough examination of the studies
cited. It also gives
credibility to the literature review because what you are saying is placed in the
context of the
literature.

The three most common citation styles in writing a literature review are (1)
American
Psychological Association (APA) Style, (2) Modern Language Association
(MLA) Style, and (3)
Chicago Manual of Style.
Lesson 2: Ethical Standards in Writing a Review of Related Literature

DEFINITION
Ethics etymologically came from the Greek word ethos which means right
action. In any
society, standard action is ought to be followed. For example, if you go out, you
need to wear
a face mask. if you buy goods, you need to fall in the queue.

Five (5) Ethical Ways of Writing our Literature Review

1. Observe proper citation. In writing academic text like research, you ought to
observe
proper citation. This is from proper paraphrasing to correct entries in different
citations.
2. Keep the original thoughts. There are many times that we lose the original
thoughts of the
text that we are paraphrasing. It is unethical if we will just cite writing wherein
the original
essence of the sentence is different from what we have interpreted.
3. Avoid biases. As a novice researcher, it’s important that you eliminate
personal interests or
biases in your studies (Fleming & Zegwaard, 2018).
4. Be scientific. Becoming scientific is to have a strong basis for reviewing the
literature.
5. Embrace positivism. Research is always geared towards positivity. Thus, the
literature
review has to be in line with positivism (Polonski, 2004).

LESSON 3: Formulation of Conceptual Framework and Research Hypothesis

Conceptual Framework

A conceptual framework illustrates the expected relationship between your

variables. It
defines the relevant objectives for your research process and maps out how they
come
together to draw coherent conclusions. It is a representation of the relationship
you expect to
see between your variables or the characteristics or properties that you want to
study. It can
be written or visual and is generally developed based on a literature review of
existing studies about your topic.

Developing a Conceptual Framework

Step 1: Choose your research question

Your research question guides your work by determining exactly what you want
to find out, giving your research process a clear focus.

Step 2: Select your independent and dependent variable

To move forward with your research question and test a cause-and-effect
relationship, you
must first identify at least two key variables: your independent and dependent
variables.

Step 3: Visualize your cause-and-effect relationship

After you’ve figured out your research questions and variables, the first step in
designing your
conceptual framework is visualizing your expected cause-and-effect.

Step 4: Identify other influencing variables

Variables that can influence the relationship between your independent and
dependent
variables early in your research process.
Some common variables to include are moderating, mediating, and control
variables.

Moderating variables
variables (or moderators) alter the effect that an independent variable has on a
dependent
variable. In other words, moderators change the “effect” component of the
cause-and-effect
relationship. It is not affected by the independent variable, even though it affects
the
dependent variable.
Mediating variables
Mediating variables link the independent and dependent variables, allowing the
relationship
between them to be better explained. It is affected by the independent variables.
In turn, it
also affects the dependent variable

Control variables
Lastly, control variables must also be taken into account. These are variables
that are held
constant so that they don’t interfere with the results. Even though you aren’t
interested in
measuring them for your study, it’s crucial to be aware of as many of them as
you can be

Research Hypothesis
The hypothesis is an assumption or perhaps a tentative explanation for a specific
process or
phenomenon that has been observed during research. Very often, a hypothesis
and a guess
are treated the same. However, a hypothesis is a calculated and educated guess
proven or
disproven through research methods.
It reflects your understanding of the problem statement and as a form of
development of
knowledge. Therefore, you need to articulate your hypothesis in a way that
should appear as
a justifiable assumption to study the properties and causes of the phenomenon in
the research
topic.
Characteristics and Sources of Hypotheses:
  A research hypothesis has to be simple yet clear to look reliable and
justifiable enough.
 It has to be precise about the results.
 A research hypothesis should be written in a self-explanatory manner
with its significance staying intact.
 If you are developing a relational hypothesis, you need to include the
variables and establish
 an appropriate relationship among them.
 A hypothesis must keep and reflect the scope for further investigations
and experiments.

Types of Hypotheses

1. Alternative Hypothesis
In the academic domain, it is very often denoted as H1. The significance of this
kind is to
identify the expected outcome of your research procedure. Additionally, it is
further classified
into two subcategories:

a. Directional: A statement that defines the ways through which the expected
results will be
gathered. It is generally used in cases where you need to establish a relationship
between
various variables rather than making any comparison between multiple groups.
For
example, attending physiotherapy sessions will improve the on-field
performance of athletes.

b. No directional: As the name suggests, a non-directional alternative hypothesis

doesn't
suggest any direction for the expected outcomes. For example, attending
physiotherapy
sessions influence the on-field performance of athletes.

2. Null Hypothesis

A null hypothesis is denoted as H0. A null hypothesis exists as opposed to an

alternative
hypothesis. It is a statement that defines the opposite of the expected results or
outcomes
throughout your research. In simpler terms, a null hypothesis is used to establish
a claim that no
relationship exists between the variables defined in the hypothesis.

To give you an idea about how to write a null hypothesis, the last example can
be stated as:

The physiotherapy sessions do not affect athletes' on-field performance.

Both the null and alternative hypotheses are written to provide specific
clarifications and an
examination of the research problem. So, to clarify confusion, the difference
between a
research problem statement and a hypothesis is that the former is just a question
that can't be
validated or tested. In contrast, the latter can be tested, validated, or denied.

3. Simple Hypothesis
It is a statement that is made to reflect the relation between the dependent and
independent
variables. Follow through the example, and you will understand,

a. Smoking is a prominent cause of lung cancer

b. Intake of sugar-rich foods can lead to obesity

4. Complex Hypothesis

A complex hypothesis implies the relationship between multiple dependent or

independent
variables stated in the research problem. Follow through the below examples for
better clarity
on this:

a. Individuals who eat more fruits tend to have higher immunity, lesser
cholesterol, and high
metabolism.

b. Including short breaks during work hours can lead to higher concentration
and boost
productivity.

5. Empirical Hypothesis
It is also referred to as the "Working Hypothesis." This type of claim is made
when a theory is
being validated through an experiment and observation. This way, the statement
appears
justifiable enough and different from a wild guess.

Here are a few examples through which you can learn to create an empirical
hypothesis:

a. Women who take iron tablets face a lesser risk of anemia than those women
who take
vitamin B12.

b. Canines learn faster if they are provided with food immediately after they
obey a
command.

6. Statistical Hypothesis

A statement claiming an explanation after studying a sample of the population is

called a
statistical hypothesis. It is a type of logic-based analysis where you research a
specific
population and gather evidence through a particular sample size.

Below are some hypothetical statistical statements to understand how you can
conduct your
research leveraging statistical data:
a. 44% of the Indian population belong in the age group of 22-27
b. 47% of the rural population in India is involved in agro-based activities.

CHAPTER 4 – Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data

Lesson 1: Measurement and Types of Data in Quantitative Research

DEFINITION
In quantitative research, measurements of data expressed in numerical forms
form in
scale or one that consists series of graduated quantities, values, degrees,
numbers, and so
on. Thinking about the type and scale of measurement that you have to use in
your
quantitative research is important because your measurement choices tell you
the type of
statistical analysis to use in your study. Not knowing which scale of
measurement to use may
result in an erroneous examination of the data.

Data is a valuable asset – so much so that it’s the world’s most valuable
resource. That
makes understanding the different types of data – and the role of a data scientist
– more
important than ever. In the business world, more companies are trying to
understand big
numbers and what they can do with them. Data expertise is in high demand.
Determining
the right data and measurement scales enables companies to organize, identify,
analyze,
and ultimately use data to inform strategies that will allow them to make a
genuine impact.
IMPORTANCE

Quantitative research is based on the measurement and is conducted in a

systematic,
controlled manner. These measures enable researchers to perform statistical
tests, analyze
differences between groups, and determine the effectiveness of treatments. If
something is
not measurable, it cannot be tested.

What is quantitative (numerical) data?

Quantitative, or numerical, data can be broken down into two types: discrete
and
continuous.

Discrete data

Discrete data is a whole number that can’t be divided or broken into individual
parts,
fractions, or decimals. Examples of discrete data include the number of pets
someone has –
one can have two dogs but not two-and-a-half dogs. The number of wins
someone’s
favorite team gets is also a form of discrete data because a team can’t have a
half win – it’s
either a win, a loss, or a draw.
Continuous data
Data describes values that can be broken down into different parts, units,
fractions, and
decimals. Continuous data points, such as height and weight, can be measured.
Time can
also be broken down – by half a second or half an hour. Temperature is another
example of
continuous data.

Properties and Scales of Measurement

Scales of measurement are how variables are defined and categorized.

Psychologist Stanley
Stevens developed the four common scales of measurement: nominal, ordinal,
interval, and
ratio. Each scale of measurement has properties that determine how to properly
analyze the
data. The properties evaluated are identity, magnitude, equal intervals, and a
minimum
value of zero.

Properties of Measurement
Identity: Identity refers to each value having a unique meaning.
Magnitude: Magnitude means that the values have an ordered relationship to
one another,
so there is a specific order to the variables.

Equal intervals: Equal intervals mean that data points along the scale are equal,
so the
difference between data points one and two will be the same as the difference
between
data points five and six.

A minimum value of zero: A minimum value of zero means the scale has a true
zero point.
Degrees, for example, can fall below zero and still have meaning. But if you
weigh nothing,
you don’t exist.

The Four Scales of Measurement

1. Nominal Scale
The nominal scale of measurement defines the identity property of data. This
scale has
certain characteristics but doesn’t have any form of numerical meaning. The
data can be
placed into categories but can’t be multiplied, divided, added, or subtracted
from one
another. It’s also not possible to measure the difference between data points.

Examples of nominal data include eye color and country of birth. Nominal data
can be
broken down again into three categories:

Nominal with order: Some nominal data can be sub-categorized in order, such
as “cold,
warm, hot, and very hot.”

Nominal without order: Nominal data can also be sub-categorized as nominal

without order,
such as male and female.

Dichotomous: Dichotomous data is defined by having only two categories or

levels, such as
“yes” and “no.”

2. Ordinal scale of measurement

The ordinal scale defines data that is placed in a specific order. While each
value is ranked,
no information specifies what differentiates the categories from each other.
These values
can’t be added to or subtracted from.

An example of this kind of data would include satisfaction data points in a

survey, where
‘one = happy, two = neutral, and three = unhappy.’ Where someone finished in
a race also
describes ordinal data. While first place, second place, or third place shows
what order the
runners finished in, it doesn’t specify how far the first-place finisher was in
front of the second-
place finisher.

3. Interval scale of measurement

The interval scale contains properties of nominal and ordered data, but the
difference
between data points can be quantified. This type of data shows both the order of
the
variables and the exact differences between the variables. They can be added to
or
subtracted from each other, but not multiplied or divided. For example, 40
degrees is not 20
degrees multiplied by two.

This scale is also characterized by the fact that the number zero is an existing
variable. In the
ordinal scale, zero means that the data does not exist. In the interval scale, zero
has
meaning – for example, if you measure degrees, zero has a temperature.

Data points on the interval scale have the same difference between them. The
difference
on the scale between 10 and 20 degrees is the same between 20 and 30 degrees.
This scale
is used to quantify the difference between variables, whereas the other two
scales are used
to describe qualitative values only. Other examples of interval scales include the
year a car
was made or the months of the year.
4. Ratio scale of measurement
Scales of measurement include properties from all four scales of measurement.
The data
is nominal and defined by identity, can be classified in order, contains intervals,
and can be
broken down into exact values. Weight, height, and distance are all examples of
ratio
variables. Data in the ratio scale can be added, subtracted, divided, and
multiplied.

Ratio scales also differ from interval scales in that the scale has a ‘true zero’.
The number
zero means that the data has no value point. An example of this is height or
weight, as
someone cannot be zero centimeters tall or weigh zero kilos – or be negative
centimeters or
negative kilos. Examples of the use of this scale are calculating shares or sales.
Of all types of
data on the scales of measurement, data scientists can do the most with ratio
data points.

Lesson 2: Sampling and Probability Sampling

What is Probability Sampling?

Probability sampling is based on the fact that every member of a population has
a
known and equal chance of being selected. For example, if you had a population
of 100
people, each person would have odds of 1 out of 100 of being chosen. With
non-probability
sampling, those odds are not equal. For example, a person might have a better
chance of
being chosen if they live close to the researcher or have access to a computer.
Probability
sampling gives you the best chance to create a sample that is truly
representative of the
population

Sampling takes on two forms in statistics: probability sampling and non-

probability sampling:

⚫ Probability sampling uses random sampling techniques to create a sample.

For each
element in the sample, the probability is known and non-zero. In principle,
every element
of the population has the same chance of being included in the sample. This is
achieved
with a sampling frame.
⚫ Sampling techniques use non-random processes like researcher judgment
or convenience sampling. The probability of being selected for the sample is
unknown.

Types of Probability Sampling

⚫ Simple random sampling is a completely random method of selecting

subjects. These
can include assigning numbers to all subjects and then using a random number
generator to choose random numbers. Classic ball and urn experiments are other
examples of this process (assuming the balls are sufficiently mixed). The
members whose
numbers are chosen are included in the sample.
⚫ Stratified Random Sampling involves splitting subjects into mutually
exclusive groups and
then using simple random sampling to choose members from groups.
⚫ Systematic Sampling means that you choose every “nth” participant from a
complete
list. For example, you could choose every 10th person listed.
⚫ Cluster Random Sampling is a way to randomly select participants from a list
that is too
large for simple random sampling. For example, if you wanted to choose 1000
participants from the entire population of the U.S., it is likely impossible to get
a complete
list of everyone. Instead, the researcher randomly selects areas (i.e. cities or
counties)
and randomly selects from within those boundaries.
⚫ Multi-Stage Random sampling uses a combination of techniques.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
Cluster sampling: convenience and ease of use.
Simple random sampling creates samples that are highly representative of the
population.
Stratified random sampling creates strata or layers that are highly representative
of strata or
layers in the population.
Systematic sampling creates samples that are highly representative of the
population,
without the need for a random number generator.

Disadvantages
Cluster sampling: might not work well if union members are not homogeneous
(i.e. if they are
different from each other).
Simple random sampling: tedious and time-consuming, especially when
creating larger
samples.
Stratified random sampling: tedious and time-consuming, especially when
creating larger
samples.
Systematic sampling: not as random as simple random sampling

Lesson 3: Types of Quantitative Data Collection

DEFINITION
Data collection is a systematic process of gathering observations or
measurements. Whether
you are performing research for business, governmental or academic purposes,
data
collection allows you to gain first-hand knowledge and original insights into
your research
problem.
Before you begin collecting data, you need to consider:
The aim of the research
The type of data that you will collect
The methods and procedures you will use to collect, store, and process the
data
To collect high-quality data that is relevant to your purposes, follow these four
steps.
Step 1: Define the aim of your research
Step 2: Choose your data collection method
Step 3: Plan your data collection procedures
Step 4: Collect the data

Step 1: Define the aim of your research

Before you start the process of data collection, you need to identify exactly what
you want
to achieve. You can start by writing a problem statement: what is the practical
or scientific
issue that you want to address and why does it matter?
Next, formulate one or more pieces of research that precisely define what you
want to find
out. Depending on your research questions, you might need to collect
quantitative:

Quantitative data are expressed in numbers and graphs and are analyzed through
statistical
methods.
Qualitative data is expressed in words and analyzed through interpretations and
categorizations.

If you aim to test a hypothesis, measure something precisely, or gain large-scale

statistical
insights, collect quantitative data. If you aim to explore ideas, understand
experiences, or
gain detailed insights into a specific context, collect qualitative data. If you have
several
aims, you can use a mixed methods approach that collects both types of data.

Step 2: Choose your data collection method

Based on the data you want to collect, decide which method is best suited for
your
research.

 Experimental research is primarily a quantitative method.

 Interviews, focus groups, and ethnographies are qualitative methods.
 Surveys, observations, archival research, and secondary data collection
can be
 quantitative or qualitative methods.

Carefully consider what method you will use to gather data that helps you
directly answer
your research questions.
Data Collection Method
Step 3: Plan your data collection procedures

When you know which method(s) you are using, you need to plan exactly how
you will
implement them. What procedures will you follow to make accurate
observations or
measurements of the variables you are interested in?
For instance, if you’re conducting surveys or interviews, decide what form the
questions will
take; if you’re experimenting, make decisions about your experimental design.
Operationalization

Sometimes your variables can be measured directly: for example, you can
collect data on
the average age of employees simply by asking for dates of birth. However,
often you’ll be
interested in collecting data on more abstract concepts or variables that can’t be
directly
observed.

Operationalization means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable

observations.
When planning how you will collect data, you need to translate the conceptual
definition of
what you want to study into the operational definition of what you will measure.
Sampling

You may need to develop a sampling plan to obtain data systematically. This
involves defining
a population, the group you want to conclude about, and a sample, the group
you will collect
data from.

Your sampling method will determine how you recruit participants or obtain
measurements for
your study. To decide on a sampling method you will need to consider factors
like the required
sample size, accessibility of the sample, and timeframe of the data collection.

Standardizing procedures
If multiple researchers are involved, write a detailed manual to standardize data
collection
procedures in your study.
This means laying out specific step-by-step instructions so that everyone in your
research team
consistently collects data – for example, by conducting experiments under the
same
conditions and using objective criteria to record and categorize observations.
This helps ensure the reliability of your data, and you can also use it to replicate
the study in
the future.

Creating a data management plan

Before beginning data collection, you should also decide how you will organize
and store your
data.

If you are collecting data from people, you will likely need to anonymize and
safeguard the
data to prevent leaks of sensitive information (e.g. names or identity numbers).
If you are collecting data via interviews or pencil-and-paper formats, you will
need to perform
transcriptions or data entries in systematic ways to minimize distortion.
You can prevent loss of data by having an organization system that is routinely
backed up.

Step 4: Collect the data

Finally, you can implement your chosen methods to measure or observe the
variables you are
interested in.
To ensure that high-quality data is recorded systematically, here are some best
practices:

 Record all relevant information as and when you obtain data. For
example, note down
whether or how lab equipment is recalibrated during an experimental
study.
 Double-check manual data entry for errors.
  If you collect quantitative data, you can assess the reliability and validity
to get an
indication of your data quality.

Frequently asked questions about data collection

o What is data collection?
o What are the benefits of collecting data?
o What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative
methods?
o What is the difference between reliability and validity?
o What is operationalization?
o What is mixed methods research?

Lesson 4: Uses of Statistical Analysis in Quantitative Research

What Is Statistical Analysis?

Statistical analysis is the process of collecting and analyzing data to discern
patterns
and trends. It is a method for removing bias from evaluating data by employing
numerical
analysis. This technique is useful for collecting the interpretations of research,
developing
statistical models, and planning surveys and studies.

Statistical analysis is a scientific tool that helps collect and analyze large
amounts of
data to identify common patterns and trends to convert them into meaningful
information. In
simple words, statistical analysis is a data analysis tool that helps draw
meaningful conclusions
from raw and unstructured data.
The conclusions are drawn using statistical analysis facilitating decision-making
and
helping businesses make future predictions based on past trends. It can be
defined as a
science of collecting and analyzing data to identify trends and patterns and
present them.
Statistical analysis involves working with numbers and is used by businesses
and other
institutions to make use of data to derive meaningful information
Types of Statistical Analysis
⚫ Descriptive Analysis
Descriptive statistical analysis involves collecting, interpreting, analyzing, and
summarizing data to present them in the form of charts, graphs, and tables.
Rather than
concluding, it simply makes the complex data easy to read and understand.

Inferential Analysis

The inferential statistical analysis focuses on drawing meaningful conclusions

based on
the data analyzed. It studies the relationship between different variables or
makes
predictions for the whole population.

⚫ Predictive Analysis
Predictive statistical analysis is a type of statistical analysis that analyzes data to
derive
past trends and predict future events based on them. It uses learning algorithms,
data
mining, modeling, and artificial intelligence to conduct the statistical analysis of
data.
⚫ Prescriptive Analysis
The prescriptive analysis analyzes data and prescribes the best course of action
based
on the results. It is a type of statistical analysis that helps you make an informed
decision.

⚫ Exploratory Data Analysis

Exploratory analysis is similar to inferential analysis, but the difference is that it
involves
exploring unknown data associations. It analyzes the potential relationships
within the
data.

⚫ Causal Analysis
The causal statistical analysis focuses on determining the cause and effect
relationship
between different variables within the raw data. In simple words, it determines
why
something happens and its effect on other variables. This methodology can be
used by
businesses to determine the reason for failure.

Benefits of Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis can be called a boon to mankind and has many benefits for
both
individuals and organizations. Given below are some of the reasons why you
should consider
investing in statistical analysis:
⚫ It can help you determine the monthly, quarterly, and yearly figures of sales
profits,
and costs making it easier to make your decisions.

⚫ It can help you make informed and correct decisions.

⚫ It can help you identify the problem or cause of the failure and make
corrections. For
example, it can identify the reason for an increase in total costs and help you cut
wasteful expenses.

⚫ It can help you conduct market analysis and make an effective marketing and
sales
strategy.

⚫ It helps improve the efficiency of different processes.

Statistical Analysis Process

Given below are the 5 steps to conduct a statistical analysis that you should
follow:

Step 1: Identify and describe the nature of the data that you are supposed to
analyze.
Step 2: The next step is to establish a relation between the data analyzed and the
sample
population
to which the data belongs.
Step 3: The third step is to create a model that presents and summarizes the
relationship
between the population and the data.
Step 4: Prove if the model is valid or not.
Step 5: Use predictive analysis to predict future trends and events likely to
happen.

Statistical Analysis Methods

Although there are various methods used to perform data analysis, given below
are the
5 most used and popular methods of statistical analysis:

⚫ Mean
Mean or average mean is one of the most popular methods of statistical
analysis. Mean
determines the overall trend of the data and is very simple to calculate. The
mean is
calculated by summing the numbers in the data set together and then dividing it
by the
number of data points. Despite the ease of calculation and its benefits, it is not
advisable to
resort to mean as the only statistical indicator as it can result in inaccurate
decision-making.
⚫ Standard Deviation
Standard deviation is another very widely used statistical tool or method. It
analyzes the
deviation of different data points from the mean of the entire data set. It
determines how
data of the data set is spread around the mean. You can use it to decide whether
the
research outcomes can be generalized or not.
⚫ Regression
Regression is a statistical tool that helps determine the cause-and-effect
relationship
between the variables. It determines the relationship between a dependent and
an
independent variable. It is generally used to predict future trends and events.

⚫ Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis testing can be used to test the validity or trueness of a conclusion or
argument against a data set. The hypothesis is an assumption made at the
beginning of the
research and can hold or be false based on the analysis results.

⚫ Sample Size Determination

Sample size determination or data sampling is a technique used to derive a
sample from
the entire population, which is representative of the population. This method is
used when
the size of the population is very large. You can choose from among the various
data
sampling techniques such as snowball sampling, convenience sampling, and
random
sampling.