Mobile Communication System: Rkltech

strictly as per the New Revised Syllabus ( Rev • 201 G) of
Mumbai University
w.e.f. academic year 2019- 2020
(As per Choice Based Credit and Grading System)
SUBJECTS I AUTHORS l LEADERSHIP IEXPERIENCE
Mobile
-C ommunication
System (Code:ECC702)
Semester 7 - Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
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Mobile Communication
System
(Code: ECC702)
Semester vn - Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering (MU)
Strict!~ as per New Choice Based Credit and Grading System Syllabus
(Revl~ 2016) of Mumbai University with effective from Academic Year 2019-2020
U.S.Shah : ..
-
Formerly, Lecturer
Department of Electronics Engineering , Vishwakarma Institute of Technology (V.I.T.),
Pune. Maharashtra, India.
U. S. Shah has over more than 15 years of experience In writing text books exclusively for Engineering students of
various Universities across India.
She has exp~rtise in various subjects like Digital Electronics, Microprocessors and Microcontrollers, Satellite
communication, Mobile and Wireless Commun~tion. Her books hav~ _gained Immense J>Of?U~rity due to effective writing
and presentation skills. ·
She has written many books till date.
These·books are well received over the years. Each topic in syllabus is thoroughly-covered· & explained in ·the books ·
with various examples and programs, thereby developing the int~rest in the subject.
The Author wou~ like _to extend he~ gra~itude to all for ~heir support and enoouragement -and valuable feedbaok .from .·
student community to make her books better over the years. · -· ,
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1.0 Fundamentals of Mobile Communication 08

1.1 Introduction to wireless communication : Mobile radio telephony, Examples of
Wireless Communication Systems, Related design problems.
1.2 The Cellular Concept System Design Fundamentals : Frequency Reuse, Channel
Assignment Strategies, Interference and System Capacity, Trunking and Grade of Service,
Improving Coverage and Capacity in Cellular Systems. (Reier chapten 1, 2 and 3)
2.0 Mobile Radio Propagation 08
2.1 Large ~le fading : Free space propagation model, the three ~asic propagation
mech_a ms~s, renec~ion, grQund reflection (two-r~Y)..!J.lodel, diffractlPn, sca1tering, '
practical Lmk budget design using path loss models.
2.2 Small scale fading : Small scale multipath propagation, parameters of mobile multipath
channels, types of small-scale fading, Rayleigh and Ricean distributions.
2.3 Features of all conventional multiple access techniques : Frequency division multiple
access(FDMA), time division multiple access(TDMA),space spectrum multiple access
(SSMA), space division multiple access (SDMA),OFDM-PAPR,OFDMA.
(Refer chapters 4, 5 and 6:
3.0 2G Technologies 10
3.1 GSM : GSM Network architecture, GSM signalling protocol architecture, identifiers used
in GSM system. GSM channels, frame structure for GSM, GSM speech coding,
authentication and security in GSM, GSM call procedures, GSM hand-off procedures,
GSM services and features
3.2 GSM evolution : GPRS And EDGE- ar<,hitecture, radio specifications, channels.
3.3 IS-95: Architecture of CDMA system. CDMA air interface, power control in CDMA
system. power control, handoff, rake receiver (Refer chapters 7 and 8
4.0 JG Technology 06
4.1 UMTS : Objectives, standardisation and releases, network architecture, air interface
specifications, channels, security procedure, W-CDMA air interf~, attributes of
W-CDMA system, W-CDMA channels.
4.2 Cdrna2000 cellular technologies : Forward And Reverse Channels, Handoff And Power
Control. (Refer chapter 9
s.o 3GPPLTE 08
S.1 Introduction, system overview : Frequency bands and spectrum flexibility, network
structure, protocol structure.
5.2 Physical layer : Frames, slots, and symbols, modulation, coding, multiple-antenna
techniques
5.3 Logical and Physical Channels : Mapping of data onto (logical) sub-channels.
5.4 Physical layer procedures: Establishing a connection, retransmissions and reliability,
scheduling, power control, handover. (Refer chapter 10
6.0 Advanced techniques for 4G deployment 08
6.1 Multi-antenna Techniques : Smart antennas, multiple input multiple output systems.
6.2 Cognitive radio : Architecture, spectrum sensing
6.3 Relaying multi-hop and cooperative communications : Principles of relaying,
fundamentals of relaying (Refer ~apter 11
Total 48
□□□

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J.; .l' .
.: :( Index ]
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: - . L. 1
I '
♦ Chapter:( · ·.: .. F.undamentals ot'

(1-A, 1-8) ..................... 1-1 to 1-19
j I . , ..
• ••
1
Mobile Communication
- .
.' -
: ~ Chapter 2 •.• : · -
. .
The Cellular Concept-System
: • • : : 1: , . Design Fundamentals (2-A, 2-B) ....................2-1 to 2-36
. ,. :). ,. Cellular Capacity and

' '
Improvement Techniques (3-A) .......... ·.................3-1 to 3-33
'. ♦ Cha'pter 4 : · ·· MobTie Radio Propagation :

Large Scale Fading (4-A, 4-8) ................... .4-1 to 4-51
♦ Chapters .. Mobile Radio Propagation :

· - · Small Scale Fading (5-A) ...........................5-1 to 5-22
:· ♦ Chapter 6 Multiple Access Techniques (6-A, 6-B) ....................6-1 to 6-22
:. ♦ ~pter 7 2G Technologies (7-A, 7-B, 7-C, 7-0) ..... 7-1 to 7-54
CDMA (IS-95 A&B) (8-A, 8-B) .................... 8-1 to 8-31
3G Technology (9-A, 9-B, 9-C) ............ 9-1 to 9-30
:
Chapter 10 : 3GPP/LTE (10-A) ............... :..... 10-1 to 10-20
.♦
. '
~
• Chapter 11 .
: · Advanced T echnlques
for 4G Deployment (11-A, 11-B) ............ 11-1 to 11-16

Fundamentals of Mobile
Communication
1.1 Introduction to Wireless Communication ....................................................................................................................... 1-1
L0.1.1.1 What Is wireless communication system? ........................................................................................... 1-1
1.2 Mobile Rndlo Telophony .......................... :.................................................................................................................... 1-1
L0.1.2.1 Write short note on Mobile Radio Telephony........................................................................................1-1
1.3 Mobile Radio System Around the Wor1d ....................................................................................................................... 1-2
LO. 1.3.1 Write short note on Mobile Radio System Around the Worid................................................................ 1-2
1.4 Examples of Wireless Communication Systems ....................................................................................................... - 1-4
1.4.1 Definitions of Elements of Wireless Communication System ...............................................................1-5
L0.1.4.1 Define following terms : (a) Control channel (b) Forward channel
(c) Hand-off (d) Reverse channel (e) Page (I) Base _station ................................................................ 1-5
1.4.2 Types of Mobile Radio Transmission Systems .................................................:...................................1-6
L0.1.4.2 Explain the types of mobile radio trans~ission systems....................................................................... 1-6
1.4.2(A) Simplex Systems .................................................................................................................................. 1-6
1.4.2(0) Half-duplex Systems ............................................................................................................................. 1-6
1.4.2(C) Full Duplex Systems ............................................................................................................................. 1-6
1.4.2(C).1 Frequency Division Duplexing (FOO) and lime Division Duplexing (TDD) ..........................................1-6
L0. 1.4.3 Explain Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD) and lime Division
Duplexing (TDD) In mobile communication systems . ........................................................................... \-6
1.4.3 Paging Systems ......................................................................................................................... ........... 1-7
L0.1 .4.4 Write short note on paging systems. .................................................................................................... 1-7
L0. 1.4.5 Whet Is simulcasting ? ......................................................................................................................... 1-8
1.4.3(A) Why aro Paging Transmitters Located on Tall Buildings? ........................................·- - -···--·--- HS

~-
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LQ_ 1A.I
Comm. $yalem (MU-Som.7-E&TC) 1-B Fundamentals of Mobile Communtca11on
Why ara Paging Transmitters Located on Tall Buildings ? ...................................................................1-a

-
1-.4.4 Cordless Telephone Systems (CTS) ....................................................................................................1-a
L0.1.4.7 Write short note on : Cordless Telephone Systems.............................................................................. 1-s
1.4-.5 Cellular Telephone Systems:................................................................. •···••······································.••1-9

LQ.1.4.8 Write short note on Cellular Telephone Systems.................................................................................. 1-9
1.4.S(A) How a CeHular Telephone Call is Made ?.......' ...................................................................................1-11

!I
t •
L0-1 .4.9 How does the mobile switching center maintain the call
quality when the mobile Is roaming? .............................................................................................:.... 1-11
LQ. t.4.10 .What do you mean by roaming ? ............................................................................................. :.......... 1-12

t; 1.5 Advantages of Wlteless Communication ...........................................................:........................................................ 1-12
,J LQ. f.S.1 Ust the advantages of Wireless Communication ................................................................................ 1-12

I '·t
I. , 1.6 Disadvantages of Wireless Cornmunication................................................................................................................1-12
I
LQ.1.8.1 List the disadvantages of Wireless Communication....:......................................:...............................1-12
1.7 Applications of Wireless Cornrnunicatlon Systems :...............................:....................................................................1-13
'.
•I' LQ.1.7.1 List the applications of Wireless Communication Systems................................................................. 1-13
I.
1.8 comparison of Mobile Cornrnunication Systems ...........................................................................................:............1-13
ua. 1.8.1 . Compare cordless telephony, paging system and cellular system. a. 1(c) Dec . 12. 5 Marks .........1-13
I 11 ·1
'I 1.9 Evofutfon of Cellutar Networks .................................................................................................................................... 1-14
ua. 1.9.1 ~ I n cellular networks (WMAN) evolution from 1G to 3G. May 17 10 Marks ........................... 1-14
t .9.f ArstGeneratlon {1G CellularNetworks) .............................................................................................1-14

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1..9.2.. Second Generation (2G CeUular Networks) ....................................................................................... 1-15
1.9 •3 Third Generation (3G Wireless Networks) ..........................................................................................1-16
eornpartson of 1G, 2G, 2.5G, 3G, 4G and 5G Mobile Standards ...............................................................................1•17

1 _10
11 !
1.11 University Questions ...................................................................................................................................................1•19
auipeer ~ ............................................................................................................................................................1-19
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1 •
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Mobile Convn. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 1-1 Fundamentals of Mobile Communication
:> 1.1 Introduction to Wireless Communication
A communication system transmits information from one place to another whether separated by few kilometres or
transOCC8Jl.ic distance.
The information is carried by electromagnetic waves whose fi:cquency can vary from few megahertz to several hundred
tera hertz.
In 1897, Guglielmo Marconi demonstrated the concept of wireless telegraphy. It was built on Maxwells and Hertz work
to send and receive the Morse code.
Marconi's technology was based on long wave, spark transmitter technology that needs high power transmitters. His
invention was well received at that time as it was the most perfect invention at that times, as anything more perfect than
it was scarcely conceivable at that time.
Beginning with this invention the field of wireless communication has experienced various advanced developments.
However, it can be said that Mobile Radio Industry has been grown up during the last ten years. A number of factors
are responsible for explosive growth in wireless technology. It includes digital and RF circuit fabrication improvement,
new large scale circuit integration and other set of technologies that make portable radio equipment cheaper, smaller
and more reliable.
The digital switching techniques have facilitated the large scale deployment of affordable, easy to use radio
communication networks. It is expected to grow in near future.
LO. 1.1.1 · What la wireless eommuAlcation-system.? •.

A Wireless communication system is a system. that transmits data or information between two or more devices
wirelessly with the help of wireless communication methods and devices.
For transmission of data or information cables, wires, conductors are not used.
:> 1.2 Moblle Radio Telephony

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In 1958, the Bell system proposed a 75 MHz system at 800 MHz. In mobile communications, the growth has been slow
and coupled to different technological improvements.
The ability to provide wireless communication to the complete population was not conceived till AT and T Bell
laboratories developed the cellular communication concept.
In 1970s, with the development o_f highly reliable, miniature solid-state radio frequency hardware, the era of wireless
communication was born.
The recent exponential growth in the cellular radio and personal communication systems throughout ·the world is
directly attributable to the new technologies of 1970s..
The further growth of the consumer based mobile and portable communication system is tied closely to the radio
spectrum allocations and the regulatory decisions that affect the new or extended services and to the consumer needs
and technology advances in the signal processing, access and the ne~work areas.
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Mobi) ·
8
Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 1_2 Fun~mentals of Mobile Commun~,
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In US by 1934, 194 municipal policc radio systems and 58 state policc stations had adopted Amplitude Modu~
(AM) mobile COmmunication systems for public safety.
~ d ;>OOO radios were installed in the mobiles. However, vehicle ignition noise was a major problem for "'-
mobile
~- .
~ -
'
'
In 1935, Armstrong invented and demonstrated tbe frequency modulation (FM) mobile communication system for the l
first time. Frequency Modulation is the primary modulation method used for mobile communication systctns I
throughout the World. I
Further, World War-II accelerated the improvements in the manufacturing and miniaturization concepts and I
capabilities. i
These capabilities were put into use in large one-way and two-way consumer radio and television systems following the
war. 1be number of US mobile users raised from several thousands in 1940 to 86,000 by 1948, 6,95,000 by 1958 and
about 1.4 million users in 1962.
A majority of mobile users in 1960's were not connected to the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). Hence,
they we~ not able to directly dial telephone numbers from their vehicles.
With the boom in citizens band (CB) radio and cordless appliances the number of mobile users and port.able radio in ·1
1995 was about 100 millions (37%) of the US-population.

Then the subscription based wireless has been experiencing the customer growth rates in cxccss of 50% per year.
The worldwide subscriber base of cellular and Personal Communic~tion Services (PCS) subscribers is approximately 1
630 millions, compared to 1 billion wired telephone lines. t

Such an exponential growth is coupled closely to allocations of radio spectrum and various regulatory decision that
affects or suppons new or extended service as well as to consumer requirements and technologies advancement in the
signal process, access and the network areas.
I
:> 1.3 Mobile Radio System Around the World . ,;

!La. 1.3.1 Write short note on Mobile Radio System Around the World. I i
Many mobile radio standards have been developed for wireless systems throughout the world.
e7 Mobile Radio Standards in North America

I I
Table 1.3. l lists the major mobile radio standards in North America.
I' Table 1.3.1 : Mobile Radio Standards in North America
,
standard Type Year of Multiple Frequency band Modulation cJwmel
tntrodudion access bandwidth
Cellular 1983 FDMA 824 - 894MHz FM 30KHz I

AMPS
Cellular 1992 FDMA 824 - 894MHz FM JOKHz
NAMPS
Cellular 1991 TDMA 824 - 894MHz 1t/4 DQPSK 30KHz
usoc
Cellular 1993 FH/Packet 824 - 894MHz GMSK 30KHz
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[§) Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem 7-E&TC) 13 - Fundamentals of Mobile Communication
Standard
1S-95
Type
Cellular/PCS
Year or
liltroctnctlon
1993
'
- ·~
Multiple
CDMA
Frequency band ' Modiilaffon
.
824 - 894 MHz l.8
-2.0GH.z
QPSK/
BPSK
Channel
bandlfi!.th
1.25 MHz
- GSC Paging 1970s 12.5 KHz

Simplex Several FSK
P()CSAG Paging 1970s Simplex Several FSK 12.5 KHz
FLEX Paging 1993 Simplex Several 4-FSK 15KHz
OCS-1900 PCS 1994 TDMA 1.85 - 1.99 GHz GMSK 200 KHz
(GSM)
PACS Cordless/PCS 1994 TDMA/FDMA 1.85 - 1.99 GHz n/4 - 300 KHz
DQPSK
MIRS SMR/PCS 1994 TDMA Several 16QAM 25KHz
iDcn SMR/PCS 1995 TDMA Several 16QAM 25KHz
The world's most common paging standard is the Post Office SUUldanJ Advisory Group (POCSAG). It was developed
by the British Post Office in 1970s. It supports FSK modulation.
The new paging systems like R..EX, ReR..EX and ERMES are currently being deployed throughout the world.
The cordless systems Cf2 and Digital European Cordless Telephone (DECT) st.andnrds were developed in Europe. It is
tJ1c most popular standard.
CT2 uses microcclls that cover s mall distnnces (less than 100 m) using base stations with antennas that are mounted on
the street lighL\ or on the sides of buildings. Handoffs between base stations ore not supported as Cf2 is recommended
for providing short mngc access to PSTN.
The DECT system incorporotes data and voice transmissions for tJ1e office and business users.
TI1c PACS standard was de\'eloped by Bellcorc and Motorola in the US. It c.in be used inside the office buildings as a
wireless voice and data telephone system or radio local loop.
ar Mobile Radio Standards In Japan

Table 1.3.2 lists the Mobile Radio Standards in Japan.
The Personal Handyphone System (PHS) standard supports indoor and local loop applications in Japan.
The world's first cellular system wns implemented in Japan by Nippon Telephone and Telegraph company (NTT). It
uses 600 FM duplex channels in the 800 MHz band.
Table J.3.2 : Mobile Radio Standards in Japan
Standard Type Year or MuUlp~ Frequency Modulation Channel

lntroductJon ,, access band banciwklth
JTACS Cellular 1988 FDMA 860-925 MHz FM 25 KHz
PDC Cellular 1993 TDMA 810-1501 MHz 7t/4 DQPSK 25KHz
NTT Cellular 1979 FDMA 400/800 MHz FM 25 KHz
NTACS Cellular 1993 FDMA 843-925 MHz FM 12.5 KHz
NTT Paging 1979 FDMA 280MHz FSK 12.5 KHz
NEC Paging 1979 FDMA Several FSK I0KHz
PHS Cordless 1993 TDMA 1895-1907 MHz n/4DQPSK 300 KHz
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[i) Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&~C)
r::r Mobile Radio Standarda In Europe

Table 1.3.3 lists the Mobile Radio Standards in Europe.
1-4
Fundamentals of Mobile ~
-
.
T ahie 1.3.3 • MobUe Radio standards in Europe
- ··-
ModaladoP - ~ . •rij ~~
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·:Y ~
,., .. •.. -:-_
.
~. '1- ,,· .
; ·,~ .Yearof Moldple Frequenc)'
baudwldda'1
7.lliJ,2:2 ·""-· •""'7 .~ "' ~t~ a:..>:··_ ✓ ,. ., ··~ inil'Oductm access band -
ETACS 900MHz FM 25KHz
Cellular 1985 FDMA
450470MHz FM 25KHz
NMT-450 Cellular 1981 FDMA
NMT-900 FDMA 890-960MHz FM 12.5 KHz
C.Cllular 1986
GSM Cellular/PCS TDMA 890-960M.Hz GMSK 200KHz
1990
C-450 Cellular 1985 FDMA 450-465 MHz FM 20 KHz/ IOKHz
ERMES Paging 1993 FDMA Several 4-FSK 25KHz
CT2 Cordles.s 1989 FDMA 864-868 MHz GFSK lOOKHz
1-
DECT Cordless 1993 TDMA 1880-1900 GFSK 1.728MHz
MHz
PCS- Cordless/PCS 1993 TDMA 1710-1800 GMSK 200KHz "
1800 MHz
The Nordic Mobile System (NMT 450) was developed in Europe in 198 1. It was developed for the 450 MHz bmi ll
uses 25 KHz channels.
In 198S, the ETACS (European Total Access Cellular System) was deployed.. It is similar to the AMPS system excqt
' I
• I that it has smaller bandwidth and results in degradation of signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and coverage range.
r:r Mobile Radio Standards in Gennany
A full national coverage, including West Berlin using a C-450 cellular system was installed in September 1985 11ita
100 cell sites. These systems arc incompatible with one another because of the different frequencies and die
commu~ication protocols used.
I
! • r:r Mobile Radio Standards In Switzerland
Swiss PT & T decided to install an NMT-900 cellular network that had a capacity of 12,000 subscribers. It d
instaJle<I in Zurich in 1986. It has 20 transmitters.
All these sys tems are no~ being replaced by the Pan European digital cellular standard GSM (Global Systent for
I ,I ' I Mobile). It was dev~l~ped m 1900 for the 900 MHz band. It is dedicated. for cellular services. It has gained~
11 i I . acceptance as first digital cellular system with network features extended to each user.
l :> 1.4 Examples of Wireless Communication Systems

I
lI The users arc familiar _with~ number of mobile radio communication systems that a.re used in da -to-day life. ,,-
pagers, hand-held walkie-talkies, cordless telephones remote controllers of t .. y all typcS
. Iess commuru'cation systems•
of wire • e1ev1s1on, cdlular telephones arc
The cost. performance. complexity and services offered by these systems varies.
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~ 1.4.1 Definitions of Elements of Wireless Communication System
Table 1.4.1 gives some definitions about the elements of the wireless communication systems.
Table 1.4.1 : Definitions or Elements or Wireless Communication System
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1. Base station (BS) Base station is a fixed station in a mobile radio system. The base station is used for
radio communication with the mobile stations. The base stations are located at the
center or on the edge of a coverage region. The base stations comprise of radio
channels, transmitter and receiver antennas that are mounted on a tower.
2. Mobile The tenn mobile is used to classify a radio tenninal that can be moved during
- operation. e.g. a cellular telephone can be moved while talking.
In wireless communication systems a group of users arc called as mobiles. These
mobiles communicate to the fixed base stations that are connected to a power source
and fixed backbone network.
3. Portable unit The tenn portable unit describes a radio tenninal that is hand held and is used at
walking speed e.g. cordless phone at home, a walkie-talkie etc.
4. Forward channel· Forward channel is the radio channel used for transmitting information from the
base station to the mobile.
5. Reverse channel Reverse channel is the radio channel used for transmitting information from the
mobile to the base station.
6. Control channel Control channel is the radio channel used for transmission of call set up, call request.
call initiation and other beacon or control purposes.
7. Mobile station (MS) A mobile station is recommended for use during motion at unspecified locations in
the cellular radio service. The mobile stations can be hand-held personal units or
installed in vehicles. (mobiles)
8. Mobile Switching Center A mobile switching center (MSC) co-ordinates with the calls that are routed. In a
(MSC) cellular phone it connects the base stations and the mobiles to the PSTN. It is also
called as mobile telephone switching office (MTSO).
9. Subscriber and subscriber A user who pays subscription charges in order to use mobile is called as Su~riber.
unit
The tenn subscriber describes a mobile or portable user. This is because in mobile
communication systems each user pays a subscription fee inorder to use the system.
Each device is referred to as a subscri~r unit.
10. Hand-off The process of transferring a mobile station from one channel to other is called as
llfand-olY,
11. Page A message that is broadcast over the complete service llrcn by many base stations at
the same time is called n.o; a page.
12. Roamer A Roamer is a mobile station that operates in a service nrcu other thllll that from
which the service is subscribed.
13. Transceiver A Transceiver ·1s n device capable of transmitting and receiving radio signnls
simultnneously.
Tecb-Nco Puhliratiom..._ &.rt! AutlN,n la.pi~ in1NJra/M>D
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Fundamentals of Mobile Communication
~ -Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 1-6 ;z
a 1.4.2 Types of Moblle Radio Transmission Systems
jld 1.4~ .- ~aln the types of~ radio.transmission systems.

The types of mobile radio transmission systems arc :
(i) Simplex systems (ii) Half-duplex systems (iii) Full duple;,; systems
1 a. 1.4.2(A) Simplex Systems

l
l
Simplex systems are those systems that provide one-way communication i.e. communication is possible in one
! direction only e.g. a paging system where messages are received, but not acknowledged.
~ 1.4.2(8)
f Half-duplex Systems
Half-duplex CommunkatJon System arc systems that allow two way communication with the help of same radio
channel for both lmnsmission and reception. TI1e user cnn either transmit inform:ition or receive infonnation at a given time.
Some of the features of such systems are "push-to-talk" and ''Telca,;e.lo-llsten" .
a 1.4.2(C) Full Duplex Systems
Full duplc.'t systems a.re communication systems that allow simultaneous two way communication between a
subscriber and a base station. The transmission and reception is on two different channels (FDD frequency division duplex)
or at adjacent time slots on a single radio channel (Time division duplex TDD) for communication 10 and from the user.
a 1.4.2(C).1 Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD) and Time Division Duplexing (TDD)
l:.Q:.1.4.3 l;xplaln Frequency DMslon· Duplexing (FOO) and Tlme Division Duplexing (TDD) In mobUe ~nk:atlon
ms.
Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD) allows transmission of radio channels simultaneously for the base station and
the subscriber so that both can continuously transmit and at the same Lime receive signals.
Separate transmit and receive antennas are used at the base stntion to incorporate the two separate channels.
However, at the subscriber unit a single antenna is used for transmission lo and reception from the base station.
A duplexer is used inside the subscriber unit to allow the same antenna to be used for transmitting and receiving data
..·, simultaneously.
To support frequency division duple;w;ing it is essential to separate the transmit and receive frequencies by 5% of the RF
frequency. This is done so that the duplexer can provide isolation.
A pair of simplex channels with a fixed and known frequency separation are used in FDD to define a particular radio
channel in the system. This radio channel is used to transmit information from tJ\e base station to the mobile user. It is
called as forward channel. The radio channel that transmits information from the mobile user to the base station is
called as reverse channel. The AMPS standard of U.S. has foIWnrd channel frequency 45 MHz greater than that of the
reverse channel.
The half duplex and full duplex systems use transceivers for radio communication.
FDD is used widely in analogy mobile radio systems.
Tcc:h-NN> Publicatioos- ~ Autbon iD.pire inoo171tioa

-A SAG/INSI/All Yeature1

~ Moblle Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 1-7 Fundamentals of Mobile Communication
Time dlvlslon duple.xlng (TDD) shares a single radio channel in time so that a part of Lime can be used to transmit
infoml3tion from the base station to the mobile and the remaining time is used to transmit from the mobile to the base
station.
Infom1ation bursts cnn be stored if the data transmission rate in the channel is greater than the data rate of the user.
Time Dhision Duplexing (TDD) is possible only with digital modulation and digital transmission formats. TDD is
"Cf'J sensitive to timing. Hence, it is used for small nrea wireless applications where physical coverage distances arc
smaller e.g. Conventional cellular telephone systems.
's. 1.4.3 Paging Systems
Paging systems are systems that send_sma1l messages to a subscriber.
c:r Function and use
The mes..s;age cnn be a numeric message, an alphanumeric message or a voice message depending on the type of service.
The pnging systems are used to infonn a subscriber that he needs to a call a specific telephone number or travel to a
k"llown place to receive further instructions. However, the modem paging systems can be used to send news headlines,
stock quotfttions. faxes etc.
er Block Diagram
Fig. 1.4.1 shows a wide area paging system. Ctty 1
f
Landline link • Paging
Telephone
.tennlnal ~
City 5
~\ 0..ftl:..:. , .
f
t .- - ~~'If
oontrol .J-......,__ _ _ _ _ _linlt
Landline _ _ _--1
.:09nter
I
I
•
City N
Satellite link
-
Paging
~tennfnal
Fig. 1.4.1 : Wide area paging system

.
f~
r;-,. Working of Paging System
I. The paging control centre dispatches pages received from the PSTN throughout severaJ cities simultaneously.
2. A messsge is sent to a paging subscriber through the paging system access number i.e. s toll fu:c number with a
telephone keypad or a modem. This message thnt is issued is called us n page.
3. Then the pnging system transmits the page throughout the service area with the help of base stations on the radio c:urier.
_,, S40JJNSllUJ Ymtlff

' (
~ MobDe
r:,-, Tu-.__
Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC)
• ,,_. of Paging Syatema

1-8 Fundamentals of Mobile Communication
Tbcrc arc different paging syste~ depending upon the coverage area and system complexity.
-
The slmp)e pagiag systems arc limited to a range of 2.to 5 Jcm or confined within individual buildings. The wide area.
paging systems can provide a worldwide coverage. The transmission system is complicated while the receivers are
simple and cheap. ·
As shown in Fig. 1.4. l the wide area paging systems comprise of a number of telephone Iines, base station transmitters,
large radio towers that can simultaneously broadcast a page from each base station.
The process of simultaneously broadcasting a page from each base station is called simulcasting. Simulcast
transmitters can be located within the same service area or in different cities or different countries.
Advantage of Paging Systema
Reliable commuolcatJoo : The paging systems provide a reliable communication to their subscribers irrespective of
their location i.e. whether they arc driving on highway or flying in the aeroplane or inside a building.
For obtaining reliable co~cation Jargc transmitter power and low data rat.cs arc required for maximum coverage
from each base station. ·
a ~ .4~3(A) Why are Paging Transmitters Located on Tall Bulldlngs ?
The paging systems arc designed lo provide reliable communication to their subscribers irrespective of the subscribers
location i.e. whether they arc inside a building or driving on a highway or flying in an aeroplane.
The buildings may attenuates the radio signals by 20 or 30 dB.
1•
This makes the location of base stations difficult for the paging companies. Hence, the paging transmitters arc located
generally on tall buildings in the centre of the city.
SimuJcasting is also used with additional base stations that arc located on the perimeter of the city to cover the compJete
area. To maximize the signal-t<rnoisc ratio at each paging receivers, small RF bandwidths are used so that low data
I
rates are obtained.
I .,. t I
a 1.4.4 Cordless Telephone Systems (CTS)
I
I' ,.i
er Elements of Cordless Telephone Systems
I I
I
Cordless Telephone Systems arc run duplex communication system.1. They use a radio to connect a handset to a base
. ,Ip
11 station, which is then connected to a telephone line with a particular telephone number on the public switched
telephone network (PSTN).
er First Generation Cordlesa System•

In the earlier systems i.e. in first generation cordless systems the portable unit communicates only to the dedicated base
unit and over a distance of few tens of meters. e.g. home use.
Tecb-Neo Pu!Jiotient
fim btl»n ia,pirr UJROrauo,,
-A SACJJINSIMI/ Y~ -

er SecOnd Generation Cordless Systems
In the second generation cordless telephones allow the subscribers to use their handsets at outdoor locations within the
urban centres. lbey provide coverage ranges upto a few hundred meters.
r:r Block Diagram
fig. J .4.2 shows a cordless telephone system
Cordless
handset
Wireless
link
Fig. 1.4.2 : Cordless telephone system
er Modem Cordless Telephones

With the advancements in technology the modem cordless telephones arc combined with paging receivers . This is
done so that the subscriber can first be paged and then be can respond to the page with the help of cordless telephone.
er Drawback of CT'S
If a user travels outside the range of the base station, then it is not possible to retain the call because of the limited range
and mobility of the cordless telephone systems.
a 1.4.5 Cellular Telephone Systems
c:r "Elements of a -cetlutar Te1ephone System
Within the corresponding radio range the cellular telephone system helps us to connect to the Public Switched
Telephone Netwerk (FSTN) and any near/far user.
It consists of mobile stations, b~ stations and a Mobile Switching centre {MSC) or MobUe Telephone Switdtinl
Office (MTSO).
er Block Diagram
l. Mebi1e Switchlag Centre (MSC) : The MoMle Swiklliat Ceatft {MSC) or the Mehlle Telepllaae Swikhiag
~ ) connects the mobile units (called parties) to the PS"TN in a cellular system.
Function or MSC-: Tbc MSC co-ordinates the activities of all the base stations and connects the cellular system to the
PS1N_ Jt can handle atJeast 5000 telephonic conversations~ a time.aud.1,00,000 cellular subscribcts in a network. It
also ac:commodates all billing and system maintenance functions.
2; Mobile stations : Each mobile station communicates through radio with one of the base stations and can be banded off
to a nwnbcr of base stations throughout the call. Eve1)' cell of a particular geographical MCa has its own base station
with a transcrivcr, an antenna and a control circuitry. h can be a portable handhcld ,mit or mounted in a vehicle; (The
towers represent base stations that provide radio access between the mobile users and the mobile switching ccn~
{MSC)).
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J. Base statJom I The ba.~ ltallont arc copahle of handling many full duple~ communication, a., they _have towers that
suppon multiple trummhling and receiving antcnnaJ. Tiic b:a..\C station Is a bridge between the mobile users and the
MSC.
Fig. 1.4.3 shows o ba.\ic cellular ~)'item.
Pubic
S'Mtdled
Telephona
N9twol1l
(PSTN)
Fl&- lA.3 : Cdlu1ar sysurm
c:r Type• of Channels

'The cellular communication is made possible bctwctn the mobile units and the base stations with the help of comaaa
Alr Inurlatt (CAl). It has four different channels. Thcy arc
(i) Forward Voltt CbanDNS (FVC) : They are used for voice transmissioo from b~ 5141ion io mot-in
(ii) ~ Voltt Channds (R\'C) : lbey are used for voice transmission from nd>ilcs 10 b4:5C Sbf:ioft.
I
(iii) Forward Control CllanDds (FCC) : "IMy are rcspon5iblc for initfating the rrobilc nils.
(iv) Rn~ Ccmtrol Cbannds (RCC): Thcy arc responsible for initfating the nl:>bik i.'"21h...
The c:ontr<>l clumMIS are 11.ho a.lled as lll'f1lp dsamw'h u they ~ R'1pons1bk for in,ti.uing 11 ~I s:nd m.>"ffll it to•
unused voic.c clu,nnel.
Tix: control d1anotls will hnr Cllll, Ul:il in P,O!f\"'S.S bot tJity U)l.J!.Jly k'~ 1111d rt'C'(I\C' d114 ~~tt ~inJ c'II
iniu11.1wn and requc-i>l6 for e,ef\'ice,

The Forward Control Channels {FCC) are called as ''BEACONS" as they continuously broadcast the traffic requests
for the mobile units within the cellular system.
~ 1.4.S(A) How a Cellular Telephone Call Is Made ?
As soon as the cell phone is switched on it scans the control channels searching for the strongest signal of a base
station.
For each cellular system the control channels are standardized and identical throughout the different markets within the
country or continent. Each mobile scans the same channels when it is idle.
C7 Call Initiated by·telephone user
I. When the call progresses the Mobile Switching Center (MSC) adjusts the power transmitted (P,) of the mobile unit
and the base stations so as to maintain the call quality even though the mobile unit is non-stationary.
2. The call in progress continues irrespective of the frequency changes from one base station to another base station. Such
a call-continued-process without termination is called as "hand-off'.
3. As the motiile moves and the signal strength reduces when it is away from its base station of the cell, the next base
station of the neighbouring cell where the mobile enters in will take charge of the call.
A relay like process thus takes place within several base stations of the complete cellular system to maintain the call
developed between two subscribers.
Cati initiated by a mobile user
Tech-Neo Publicatio111-- IFIH:re Aulhon i'aspirr: innol'llli'on ..-A SAOD!ISJ/All Yenture

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~'I;. .. ,,-.)-; Tlio't.tsc: &.trucu the tme s1lltion and mobile user to mo~ lo mi unused forv--:ad. snd fC\-c:rse toicc cbaiad
l 1o ~ :OO•I\CS'\IQ:,o to
~iA.ta Whal do JOU mun by rnwring? J

l.
iI
AU c-eUumr s~tcm~ pn>\·ide a focili1y O!lled Roaming. It :illows t.bc users 10 opcr.ue i.n scn·ice
from which lhe scnicc is subscribed.
.m::is otha than~
'\\DC'tl a mobile erm-n ot.hor city o r area it it n:gi~crcd o.s a roamer in th:lt scnicr QJ'C.1.
t
I a,-
I.
Functiorua of the mobile communication system
E._~fisbe.~ call
2. Miain13ins the caJJ
3. Tcrmin::uc.s the ca.II .Ul.c r Ilic cull is O\'Ct.
-'· Jt cn.ibk~ conununk:llion c,'CJl 11100,;h the distruxc hcl"''tt:" tlx ~ubscribcrs i, I.us,::.
:> 1.5 Advantages of Wireless Communl~aUon
ILQ..1.5.1 l i l l h t ~ o l W h l e a ~
flJ ~lobillJy : The prinury :,1.h -=.~ of -.irdes,s rommunk.\tron is ro c ffa the uxr (lttdom 10 0)0\C eboot ro:tnectcd
with lhc net....-ork. \lfocl~ toehnolog)' ctublcs the ioduwi~ to '-liift roi.:i.t\h ~ • ~ins ncl>ilc ·Aorkfort:e .,.bcthc:r
they llJ'C in r~tings or 'il.ork.ing on :a f:ICt.Ot)• floor or conductini n:J,('=h,
(U) lnc1"e&Rd rdJ.ablUf)' : The mosi common soorc:c of Dd"'-Ork problems i.s failun: or d..utusr of oet,;a,orl: ebb became
of c:miroomcllUJ cooditioru or cro ion or metti.llk conducmrs using '"i n:bs tc:choo!ogy not only clirnin:!tcs thc:sc types
of obi~ (Ailwes., but :u..<.0 iocrc.1._~ t.bc rtlil!.hil.ity of t.bc oe1wart.
(ill) £my 1mtalbtlo.o: They Clll be c:isily insuilla1 witbow worrying about pzmiilins Od'1.ru:l- connccthiry through ohles.
(h) Lowu c:osa : Tilc acxd to iruulJ cnhles is dimiM1af using wire.less comm,•ointioo tlJld res:.ilts in .tig.n.ificmr eos1
s:s~>ing,.
(,,) Rapid dls:a:stu rttattry : Accidents om h:Ippm bccziuse of cnrthqunkt$. fire, floods tit any loc-..tion and !1I :my time.
Any org,nniwtion that is oot preJ>3rCd to reco\'cr from such ruituml di~tcrs e:in find it5elf quickly out of business. As 2
computer oc,....-ort is :i routine ~ of business. the oetworl: Ciln be easily set up ttftc:r d is:lstCT. Ho~-e,tt :i dcxumemcd
disaster recovery ~ essential.
:> 1.6 Disadvantages of Wireless Communication
]
(l) Radio signal lnterlrreoce : Signil.s from other wirclc:s..s devices c:in disrupt its r.idio t.r.uumission or a win:lc.s.s de,icc
iL<.clf be 3 source of intc:rfrrcnce for other win:lcss devices. e.g. CommonJy used wirt:lcss devices like ronfksS
C.'111
pho~ elevator motors.. m icrowaYe ovens etc. transmit radio signals thnt cnn interface . .,.; th wirele~ LAN operation.
Thev can clUL,;c emITT. AL~ Blucroolh :md WL\N devices both opcr.ue in the same radio frcque.ncy, potentially
re.~lting interfen:occ between these ck,ices.
-4 .S"400.f5llU/ , ~
...

[i]. Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 1-13 Fundamentals of Mobile Communication
(ii) Security : A wireless communication device transmits radio signals over a wide open a~ea. Hence, se~urity is a major
concern. It is possible for an intruder with-a notebook computer and wireless N/C to intercept the signals from a nearby
wireless network. Because of more of business, network traffic can contain sensitive infonnation, it becomes a serious
issue for many users.
Some wireless technologies can provide added levels of security with authorization features earlier to gaining access to
the network. Network administrators can limit access for approved ~ireless devices only. ·
(iii) Health·hazards: Biological damage can be produced as a result of High power levels of RF energy. However, we do
not know as to how much levels of RF energy can lead to adverse health effects. The continuous radiations at lower
levels can be harmful to sensitive body organs.
The RF energy is emitted by radio transmitters in the wireless communication systems. Typically t~ese systems emit
low levels of RF as. they are used. Although rese~ch is carried to solve these problems there is no clear information
about the biological effects of this type of radiations.
:> 1.7 Applications of Wirefess Communication Systems
The wireless communication systems are used for following applications :
(I) Paging and messaging (2) Cordless Telephone Systems (3) Wireless local loop
(4) Wireless PAN (5) Wireless LAN (6) Cellular phones
(7) Security systems (8) Television remote control (9) Wi-Fi
(10) Wireless keyboards (11) Remote access to medical records. (12) Bluetooth-
:> 1.8 Comparison of Mobile Communication Systems
I. Infrastructure More· · Less More·

· required
I .
2. Range covered • More less More
3. . Complexity More at base station Less at Less at base station Move at base station
mobile station Moderate at mobile statio~ High at mobile station
4. Cost of More at base station Medium at base station More at base station
hardware Less at mobile station Less at mobile station Moderate at mobile station
5. Carrier <l GHz 1-3 GHz <2GHz
frequency
6. Definition It is a communication It is a- communication sy~tem It is a communication system
system used for sending that uses radio waves to bonnect
I
that uses radio wave to connect
messages to subscribers. portable handsets to PSTN to PSTN/Mobile devices to
The message sent is called providing mobility in gi~en base obtain data or voice
as page. station range. l communication.
Tcch-Neo Puhlicntions•..,.__ WJ,ere Authors inspire innomtion ·-··A·SAC/IINSI/All Venture

1-14 Fundamentals of
7
• ~ lire Longest Moderate Shortest
8. MobUJty
Limited Limited High mobility
9. Systems cued
NIT, OSC, POSAG, NEC, PACS, DECT, PHS, DECT, AMPS, CDPD; IS-95, GSM,
ERMES,FLEX CT2 ITACS, PDC, ETACs.
:> 1.9 Evolution of Cellular Networks -

It has long been accepted in telecommunication industry that standards are required to govern physical, electrical and
proccduraJ cba:racteristics of a communication standard.
A communication standard assures that there will be a large marlcct for a particular part of equipment or software. It
allows products from multiple vendors to communicate, allowing flexibility to consumer in equipment selection and
use.
TI,e wireless communication systems that we are using

'
I . today are results of series of development with
advancement of technology at each stage of
developmenL
Since the mid 1990s, the wireless communication

networks have experienced tremendous growth.
0
M shown in Fig. 1.9.l the worldwide cellular and
personal communication subscriber base crossed
600 million users in 2001 and the number of individual
subscribers is projected to reach 5 billion by 20IO. 2000
Fig. 1.9.1 : Growth of cellular and Personal Communication Services

(PCS) telephone subscribers throughout the world
The governments throughout the world have provided new radio spectrum licenses for personal communication
serv~ (PCS) in the 1800-2000 MHz frequency bands.
Such a rapid growth in the cellular telephone subscribers concludes that wireless communication is a robust, viable data
and voice transport method. It has resulted in development of newer wireless ~ystems and standards for other types of
telecommunication traffic other than mobile voice telephone calls.
The nrst generatlon wireless networks (1G) are based on analog technology. They use FM modulation.
a 1.9.1 FJrst Generatron (1G Cellular Networks)
'Ibey arc based on analog technology and use FM modulation.
Jap,m launched first f G cdlular networlc by NIT in 1979. It gradually expended 10 cover J:ipan :ind w:is the first 10 '
network. \ . •.
Later NMT (Nordiac Mobile Telephone) was developed in Denmark, Sweden, Norway and Finland. It supported
international roaming.
Jed).rceo PuWatiom-- f'hert Au/hon lnApll"t! innowtion .._.,4 SAG/INS/1,4// Yen/rift

•~ ~Camm.$pam(MU-s.n_7~•
- ~I9 1·15 RnwnentatsofMoblle~lion
- AMPS (Ad\·~ Mobile Phone Sen·
(Tk.\C.S), race) wu ~vcloped by BdJ uh& in 1981. ll -.-u u.._~ In F.ngl.aod and Japan
.r Orawbacb of 1G aystama
(1)
They an: iN«W'c. Anyooc in the band can listen to the convcn:u.ion.
tu> Aini me lhef'ts can Uu pucc.
(ili) lky u.sc analog lec.bnok>gy
(1\ ) Poor \'Oioe quality
(, ) Poor~life
(,i) Latgc phone s.izc
( \i i) Limited capx:iry
(,11i) ~ tunJotr mccJunlsm h: poor.
1k M'<'OOd rmttadoa "lrdcss l)'ISnns {2C) rmploy dlgitlJ rmJut.ition and advanced c.tll proces.sjng caP4billrics.
T)-pial r.umpks indooc Glooal S)~m for Mobile (GSM), cordk:u 1,dt•phonc (CTl) etc.
1k thlnt a:mrra.Uoa "lrdc!.-1 l)"ltnm OG) arc dt-,-c_~ to pro,ldc u.nhuial 1CCC1S throughoul the world. 1l1ey
tm'C' u:sn1 bnudband ISDN ro pro,i ck ~ to infonn.Jrion nrt•orb It~ internet. convnuniarions using Voice o,w
ln!.ctnd Protoool (VolP), \'Ot~xti,'altJ u!1' etc.
- The fourth C("Mndoa '9 lttlcu l)"S!Nm (4G) uc cum-ndy undtt Jcploymcnl but con1inue to C\'Oh~.
- The ocu Gffl(n.tioo ttllul:u nrtv.-o,u tu,,:, been ibJgnt"d 10 wppoct hi&h ,l)«d dJ.14 cortUOOniC4tions traffic In
~ Jtioo l O the \'OtCC a.lJ
1.9.2 Second Generation (2G Cellular Networks)
~h:ny of toch)""' cellular ~'Ori::s use ittOlld smrndoa or ?G t ~ lh.tt conforms second generntion cellular
i.Unr.1llds..
The s.ccond geoention (2G) cdluw sy~ms pro,ide more fc41Urcs in compMison ro the first generation (IG) systems.
The finl gcncntion cellular syue:ms v.'Ct'C based on analog tnrumis.sjoos on FDMA/FDD and analog FM. TilC second
gcnention (2G) ~llular 1ystc-rm use digiuJ modullllion fom\3U including the TDMA/FDD and the CDMNFDD
multiple acc:cu lCCbniques.
The s.ecood gcncntion ~ include three TOMA stllndard and one CDMA Sl4nda.rd. They 4rC :
(i) Glob11 S~m Mobile (GSM) (ii) Interim Standard 136 (IS-136)
(iii) ~fie DigiuJ Cellular (POC) (iv) Interim stAndMd 9S CDMA (1S-95)
In the thttt TOMA standards. the spcctnl band is subdivided into m:ut)' time slots. These time slots fonn TOMA
frames.
Every ~ubscribcr ~i ll be assigned time slots in which lr.lnSmission C41l occur. 1llc ccllulM traffic congestion fs
minim.iu:id by this tochnology.
~ Advan~• of 2G
1. With use of digital tranSmission ii suppot1J fearure, like SMS, email, inlCmd and MMS.
2. The spectrum efTteimcy is improved.

-A S,1011!(STUii Y'-llt'lff

~
1i]
I 3•
Mobile r-~-
Lowpo
"""11m, System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC)
wer emission.
1-16
- "'~""'ntals of Mobile Communica~
Fu,"""•~ ~ [).-;}
'A, Mot
4. Operates at faster data rates.
~ Disadvantages of 2G
I
I. Weak d' ·,.,
•gi...., signal may not reach to tower.
2
· There is no pro•-u· .
......., on against eavesdropping.
3
. With Small data servicing (SMS).
rates they support limited internet browsing and short message
a 1.s.3
Third Generation (3G Wireless Networks)
The main c~·-· tc . . r
nsucs o 3G standards arc as follows :
I (i)
""'au;
They arc Used world-wide for all mobile applications with wide spectrum and scam.less conncctiviiy.
( ii) Th
\ ey suppon circuit-switched and packet switched data transmission..
(iii) They offer high data rates upto
2 Mbps.
(iv) They offer high spectrum efficicocy.
(v) It has improved performance and security.
(vi) It supports many terminals from PDAs to desktops. CD

'0
~
ca
JG systems provide an unparalleled wireless access in methods that have never been possible earlier. '0
-
C
Some of the advantages of the 3G networks arc : ca
en
I. Multi-megabit Internet access ~
:a0
2. Communications using Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
3. Voice activated calls ==
CJ
ll)
4. Unparalleled nctworlcs capacity '0
C
a,
5. Ubiquitous "always-on" access
C,
~
Companies developing 3G equipment are with a view so that the ll'SeCS can have the' ability to receive live music,
conduct interactive web sessions and have simultaneous voice and data access with multiple parties at the same time
a(')
I
using a single mobile handset, whether driving, waJking, or standing still ill an office setting. 0
ll)
The International Telecommunications Uoioa (ITU) formulated a plan to implement a global frequency band in· the C'<i
2000 MHz range that would suppon a wircTess communication standard for arr countries throughout the worfd called as c;
N
lnternatJooal Mobile Telephone 2000 (IMT-2000).
a....
cir
I.
Drawbacks of 3G systems
The cost of getting licenses for 3G is high.
-0
C
0
CG
2. It needs different handsets. .::
CD
~
3. The power consumption is high. E
0
4. The fnfrastructure, up gradation cost is high. 0
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f- :> _1.1 o Comparlsoo of 1 G, 2G, 2.5G, 3G, 4G and 5G Moblie Standards _
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. . .........................................................•.·:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
Introduction......................................................... · .........
................ ....................... 22
LQ. 2.1.1 Explain the need of cellular systems. ...... .............. .................................."" .. " •
2.2 . . . ....................................:"· . . ..........................................2.2
Basrc Cellular System.......................................... . ellular system
r1<i of a baSIC C
LQ. 2.2. f With-the help of a diagram explain the WO ng ............................: .......................2.3
2.3 Hexagonal Geometry Cell................................................· ul , cell shape to

.. .. .
' ,.. 2.3•t
~
. hexagonal. ce11 shapepreferred over square
Why,s . or tnan9 a ....................... ..............................2.3
represent the cellular architecture ? .................... ... .. ....................................................2-4
2.4 Frequency Reuse and'System Capacity............................:.............................. _- N
. . . . system and cluster srze .
UO. 2.4-.1 Denve relat1onsh1p between capae1ty C of · .............................. ••· •·..........2-4
a. l(d). Dec. 10. s Marks. a. 1(d). May 11 . 5 Marks ···················'·····
UQ.2.4.2 Discuss about frequency reuse used in cellular system. .............................2-4
•
..................................................2-4
UQ.2.4.3 Write short note on : Frequency reuse. a. 7(b). Dec. 14. 10 Marks
UEx. 2.4.2 a. l(e). May 18. 4 Marks
........ ~ .................................................... ............................................................2-6
. •............................. ·...................2 7
2.S Channel Assignment Stcategies..... _ ......................_....................'.•···--············-···..
UQ. 2.5.1 Write short note on : Channel assignment strategies in cellular system.
a. 7(dj. May 12. 5 Marks. a. 7(d). Dec. 12. 5 Marks .......................................................................2~1
2.5.t Fixed Channe,•ASStgnmen
. t........................................... ••••.......... ·.........................................................2-8
LQ. 2.5.2 Discuss th& fixed channel allocation technique in cellular system........................................................2-8
2.5.2 Dynamic.Channel Assignment. ......:.......................................................................................................2-8
L~2.5.3 Discuss the dynamic channel allocation technique in cellular system ..................................................2-8
2.5.3 Difference between Fixed Channel Assignment and Dynamic Channel Assignment ...........................2-8
LQ. 2.5.4 Compare between F~A and DCA channel assignment strategies a. 1(b), Dec. 16. 5 Marks ...........2-8
2.6 Interference.............................................:.':;.:....................................................................................... -........................2-9
2.7 Channer and Co-channel interference Factor and Distance to Frequency Reuse Ratio ..............................................2-9'
LO. 2.7. t With respect to rilObile networks, explain co channef interference. ......................................................2.g-
2.8- f Aa~o Consideration tor Minimum Channet lnterte;ence .....................-..... u..............................................................2•10

UQ. 2:a.1 Relate f (signal-to-interference ratio) to the cluster size N.
a. 3(a ). Dec. 10. 10 Marks

························•......................................................
. . ················ ................2-10
- .

-
(§] Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 2-B The Cellular Concept-System Design Fundamentals
ua. 2.0.2 Derive the relationship between S/1 (Signal to Interference) and cluster size N.
a. S(b). Dec. 12. 10 Marks. a. 6(a). May 13. 10 Marks, a. 1(a). Ma 15. 5 Marks ····················.2·10
ua. 2.0.3 Consider a cellular system with S/1 ratio of 18 dB. The frequency reuse factor is N = 7 .
Calculate the worst case for signal-to-co-channel interference ratio. Is the frequency reuse
factor 7 still being acceptable ? If not, what is it? Assume path-loss exponent as 4 in
a mobile radio environment. a. 2(a). Dec. 16. 1o Marks .................................................................2-10
UEx. 2.8.1 Dec. 2015. a. 2(a). Dec. 18. 10 Marks ···•···········•···············•····•·•···•·······•...............................................2-13
UEx.2.8.2 May 17. a. 2(b). 10 Marks .....................................................................................................................2-14
Adjacent Channel Interference ...................................................................................................................................2-15
2.9
LO. 2.9.1 With respect to mobile networks, explain adjacent channel interference............................................2-15
Difference between Co-channel and Adjacent Channel lnterference..........................................................................2-18

2.10
LO. 2.10.1 Explain the difference between co-cllannel interference and adjacent channel interference . ............2-18
2.11 Hand-off Strategies .....................................................................................................................................................2-18
uo. 2.11.1 Explain Handoff in 2G, 3G & 4G in detail .............................................,.2-18
2.11 .1 Dwell Time .......................................................................... _, .... _._ .........·-····....·-----··-·-.....---2-19
uo. 2.11.2 Explain dwell time. a. 1(b). Dec. 13. 2.5 Marks .............................................................................2-19
2.11.2 Mobile Assisted Handoff (MAH0) .......................................................................................: ...............2-20
LO. 2.11.3 Define MAHO. ....................................................................................................................................2-20
2.11.3 1ntersystem Handoff ...........................................................................................................................2-20
2.1 1.4 Prioritizing Handoffs ...........................................................................................................................2-20

uo. 2.11 A Explain how prioritizing in Hand off is done. 0. 1(d). May 17. 5 Ma~ks ...........................................2-20
2 .11 .5 CeU Oragging ................ _........................................ - .................................. _,.~ .......- ....................~.2-20

UO. 2.11.5 Explain cell dragging. a 11b). Dec 13. 2 .5 Marks ......................_................................ ~· .. ........2-20
2-21
2.11 .6 Umbrella Cell Concept........................................................................
. .···············································
·
UO. 2.11.6 Write short note on: Umbrella cell approach

a. 7(b). Dec. 12. 5 Mark. C. 7(a). May 15. 5 Marks ;..................................................................2-2-1·
UQ. 2.11.7 What is umbrella cell approach? a. 1(c). May 13. 5 M~rks ...........................................................2-21.
UQ. 2.11.8 Explain umbrella cell concept ln cellular system. a 1(a). May 14 5 Mi!rks
....,.........,......~··········,•-?-·2.1.
2.11 .7 Hard and Soft Hand-off............................................... -·. . . ..2 :22
• ••• · · ·· · · · · · ···--·........................ ■..•--····~-----·· -
ua.2.1(9 Explain hard hand-off and soft hand-off. a. 1(d). May 1s. 5 Marks .................................................2 22
2.12 Solved Examples ......... · .............................................· ........................ ·...................................................................... •
2 23
UEx. 2.12:.12 Dec. 2015. 5 Marks ..........................................................................· ................................................2;.s2·
UEx. 2:12.13 May 1a. 10 Marks . . . .
. ·······.. ····.. ·······..·············..:····-······...................................................................:.......:2-32,
uex. 2.,2.141•6"a-..=1-mm--.,..-.............................................
. . . .
.2 00 .
2.13.
·······························································•······· -...,.,-
University Ouestions .............~·······..···_·····..............:.············..............._. ....... _. .....: ..···•·•••• ...... :..·····:..............'••:··::·:.'.::.:.:_.::~ 34; .
• .chapter. Enda.. ....•---··-··---·--·-·----------------... -._···-·-
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.
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fj;J Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC}
:> 2.1 Introduction
2-1 The CeRular Concept-System Design Fundamentals
. -
.,.
ILQ. 2.1.1 Explain the need of cetlutar systems.
J
ln the olden days, a single high powered transmitter with antenna mounted on a tall tower was used to cover a large
service area as shown in Fig. 2.1. I.
Base staUon antenna
Base station
Fig. 2.1.1 : Single base station covering the complde service area
Spectral congestion and user capacity was a major problem. The service provides could not make spectrum allocations
in proportion to the increasing demand for the mobile services.
The radio telephone system was reconstructed to
obtain high capacity with limited radio spectrum
while at the same time covering large areas. Base Base
staUon station
'The cellular concept was a major breakthrough is
solving the problem of user capacity and spectral
congestion. It offers a very high capacity in limited Ba98 Base Base
spectrum. staUon station staUon
In the cellular concept, the single high power

transmitter is replaced with many low power
transmitters each providing coverage to only a small Base Base
part of service area as shown in Fig. 2. 1.2. Each base station &iatlon
station is allocated a portion of the total number of
channels and nearby base stations are assigned
different group of channels. Fig. 2.1.2 : CeUuJar concept
The neighbouring base stations are assigned different groups of channels so that the interference between the base
stations is minimized.
If these base stations and their channel groups are systematically placed throughout a market then the available
channels arc distnouted throughout the service area. They can be reused as many time as possibJe or as many times as
essential.
The co-channel interference is kept below the acceptance level.
As the demand for the service increase, the number of base stations can be increased to supply an additiona1 radio
capacity with no additional increase in the radio spectrum. This is the principle of all modem wireless coromuoicarion
systems as it allows a fixed number of channels to service a large number of subscribers by reusing the channels
throughout the service area.
The ceUular concept allows each cellphone to be manufactured with the s ~ set of channels, so that any mobile can be
used anywhere in the service region.
Tecli-Neo PeJJice•ien• ~ ,4""-, -,,ire~- -A SKI/INS/L4B Yu11w

c=S
toco,--era ~
~ 2.,%.1 Wilh the~ of a dagram explain the wamg of a basic cellular system.
a- Elements of cettular systems
A bssic c:cllufar SJStcm compri..<cs of three units : a mobile unit. a cell site and a Mobile Telephone Switching Office
~ITSO) ~ shown in Fig. 2.2. l.
:r Bicek Diagram
U!nd teleptlo!,e network
Voice circUtS
Mobile Telephone {MTSO)

SVlffi::hes and processor
Switching Office
>------;---+It---+ Decficaled voice circuits

;um 3.lloc:u:ions .>< I Grade circuits
~ J,~l
-~--.
-:i::1111-~!
I
Cellettes
) Cell s:ta 1 Cell sila 2
Fig. 2.2.1 : A cefla1ar system
(i) Mobile anit
If romprises a conttnl unit, a t:ransceh·er and an antenna system.
(ii) Cdl site
~ the base Its function is to pro,'ide interface between the mobile units and MTSO. It comprises of a control unit. radio cabinets,
antennas., a power plant and data tenninals.
the available
ID3D)' times as (iii) Mobile telephone switching office (MTSO)
It is the central co-ordinating unit for all cell sites. It comprises of the cellular processor and the cellular
switch.
lditional radio It interfaces the telephone company zone offices. The MTSO is responsible for controlling the call processing
mnmpn!carinn operations and handling the billing activities of the subscriber.
: the cbanBCls
The MTSO is the heart of the cellular system. lts processor provides central co-ordination and cellular
administration.
mobile can be
-.4 SAC/IINSJl4l1 Yu1-

lfS/lJJlY~

~ 2.3 Hexagonal Geometry Cell
LO. 2.S.1 Why is hexagonal cen shape preferred over square or triangular cen shape lo represent the cellular
architecture ?
Having studied lhe cellular topology and 1hc concept of employing cellular archilcclurc lo increase the communication
capacity and to serve a large subscriber demand, we will consider qualilalivc means to churnc1crizc lhc inlcrference in a
cellular topology.
This leads to quanlir.alive methods for de crmining Ilic best cl11s1cr size and simple mcllmds for aJJocaling sub bands of
spectrum wilhin a cluster. (
For cells of srune shape to form a tesseHntion so that there arc no ambiguous areas 1hat belong to multiple cells or to no
' of regular polygons : cquilatcml triangle. square or regular hexagon.
cell, lhe cell shape can be of only three types
A hexagonal cell is lhe closest approximalion of a circle. It is being typicaJly used for the system .
.
'---'
Fig. 2.3.l : Square and triangular cells Fig. 2.3.2 : Arrangement of hexagonal cells to provide greater
coverage without creating ambiguous returns
The reasons for selecting the hexagonal shape over square or triangular cell shape are summarized as follows :
(i) Hexagon allows easy and manageable analysis of a ce11ular system.
(ii) In circular pattern, adjacent circles can have gaps in between or can creat.e overlapping regions.
(iii) Hexagon closely approximates the circular radial.ion pattern in an Omni-directional base stat.ion antenna .
.....A SAC/JINSJWI Ye111ure

.. .,,,....
ti] Mobile Comm. tam MU-Sem.7-E&TC 2-4 Tho Collulor Cone-0 t-8 otem Dosi n Fundamentals
(iv) A cell must be designed to servo tho wonkest mobiles In the ,icrvlco uren und they nre located at the edge of the
cell. For n given distance between the center of n polygon nnd ltll forthe~I pctimelet points, the heJtogon h:i, the
st
lar~e nrcn lhnn the tr:lunglo nntl squnro . llius, by using heJtngonnl geometry, leu number of cells can cover the
entire market
If hc1uigonnl geometry is used then only few number of cells cun cover o geographic region.
_ 'fhe bcxogon is close to O circular rndiotion pnllern thut cun result from un omni-<lircctionul busc slnlion untcnnn and if
there is free spncc propagation. But in Practice the i-ectorcd c.lircctionnl nntennM nrc u!led In corner cJtciled cell and the
omni-directional antennas arc used in CCJllrc excited cells. IJowcver, the practical consideration, do not support the base
stntions to be placed exactly ns they nrc seen in the hcJtngonnl layout.
:, 2.4 Frequency·Reuse and System Capacity
uo:_2.4.1 . Derive relatlonshlp between capacity C of system and cluster size N.
l~Lid•ltcll•J4fll•&i&tttJ!tW•lttmmlN-JZffiff
- ?%.t.2' O~~ about frequen~ reuse used in cellular system.
MU - a. 1(a). Ma 11. s Marks, a. 1 b). Ma
t ,..,_
"'( ..
12, 5 Marks. 0.1 d), Dec. 13. 5 Marks
UQ. W '. Write short-note on : frequency reuse. MU - a. 7 b • Dec. 14, 10 Marf'.s
A group of radio channels is allocated a separate circular base station to be used within a small geographlc area called
cell.
- The base stations in adjacent cells are assigned channel groups that contain completely different channels than the
neighbouring-cells.
The antennas-located on base station are designed to obtain the required coverage for a specific cell. If rhe coverage
area is limited to within boundaries of the cell then the same group of channels can cover different cells that are
separated from..eaclLother by large distances.
Tbe..design.method.of selecting and allocating channel groups for all cellular base stations within a system is called as
frequency-reuse or frequency p1anning.
Fig. 2.4.1 shows the concept of cellular
frequency reuse, where cells labelled
with the same letter use the same group
of channels.
We have seen that hexagonal geometry
is used in the design. of the cellular
system.
The actual radio coverage of a cell is

called as a footprint The footprint can
be found out from the field
measurements or the propagation
prediction models. (a) 7-=cell reuse pattern (b) 3-ttll reuse pattern
Fig, 2.4. l : Frequency retL~
Tttl..Nee Pu1Jica1ien• _4 ~laJJ.t'SllUl lt oturr-

~ Moblle Comm. s tem (MU-Sem.7 •c&TC) 2-5 The C eTIu1ar Concept-S ysIem D es1gn
· Full<larnen~
:
In ord~r to understand the concept of frequency reuse we will consider a cellular system having S dup)cll channc
Then, tf each cell is allocated a group if n channels (n < S) and if S channels are divided among N cells into uni ls.
disjo• t h al be qUc aJid
m c annel groups with each having the same number of channel s, tbcn the tot num r of available .
Channels is, l'ad10
s= nN ··-(2.4,))
The N cells will collectively use the complete set of available frequencies. It is termed as a cluster.
~ RelatJon between capacity C of system and cluster size N

Now if this cluster. is repeated m times within the system, then the total number of duplex channcls C can be llSed
measure capacity. It is expressed as, to
..:
C = mnN =mS ... (2.4.2)
The channel capacity is defined as the maximum number of channels that can be provided for a particular fix
frequency band. cd
Thus, the capacity or a cellular system is directly proportional to the number of times a cluster is repeated in
1
fixed service area. The factor N is cnlled as the cluster size and is typically 4, 7 or 12.
If the cluster size N is small, clusters can be repeated in large numbers an.d hence more capacity is obtained.
A large cluster size decreases the ratio between the cell radius and the distance between co-channel leading to weaker
co-channel interference. But, a smaller cluster siz.e indicates that the co channel ce11s are located much closer together
and result in more interference.
The value of N is a function of the amount of interference a mobile or base station can tolerate while maintaining a
good quality of communication.
For maximum capacity. the smallest possible value of N is desired. ~ is called as the frequency reuse factor as each
cell within the cluster is only assigned ~ times of the total available channels.
The hexagon has six equidistant neighbours and the lines j oining the centers of any cell and its neighbours are separated
by multiples of 60°.
The geometry of hexagon is such that the number of cells per cluster N can have values that satisfy the equation,
N = j2 + ij + j2 ...(2.4.3)
where i and j are non-negative integers..
In order to find the nearest cerchannel cells of a particular cell o ne must do the following :
(i) Move i number of cells in any direction.
\
(ii) Tum 60 degrees in counter clockwise direction and move j number of cells.
Table 2.4.1 lists possible cluster sizes.
Table 2.4.1 : Possible cluster size
I j N"
1 1 3
2 0 4
0 2 4
1 2 7
2 I 7
2 2 12
2 3 19
_T_'.ech_-Nco_Pulilica
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£1.2.4.1
A particular FDD cellular system uses two 25 kHz simplex channels to provide full dupl~x voice and cor_itrol channels. The
tnl band allocated for lhe system is 40 MHz. Compute the number of channels available per cell tf the system uses
~~) 3-ccll reuse_ fo~r-cell re~se (c) 12 cell reuse. If MHz of the ~!located spectrum is dedicated to control channels,
(b? .2
deteJ1Dine the distnbution of voice and control channels m each cell und m euch of the tllfCe systems.
~ SOfn. !
(;f,tn! Total bandwidth -= 40 MHz
Channel bandwidth = 25 kHz x 2 simplex channels = 50 kHz/duplex channel
6
40x 10
:. Total available channels = x 3 = 800 channels
50 10
(a) ·For ~II reuse i.e. N = 3
8
T.otal number of cbaooels.available per cell= ~ 26? cbaooels
(b} For 4-cell reuse i.e. N = 4
8
Total number of channels available per cell = : = 200 channels
(c) For 12-cell reuse i.e. N = 12

800 --,
Total number of channels available per ceH = _= '<,7 channels
12
A 2 MHz spectrum for control channel implies that there are :o:
1
6
~J = 40 control channels out of the 800 channels
1
•available. To evenly distribute the control and voice channel, simply allocate the same number of voice channels in
~b cell wherever possible. Here, the -800 channels. must be evenly -distributed to each cell within the cluster.
Practically only 760 voice channels will be allocated as control channels are allocated as 1 per ceU.
(a) For three-cell reuse, we can have ( ~O = 13) 13 control cbannels and (267 - l3 = 254)254 voice .channels per cell. 1n
practice however each cell only needs a single control channel Thus, one control channel and 254 voice channels will
be assigned to each cell.
(b) For four-cell reuse we can have (4,? = 10) 10 control channels and (200- 10 = 190) 190 voice channels per cell.
(c) For 12 cell reuse, we can have eight cells with five control -channels and-62 voice channels and four cells with three
control channels and 64 voice channels.
VEx!ui
~ 'i' - ,;-;,'.;,o
MU• Q . 1 e), Ma 18, 4 Marks
~ • , • . • • - •
~ :~ F D ~ ~_lulatsystem.uses two 25 kHz simplex.channels to provide full duplex. voice .and control.cbaonels The
~j,~ ~ / ? r the system is 33 MHz. Compute the number of channels available -per ceJI if a ·system uses (a) Co~
~ ;;,~ ~ (b) sev~rr-cell reuse. (c) 12-cell reuse. If 1 MHz of the allocated spectrum is dedicated to control channels,
~e·on'eqwtabfe"°distributfon of'coiltrol channels and' voice channels in each of the three systems: · .
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--
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Mobilec
omm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 2-7 The Cellular Concept-System Design F u ~
~ Soln.:
Given:
Total bandwidth = 33 MHz,

Channel bandwidth = 25 kHz x 2 simple1t channels = 50 kHz/duplex channel
6
:. Total available channels 33x 10
= 50 x l ol =660 channels
(a) Four-eel) reuse
Total number of channels available per cell =-

6
f "'-165 ~hannels.
(b) Seven cell reuse
6 0
Total number and channels available per cell= ~ = 95 channels.
(c) 12 cell reuse
Total number of channels available per cell=

66
°
12
-=-55 channels.
3
1000 X 10
A 1 MHz spectrum for control channel implies that there are x 1 - 20 control channels out of the 660 cbanneis
50 10
available. The 660 channels must be evenly distributed to each cell within the cluster. Practically only the 640 Voice
channels will be allocated as control channels are allocated as I per cell.
(a) For four-ceU reuse we can have five control channels and 160 voice. c hannels per cell.. Practically, eaclu:ellnecdu.
single control channel. Thus, one control channel and 160 voice channels will be assigned to each cell.
(b) For seven-cell reuse, four cells with three control channels and 92 voice channels and two cells with three control
channels and 90 voice channels and one cell with two control channels and 92 voice channels will be allocated.
Practically, each cell will have a control channel, four cells will have 91 voice channels and 1hree -cells will baft'2
voice channels.
(c) For 12 cell reuse, we can have eight cells with two control channels and 53 voice channels and four cells with ooe
contro l channel and 54 voice channels each. Practically each cell will have one control ~hannel, -eight cells will ha\lC
53 voice channels and four cells will have 54 voice channels.
•• I :> 2.5 Channel Assignment Strategies
UQ. 2.5.1 Write short note on: Channel ass·ignmentstrategiesJn.celluiar;ystem.,:_·"":, :~
The radio spectrum needs to be efficiently used. For achieving this a we need a frequency reuse method that ~
consistency in increasing the capacity and minimum interference. To achieve these objectives different cfulDDel
assignment strategies have been developed.
The channel assignment strategies are classified as faxed or dJnamic depending on the system perfo
. nnance in
managing calls when a mobile user is handed off from one cell to another.
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- Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC)
~ 2.5.1 Fixed Channel Assignment

2-8 The Cellular Concept-System Design Fundamentals
_ In the fixed channel assignment method each cell is assigned a predetermined set of voice channels .
- Any effort that is done to can a number within the cell can be serviced by the unused channels in that particular cell.
I. In case if all the channels in that cell are used, then the call is blocked . In such a situation the subscriber does not get
service.
There are different modifications in the fixed channel assignment strategy.
- In. one method a cell is allowed to borrow channels from an adjacent cell if all of its channels are occupied. This
method is called as borrowing- strategy. · ·
- The. borrowing procedure is supervised by the mobile switching centre (MSC). The MSC also ensures that the channel
borrowing does- not disturb or interfere any calls that are in progress in the donor cell.
'B. 2.5.2 Dynamlc Channer Assignment
In dynamic channel assignment strategy there is no permanent allocation of channels. Every time a call request is done,
tbe base station requests a channel from the Mobite Switching Centre (MSC).
:ls
The MSC only allocates the channel after verifying that the channel is not currently in use in the cell or any other cells
:e that comes within the minimum restricted d•istance of frequency reuse to avoid•co-channel interference.
Dynamic channei assignment strategy reduces the probability of blocking and increases the trunking capacity of the
system.
a
These strategies need the MSC to- collect real-time data i.e. traffic distribution, channel occupancy etc. It increases load
orr the MSC but provides the advantage on irrcreased channel utilization and reduced probability of blocked call.
1
B- 2.5.3 Difference between Fixed Channel Assignment and Dynamic Channel Assignment
MU - a. 1 b , Dec. 16, s Marks

, Dynamic Channel ~ignment
ln the fixed channel assignment method each cell is ln dynamic channel assignment strategy there is no
assi ned a redetermined set of voice channels. nnanent aUocation of channels.
2. Any effort that is done to calf a number within the cell Every time a call request is done, the base station requests a
can be serviced by the unused channels in that channel from the Mobile Switching Centre (MSC).
articular cell.
3. · In case if all the channels in that cell are used, then the Dynamic channel assignment strategy reduces the
call is blocked. In such a situation the subscriber does probability of blocking and increases the trunking capacity
not et service. of the s stem. ·
4. In one method a cell is allowed to borrow channels The MSC only allocates the channel after verifying that the
. from an adjacent cell if all of its channels are occupied_ channel is not currently in use in the cell or any other cells
. 'fhis. method is- called as- borrowing strategy. that comes within the minimum restricted distance of
frequency reuse to avoid co-channel interference.
. The borrowing procedure is supervised by the mobile
switching centre (MSC). The MSC also ensures that These strategies need the MSC to collect real-time data i.e.
the channel borrowing does not disturb or interfere any traffic distribution, channel occupancy etc. It increases load
calls that are in progress irnhe dorrorcell. on the MSC but provides the advantage on increased .
· channel utilization and reduced robabilit of blocked call.
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~ Mobile Comm. S stem (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 2-9

The Cellular eoncept-S stem Design Fundamen1a1a
? 2·6 Interference
The performance of cellular systems is highly affected by Interference. .

. . .
The different sources of interference include another mobile m the same cell a call that is in progress in the adjacent
' that leaks .
cell, other base stations operating in the same frequency band or any non-cellular syStcm energy UUo the
cellular frequency band. ·
· c hannels, •interference produces cross talk because o f undesi·red transmission.
On v01ce
There can be missed and block~ calls in the control c~els as a result of interference. Th~ interference is more
severe in urban areas because of greater RF noise flooc and large number of mobiles and b~ Sta11ons.
lnt.c.rference is main problem in increasing capacity. lt results is dropped calls. There are two types of cellular
interferences : Co-channel interference and adjacent channel intederence.
In the frequency reuse method, several cells ~ the same set of frequencies in the given service area. The _cells using
the same set of channels are called as co-channel cells. The interference betWeen signals from these cells is called as
.
I l
co-channel interference.
I
I
The interference resulting from the channels that are adjacent in frequency to the desired channel is called as adjacent
channel interference.
It is. difficult to control the interfering signals, although they are generated within the cellular system. The interference
because of out-of-band users is even more difficult to control. It is a result of the front end overload of the subscriber
equipment or intermittent intermodulation products.
:> 2.7 Channel and Co-channel Interference Factor and Distance to

Frequency Reuse Ratio
In the frequency reuse method, several cells use the same set of frequencies in the given service area. The cells using
the .same set of channels are called as co-channel cells. the interference between signals from these cells is called as
co-channel interference.
In order to reduce the co-channel interference, the co-channels cells are physically separated by a minimum distance to
provide isolation.
•' I This minimum distance that allows the same frequency to be reused depends on factors like number of co-channel cells
nearby the centre cell, the type of geographic terrain contour, antenna height and power transmitted at each cell site.
The frequency reuse distance D is
... (2.7.l)
where N is the frequency reuse pattern or cluster size.
R is the radius of the cell.
As N =j2 + ij +/ the smallest value of N ::; 3 by setting i =I, j = I.
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~ Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC)
=-- 2-10 The Cellular Concept-System Design Fundamentals
Table 2.7.1 gives different values of D for given values of N.
Table 2.7.1
'
.D : N, )_ .. >
D=3 N = 3 (i = 1, j =I)
D= 3.46 R N = 4 (i = 2, j = 0)
0=4.58 R N = 7 (i = l, j = 2)
D=6R N= I2(i=2,j=2)
D=7.55R N= I9(i=2,j=3)
- If all the cell sites transmit the same power, then N increases and the frequency reuse distance D increases. This
increased D reduces the probability that co-channel interference can occur.
Practically a large N is desired. However, the total number of channels that are allocated is fixed. If N is too large the
number of channels assigned to each of N cells become small.
If the total number of channels in N cells is divided as N increases then it results in trunking inefficiency. Hence, we
need ~o select the minimum frequency reuse distance with a view to reduce co-channel interference.
lnorder to final the co-channel interference reduction factor we assume that all the cells. are of same size and the base
stations transmit same power, the co-channel interference ratio is independent of the transmitted power. It becomes a
function of the radius of the cell Rand the distance between the nearest co-channel cells D, The ratio~ is called as the
co-channels reuse ratio or co-channel Interference reduction factor. It is expressed as,

D
Q = R .... (2.7.2)
The co-channel interference reduction factor is related to the cluster size N as,
.. . (2.7.3)
A small value of Q provides large capacity as the cluster size N is small. A large Q i.e. a large value of~ indicates that
the spatial separation between the co-channel cells relative to the coverage distance of a cell is increased. Thus, the
cochannel interference is reduced. But lhe transmission quality is improved. In actual design a trade-off must be done
between both.
~ 2.S- ~ Ratio Consideration for Minimum Channel Interference
~[~ t }-~;;i~Eif (~~al-f?9lnt~~9.i e~ce';~tio) to the cluster ~ize N.·

tt{iff{!:r:};J{-._;::; :;- '/?-- ·:~ _,. . ... ' . MU• a. 3 a). Dec. 10. 10 Marks
0;:· ·.. -. ,
U'Q~
,,,:.., ,~
2.8.2 ·Derive the relationship between S/1 (Signal to Interference) and cluster size N.
'., -~1/✓- '( .-
., MU. a. 5(b . Dec. 12. 10 Marks. 0 . 6 a). Ma 13. 10 Marks, a. 1 a). Ma 15. 5 Marks
f,t';:J;. ·. . . . , , 'i ,
~"/41;/,//, ., ,I , ,,,1/.·t, .. ,,,,. /, : • • •. ':

µa;·2-.a.3 Consider s cellufar system with S/1 ratio of 18 dB. The frequency reuse factor is N = 7. Cslcurate the worst case
fs'. /4;;;;,f, ·: f f<:>r~IQ~; ~!'.l~1Jnte1erence ·ratio. Is ~e frequency reuse factor 7 still beln acce table ? If not, what Is
-r~t;1ff,.;,>~.- It,? Assume path-loss exponent as 4 In a mobile radio environment. ·
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- ¼
The s:i:naf to lntttfermc:r m:io (~)foe a mobilc rco:i\U dut obscncs 3 focv-'3.t'd cb-lonel an he cx:prcsscd &'S..
s s 3 ...('U..1)
1= T ~ -
I1. -
i=O
Where. io : I-.umbcr o( intafaing c:o<h:m:nd cells
s: Desired sigiul rc>-ff from desim:i ~ sucion

~: lnlufcn:na: power from i• intttfcring co-channd cell b.sc sutioa..
t
If v.-c tnow the si&n,11 k,-cls of the co-clunncl cells. I.hen the r.itio foe t:hc f~.u-d link cm he found.
If prop.,g'1tioo ~ urcnrnts are done in Ji mobile r:ldio d wmd then the Ji\'Cr.lgC mxi,'Cd ~ u 31 :my point dcaCbe:s
3.S :i powl:'r b w of dist.,.ncc of ~ o o t>eNu-n the cr:insmj rter JJ1d the mxin ~
r.
Tbe 3,,nge n-cciYc:d po-att P, is.
or P, (dBm) : P0 (dBm) - 10 n log(B ••. (2.8.3)
\\'here, d : Di5bllCC from lhe tnrumitting lUltcruu..

P0 : Pov.-cr reccfrc:J 3.1 a close-in n:fc-rrncc point in rhc far fidd region
of the :mteruu 3.1 small d . i ~ d,J from the tn.Mmi11Jng llntauu.

n : P:!.th loss con1pooc:ut.
Consider a forv.-mi link •'here the des.ired sipuJ u offering Stt\'lee to the tnse stltioo md i:mafc:1eocc is becmse of
co-clunncl bisc ~Utions.
If D, is the disunce of the ia interferer from the mobile, then lhe pov.cr rccci, cd 1I s given mobile because of the
i" intcrferin g cc II is proportiocul lo (D .r •.
When the path loss exponent is same throughout the covenge 3.t'C3 and the tnnsmit pov. er of exh base sutioa is equal
then the f for a mobile is,
S R...
T= i0 •..(2.8.4)
I coy·
i= I
If the fi rst layer of intafering cells is considered and if the interfering base sutions arc placed at an equal disu.oce D
betv.ttn the cdl centres the EqUJ.tioo (2.&.4) simplifies to
.. . (2.8.5)
. s
Equ!!IIOn (2.8.5) relaics I to the duster s1u N and determines the overall capacity of the system.
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Ill J,ld,lle Comm. Sy,dom (MU-6em.7-E&TC) . 2-12 The Cellular Concept-8yslem Design Fundamentals
: ' e.g. :. Assume that six.(~= 6) closest cells are close to create intt.rfcrcocc and. they arc equidistant from the base station.
A cdl~ar- servi~ provider~ a ccllob:r system that can ·tolerate a signal to httetfe,eu~ ratio of 18 dB in the worst
case using F.quation (2$.S) and assuming a pathloss component n = 4. .
(D min
·= 18 dB= 63.09
. . (s)· P •
I an J}IJa!Jon (2.8.5) we get,
Substlb1tmg
~
~~
61.()1)--:: ~
6
... c..:.rmt = 378.54 ('.' n=4)
2·
9N = 378.54
2.
N = 42.06
N = 6.485
. . l . S
Thus. a nununum c ustcr SlZC of N = 7 is nccdcd to~ the requirement of 18 dB.
I
_ Equation (2.8.S) is based on hexagonal cell geometry. All the interfering tells arc equidist.ant'from the base station. For
a seven cell clust.cr it can be shown that if the mobile unit is at the cell boundary. then the mobile 'is at a distance D - R
from the two nearest ~hannel interfering cells and is D, D + R, D + R. D from the other interfering cells as shown in
Fig. 2.8.1. .
- Assuming path loss exponent n = 4, the ( f) for worst case can be approximated as,
S R-4
...(2.8~6)
I= 2(0-R) +2(D+R} +21).
Fig.2.8..1
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[ &:1 2 13 TN Ctll&JJ' C.0:,:C:5r:" R:2' ~
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• ttfctfflC% rcdudion fa,t;U)t Q a.s.
C!qulOOtl (~ 8 t,) (ant~ .-nncn in tcmu o f ~ ant
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I
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'
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As ( f) is < 18 dB, i.e. mi~m required ( f) we need to use large N.

Consider N = 12
:. ~ =- -.JiN=-✓3x 12=6 .-. ~ =- (D~t =)~=36

s
I = 10 log (36) = 15.56 dB ForN = 12
(l)_ = I I
2(Q- l) -l + 2 (Q + I) -l + 2Q-l = 2(6-1)-l + 2 (6 + 1)-3 + 2(6fl
(t) . =- I
-
(t)m,a
0.016 + 5.83 X 10-l + 9.25 X 10-l
= 32.165 = 10 log (32.165) = 15.07 dB
f
As > 15 dB Le. minimum required ( f), N = 12 can be med.
(c) Now consider the interference from the first nnd the second layers.
S I
r= ~
6(QI +Ql)
~
Q1 = Qi
R =4.587 (for N = 7) ~ =
20,
R =9.165
s ---,-;.----r-=----~----
.. I =
6 (4,587 + 9.165 6 (2.258 X 10- + 1.417 X )0 )
s s=
1 = 69.452 T 10 log (69.452) = 18.4 dB
But the ( f) value considering first layer intcrfere~ce only is 18.66 dB. The drop in ( f) is 18.66 - 18.4 = 0.26 dB
when the second layer interference is included.
- Hence, the second and higher layer interferences can be neglected as compared with the interference from the first
layer.
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1
'A receiver in an urban cellular system detocu A I 1~WsignaJ at d .. do .. I m from the transmitter. In-order to mitipre mt ~t
"" • • I ,,;, •~,--1~A•'~,1, :,.~ -';,,..::j
inra:fr.rcoai effects it is requited tha1 the signal ~vcdlll any bMC station rettivcr from• anothcc.base.station transmittct which.~
, ,. , .. ,>., j ~
with the same channel must be below - 110 dBm. A mcasumnent team has determined that the average path loss expoocot is ihe'system is
3. Dc:tennine the major radius or each ccU if 11 7-ccll reuse panem Is used. What is the DllljOC radius if a 4-ccU reuse'"• "is~~1~ ::'c_:•:~j
@ Soln.:
Ginn: P,= 1 mWatd=<\,= Im
The interference must be less than-110 dBm.

n=3, P01 = I mW P0 = I mW
From Equation (2.8.2)

.... -3
-IIOdBm= Imw(B =G~

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tem MU-Sem.7-E&TC 2-15 The Cellular Concept-S tern Design Fu~
.I l0-II = 0 · 3
D::. J011n::.4641.5Sm
.I lfN = 7•
R = ._Q_= 464 1.58 - l012.87 m ...Ans.

~ ✓3x7
lfN =4,
R = __Q_= 464 1.58 = 1319.9m •••Ans.

~ ✓3x4 ·
-:>- 2 ·9 Adfacent Channe• lnterterence ~
;1;1·Q
·~; ._;~2.
'- •
;, -'9;;1
.~';,,";,'Wi
• -·
·', 1th
~
'~..;. .: ... ...~
,-~-~-~
' ~==-=-::::::::::::::::::.: ::.:;=-:.:::.:.~:.:. -.~.;_
· ·''"to·1~~ ..,•1'"·''· .,.,...,.-~ -..r.-,"1?•1
_,,,;.,,~; ,,;,,!;,.,;'..:l;,,,,.;i,,;,,;A;•;,;,,;_(,~:1".; ~
~1''!11'd·~,.,., -"'~t"',j;-;..,.;.~n'"'e1·"1n"'te'·r1
ITIODI e netwo,-; e 111n a acen l,illQII
=.:,,,,;,..,~
· e·r'e··n ce"""-,,,i.•,,.;<;,,
• · • ·• •· .,, • •
...,;,...,,;,_,:,.: :.....
,...........
:; ''.;t,'!t:1;,;•,,:t..:.,~,,,--:_;,
· · ==h
6 '-v'J:•i":' #✓
,,,,,,,..1 ✓w;,t-7,1~
The interference that resu[ts from the signals that are adjacent in fiequenc! to required signal i_s c~cd as adJ ,
channel Interference. It is a result of the imperfect receiver filters that penrut the nearby frequencies into the Pass~
of the desired channel. iQd
If th~ user_that is using an adjacent channel and is transmitting in close range to ~~bscri~r•s receiver then While the
~•ves tries to receive a base station on the desired channel the problem can be cntical. It ts called as near. far tft
LC. a nearby transmitter captures the receiver of the subscriber. ett
If comes into picture when a mobile that is close to a base station transmits on channel near that is used by a ""eak
~bile. The base station can face problems in discriminating the mobile user from ''bleed over'' caused by close
ad.,acenl channel mobile. ·
By proper filter and channel assignments the adjacent

channel interference can be minimized. /u each ccH ·is
given only a part of the available channels, a cell needs
assigned channels that are adjacent in frequency.
If in a given cell the frequency separation between the

cells is made large then -the adjacent-channel interference
can be considerabty reduced.
'By sequentially assigning the successive channels in

frequency band to different cells many allocation mc.thods
are available tu separate adjacent channels in a celt by N
channel bandwidths, where N is the cluster size.
Fig. 2.9. l shows the sequential assignment of successive

channels in the frequency band to different cells in one
cluster.
Fig. 2.9.I : Channel BM[gnments to reduce adjacent channel lnterfereoce
Another cause for adjacent channel interference is ''frequency reuse!' when the frequency reuse is high there are IJlOIC
chances for interfereoces- because of neighbouring channels and because of separation concept.
Example -- If the closeness. in the mobile is 30 times- as close to the base station as another mobile, it is important to
measure the signal to interference ratio ( t ). Signal to in.tcrferencc ratio = i = (30)-lr where n = path loss exponent
Also the power control needs to properly done at the base station to reduce interference at the subscnoer's mobile unit.
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[i] Comm. se:: (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 2-16 The Cellular eonc,,t;Srtem OesJgn fundamentals
EJ.. U.1:
F'JU''t: thSI lbc co-d:ulnncl reuse ratio is given by Q =,..Jm where N =i2 + ij + j2 (use cosine l:iw and hcx1tgon31 geometry).
0Sotn.:
The sromcuy of .sn amy of rq;ular bcxugonnJ
cell~ L SM"'" in Fig. P. 2.9.1 when: R is 1hc rnwus of
the t,r.ugonal cdl (from its ccn1re 10 Uw: \ICl'I.Cx). A
• 7
tiexASOtl tuL, six equidht:mt neighbouring hex~gons
~ g ID six ~des of tlic hc:ugoo.
~ Sltp I : Rda1ion bc1" C'C'O J and R.
lci the Ji:-1~ncc bctwcx-n the crntcni of 1wo
:idjaiccnt hci:i.son:il cells he d.
Then. d .. ~ R (usin~ trii;ooomctric ldc:nthk,) ...(I)

► SUp U : Plo.." alun: o f loc.uinR i. C(Kh.1nnd cell.
11,c- ll('.U't"M l"\K"h:umd hnoi,:onnl ttll 10 rhc ctll under
C"()OSlJcr.ttioo 00 l'C" I ' -'It'll U\ln); Ill<' illlfl I\.UUSllCl&:1' i. j n(
ctu.si.cr gtt · in n:i;ul.:u hc.\ll~Olllll i:comc..lr)'. •la- P. 2.9.1: D4ct•na between two adjattDt ceU...d
Fig. P. 1.9 . 1(:1) i.how~ rq;ul:u hc...\ :\):Ofl:al .;comc1,y o ( OfiC' ct><lunncl cell. concsponding to any one side of Ow:
tx.u~oo l.. folio~, :
(i) Flrstl>· n,o, c i numl-cr 11f C't"lh nh>11t the 1 :l\ ii from the ccnlrc or hc.\u •orul cell under consideration (say poinl X lo
I int Y) 111 11); one ~tk orhc\:IJ:n ll.
tii) Sccoodl~•. tum (,(} ck~ C'OWltcrd "-" I'<'.
(w) Thal lD()\ 'C j nw:nher of cclh ~ j uh (1 l.nt Y to polnt Z) ID loc!.c t h e ~ o ( ~ CO<h.lnncl cdJ. Ld O be
di.sun..~ from the C'Cflltt ( Ilic n-11 under~ , ,dcr.:tk,n to the en~ ( IX''1tt':SL "'1rmcl ~II (i.e. XZ).
J,1 ~. P. 2.9.1 (n) : Co-ctumntl cdl In o n.'gtllnr heugonal geometry
► Seq, ID: To derive tllC rcl:ition bciwcc:n D. d :ind ij.
Applying co. inc fonnu.Ju IO a X YZ \l,'C get.
ttt.1.-Ne. r.Win•ien• _4 SK/1/NS/IUL y ~

I
l
t 1)7 -- 11) (I , 1 lj • j 1-.I
S11I iltullnt F.quntl<•11 ll) In P.qu:mun (If) ._.c fiC1,
0, = J R7 (I ' ,. ij - j l,.I Rill
7 7
0 • 3k N • ' fr11
► Stq, I V ; 'ro C:l5tnhIi h rt'. Int:i on hc::t,l-ccn Q :md N.
1
D' • 3R N
T:u:lns ~unrc l"OOI or bou1 the :-ides,
~ = ffe
D
Ou1 by defini1ion Q = R :. Q -= ffe
Thus. llw frff1ucncy ~ ralk> Q an ~ ddrrmlned rrom the dwtrr she N.
Ex. 2.9.2
lf a 20 MJ l:t. of 10.tlll spectrum is allocutcd for .s dupJc.x wirclc._--s cellular syslem each s.implc.t cJuumd ba., 2.S K}u RF
b.ul<lwidlh, fan<l (11) lhc number of dupkll channels anJ (b) tJic total number of chnnncls per cell site Ir N ct.i,
@Sain.:
(:i) To find the numbc.r of duplex. channels
20 x 10'
Numhcr of duplex clunnds = 2.5 x !OJ x = 400
2
(b) If N = 4 find the number of chrumds per ce,ll
400
Numhcr of ch:i.nncls per <'ell = 7 = I00
Ex..li.3
Show U\111 !lie frequency reuse (OClOf (Of II cdlular systc-m is gi,cn by f. where k is lhc average number of chat\.ncls per ~
!UlLf Sis uic 10ml nwnbcr of dmnncls .11,,ulahlc 10 I.be ccllular service provider.
0Soln. :
If coch cell is. lloculed a group of\: rb~ls l\: < S) aod if~ S clunnels arc dh•ickd among N C'C lls into u ~ ml
disjoin! chllnnd groups with enr h h:1viog the _!\!t)e oumlxr of channels, the loul number of ro<lio clu.nncl :i, :tibhk: iJ,.
S = kN Wbtrt'.. N = Cluster ~i?e
. . b I
111c frequency rcui.c fnctor of :i 5)'Slcm 1~ SJVt.O )'-;-
·n,u,, proved rht11the fr~iueocy rct1sc f r: t I for a ctllular sy tcu1 is gi\'t·n b)' I.

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Mobt1e Comm. System (MU~sem:7~E&TC) The Cellular Concept-System Design Fundamentals
~ 2.10 Difference.between.Co-channel and Adjacent.Channel.Interference

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1. The interference between the signals from co- The interference that results from the signals that are adjacent
channel cells is called as co-channel interference in frequency to-the required-signal is called as adjacent-channel
interference.
2. To reduce co-channel interference co-channel cells By _proper filter and channel assignments the adjacent channel
are physically separated by a minimum distance to interference can be minimized.
.provide sufficient isolation.
3. A large co-channel reuse ratio improves the Another cause for adjacent channer interference is "frequency
transmission quality because of sm.aller lev.el of co- reuse" when the frequency reuse is high there are more .
channel interference. chances for interferences because of separation.
!) 2.11 ·Hand-off Strategies
~ • # • • ..- . ~ • •,.. • • ~;<._ \
iiii iu.1 ;Explaln.Handott.in2G,..aG';& 4cf1~ detail. MU - a. 2/a). Mav 17. 10 Marks l
The process of transferring a mobile station from one channel or base station to another is called as handoff or
handover.
When -a mobile-moves into a different cell while a.conversation is in progress the mobile switchingunt:re automatically
transfers the call to a new channel belonging to the new base station. This handoff needs to identify the new base
station and see that voice·and control signals are allocated to the new base station;
The handoff must be accurate, at correct time instant in order to avoid any call termination wben there is conversation
between two.users.
But if there is excessive delay at the Mobile Switching Center (MSC) in assigning handoff, the signal will drop below·
the minimum acceptable predetennined level in order to enable channel in active status can lead to a improper handoff..
This minimum acceptable-level refers to ''acceptable audio quality level" at the Base Station (BS) receiver side;
A stronger signal that is slightly stronger than this acceptable audio quality is used as threshold and handoff bas to be
done at this threshold kvel (A).
The "6." level must be optimum and it must not be too large or too small from the desired level. It is expressed as,
A= P,H - PrM
Wnere; P,H = received handoff signal power

P,M = received minimum usable signal power
-4 s«:JJljfS/UB , ~
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fli. 2. 11. 1 : Handoff d taatJon ■t «If boundary
If t;, is 100 mull 11x:n llicn:: is insufficicol 1.i mc 10 l-Omplclc a lund o fT l'<:forc c..JI i, lo-.1 b<e=-:,c; o f •.. ..-al: ~~
ronditiom and i( 6 i~ 100 l:irgc tbcn the ~ tDndoff<i on burden 1he rnobile 11w11dHni e CT"...cr. ~ c. a et::,t
t>c:Cl1J'Cfull cho~.
Fi S· 2. 1 I. I shmvs the h:tndofT 5i 1~ 1fon ll1 cc II boundary.
Fi~. 2. 11.1(:i) sllO"''S s.i1U111joo \I hen: h!!.DJoff is DO((Jooc. TI;c ~g.rul bcl drop-, below the m.inimum ..._ ~ b ~ r.o
~«r UK cll:itt11Cl :iC1J"C'. L( t.bcrc b CA.~ \ < Jr:br iruroJ~ b) lLc ~!SC IS fD')lgllin g 1hc tw.Jutf ui If lb: t . ~ ~ d
is >Jrall tbc:n ili\'ppaj cn.11 c\ cnt Cl"UJ"S.
;, RSSI (Radio Signal Strength Indications)
Rad1o ~ ~ lndlarloo is &fW!d ~ th: ~ po-kcr of tlx lign.J Ul.l.l i, n::.i:rn~J ~ ~ ~ i;c
1m:nin"!! or 111 tht ~ '-C mtioo..
2.1 L 1 Dwell Tune
Iua. 2.11.2 E.w::pwt dllll9I time. W!MrPDl•% 1NMih l

A~ ch, 111~•h1lc: mo , c-.s fmm 1k t<.nil.ls. Bis!,C S~'O (BS) lbcn: ~ 1U h: Jroj> In th: ,1-,5w.l k ,cl l 'h1."n:A a-, l..!i: ~-s:
i-lbUtift gc-ttc:tMI)• n.wuh.o tind l l l t'I rnn tlle ~ k , d tx( n'II: 1niti.runi ~ ~ fr fvt \.~~~ .w L~ ~..JJ id
JlfOgJt")~.
n}c time paic.J for " h, 11 :1 t·:!ll b milil.tili)l"J l!l "' ,.::lluh.f n\{i.Jli i> :tlkJ ...,> ' d--~U uruc •.

[§] Mobile Comm. S stem MU-Som.7-E&TC 2-20 Tho Collular Conco t-S etom Ooo n Fundamentals
The fuctors thut innuenco tho dwell tlmo nro :
(i) Propngntion (II) lnterfcrcnco

(iii) Distnncc between tho subscriher nnd thc bnso stntlon
~ 2.11.2 Moblle Assisted Handoff (MAHO)
~ : 2,11.3. Define MAHO.
In the first generation cellular systems the Mobile Switching Center supcrvisci; the i;ignal s1rengl11 measurement done
by bnse stations nnd in the second gcnerntion cellular systems the handoff decisions arc mobile assisted.
In mobile assisted handoff, each mobile slution measures the received power from surrounding base stations and gjves
the data to reporting base station. When the power received from the base station of a cell exceeds the power received
from current base station then a handoff is initiated.
The handover is done at n faster rate. MAHO is used for microcellular environments where handoffs arc frequently
done.
~ 2.11.'3 lntersystem Handoff
During a call in progress, if a mobile moves from one cellular system to a different cellular system controlled by a
different MSC, an intersystem handofT is essential.
The MSC does an intersystem handoff when a mobile signal becomes weak in a given cell and MSC cannot find other
cell in its system to transfer lbat call. e.g. roaming when mobile moves out of its home system.
- · Before implementing lbe intersystcm handoff lbe compatibility between the two MSCs must be known.
~ 2.11.4 Prioritizing Handoffs
uo; 2.11 .4 Explain how prioritizing in Hand off is done. MU· Q . 1 d . Ma 17. 5 Marks
In order to improve the quality of service, various methods have been developed to prioritize handoff requests over call
initiation requests while allocating voice channels.
One method is _guard channel concept. In this method a part of the total available channels in a cell is reserved for
handoff requests from on going calls that can be handed off into the cell. However, it has the drawback of reducing the
total traffic as few channels are allocated to the originating calls. They offer efficient spectrum utilization if dynamic
channel assignment strategy is used.
Another method is queuing of handofT requests. It decreases the probability of termination of call because of lack of
available channels. It is possible because of the fact that there is finite time interval between the time the received
signal JeveJ drops below the handoff threshold and tJie time the call is terminated because of insufficient signal level.
~ 2.11.5 Cell Dragging
~- 2.11.5 Explain cell dragging.
It is a practical handoff problem in the microcell systems cell dragging is a result of cnll of in progress in the ccllulnr
region.
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Ii] Mobile Comm. .
System (MU-SOm.7-E&TC) 2-21 The Cellular Concept-System Design Fundame~
- ~h:tndo . :......
.. ffs threshold level and the radjo coverage pnr:uncters arc the lll3in factors that need lo be considered to avoid .
celldraulni".
h may result from pedestrian users that pro,•idc strong signal to be base station, when there is Linc of Sight (LOS) P-llb
~tween the base station and the subscriber. '
When the user moves away from the base station the average signal strength slowly decays and as the user moves far
from the ~ station. the signal rccci\'cd at the base station will be above the handoff threshold Je,·el.
So. h:uldoff need not be done and finally there will be traffic nun!lgement problem and potential interference generated
n:sulting in "cell drugging.. Thus. to solve the problem of cell dragging, the handoff thresholds and the radio covemgc
J)3rumcters should~ carefully adjusted.
'a. 2.11.6 Umbrella Cell Concept
UO. 2.11.S Write short note on : UmbreDa cell approach

ua. 2.11.7 What ls umbrella con approach ? MU• a. 1 c). Ma 13, 5 Marks
uo.2.11.1 In umbrella cell concept in cellular tem. MU• a. 1 a • Ma 14, 5 Marks
~'ticillly in ccllul:\r sy!>tcm.,; there nrc 1'CverJI problems e.g. Pedestrian users may never need a handoff during a cal)
high s~d \'chicles pa.-.s through differcnt cells quickly. '
The addition of microccl Is to increa._~ the capacity ha..,; burdened the MSC.
In ccllulnr communication there i~ a po.~ibility in which by using different antenna heights and different power levels
to mttt the trnffic requirements i.e. l:u-gc nnd small cells nrc c~cd in a single location.
q(pc6/ re(_
_ _ _ _..,__ Smell mlcrocell•

fo, low •peed traffic
--+---+ large "Umbrella" cell

for high speed trwfflc
Fig.2.11.2: Umbrella cell concept
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li1 Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC} 2-22 Toe Cellular Concept-System Design Fundamentals
The smaller cells are grouped and assumed to be under a larger cell.
.- The cells with low traffic are called as ''microcells" and cells with large high speed traffic are called as ''rnacrocells".
This method is called as umbrella cell concept as shown in Fig. 2. J 1.2.
It is used to provide large coverage area to high speed users while providing small area coverage to users that travel at
low speeds. . . . . . . .
er Advantages
(i) It provides large coverage area to high speed users.
(Ii) It ensures that the number ofbandoffs is minimized for high speed users.
(iii) It provides additional microcell channels for the pedestrian users.
(iv) If a high speed user in large umbrella celJ is near the base station and if its velocity is decreasing then the base station
can decide whether to hand the user into the co-located microcell without the intervention of the Mobile Switching
Centre (MSC).
~ 2.11.7 Hard and Soft Hand-off
ua. 2.11.9 Explain hard hand-off and soft hand-off. MU. . ,Q . .1 ct "":Ma .15, 5 Marks
In the first generatior:i analog cellular systems, the time to make a handoff is 10 seconds.
In the digital cellular systems like GSM the mobile assists the handoff procedure by determining the hand off users and
the decision needs only I or 2 seconds.
Another feature in the newer cellular systems is their ability to make handoff decisions depending on -parameters other
than the signal strength.
Different base stations handle the different radio channels during a handoff called hard handoff. It docs not refer to the
physical changes in the assigned channel, but a different base station takes care of the radio communication.
Soft bandofT refers to the ability of the Mobile Switching Center (i"vtSC) for selecting amongst the different received
signals from the base stations. It allows the MSC to make a "soft" decision as to which of the user's signal will pass to
the PSTN at a glance.
" Difference between Hard and Soft Handoff
Soft Hand.off Hard Hand-off

Sort handorr refers to the abi li ty of the Mobile Switching Different base stations handle the different radio channels
Center (MSC) for selecting amongst the different received during a handoff called hard handofT. It does not refer to
signals from the base stations. It allows the MSC to make a the physical changes in the assigned channel, but a
"soft'' decision as to whjch of the user's signal will pass to different base station takes care of the radio
the PSTN at a glance. communication.
Ex.2.11.1
Suppose that a mobile station is moving along a straight smooth surface between base stations BS 1 and .BS 2• The distance
between BS 1 and BS2 is 2000 m. Assume _that the received power in dBm al Base station is given by
P, = P0 - IO*n*log (dido), where d is the distance between mobile station and base station in meters. P0 is the power at
distance do from the mobile. Assume that P0 = 0 dBm and do= 1 m. Let n denote path Joss exponent which is 2.9. Given that
the minimum usable level of signal is - 88 dBm and the mobile is currently connected to BS1, determine the hand-off margin
if hand-off time is 4.5 second and the mobile speed is I 00 km/hr.
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~ 2..12 Solved Examples
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lrJ,ftlc; d,;i,u,c/q "' 1111;,I. IJ twnim; rl,e rrital yp,gr11phical area c<>Vct '
,,,i,,,f,rr 1,f ~i,111111:,,ieA,11~ (ell~t.11f11i<,rred try rhir. 1,yt.lem.
fi1 fkJln,:
► H~ I II
I ...,.,r.em with hexagon ce s arranged
,, 'dcrin N = 1 reuse c.cllu ar .,-
I" c;,lcullrte rf,c 1,,1;,/ gC(,z,,,phical area covered, Cun~, g , , outline with hexagon cells.
lr,~l,IG, l111t II cell rMliu~ ,,r I A km, Ifie full 11,ea i\ a,1wmcd to be an approximate 11quare
·nie ;,re;, 1,r 1,cxagun cell\ ::::

W23l =1,s? V· '3 of radiu.~ r i11 (r =1.6 km)
.J
Arca (A)= 1.5 (U/{3

A: 6.6510km
32
'frA:.,I gur,,pphic;,I arciJ cr.JVcrcd (A ) = (Area) (number of cell!!)= (6-6510>x < >
1
2
'f"tal ~,z111phic;,I area covered = 212.83 km
► Htq, II :'fo find rhe numtJCrnf traffic channeb per cell
11,,r N s 7 rrc<iucney rcu•.e pattern, rhe number <Jf channcb per cell is
Number ()f rr1tffic d,annct~
7
= 7336 =4H channelvce
_, 11
Total c;,pacity (Cr) = (~~1,::~r) (Number of cells)
= 48 channels/cell x 32 cells
Cr = 1536 channels
Et, 2.12A
A w ,bilc c,muriunic1J1i,,t1 ~y~r.cm i\ allocau:.d RP 1,pectrum of 25 MHz and uses RF channel bandwidth of 25 kHz so that a
11,t:,I r,umbcr of l(){IJ w,icc ct.1Jnt1cl, can be , upportcd in the !.ystcm.
(11) I( rlic •.crvicc /Jtca i~divided in Iii 2f} cell, with
a frequency reuse factor of 4, compute the system capaciry.
(b) The ccll \ i;r.e i\ rcduu:d v, rt.e c.r.tcnt that the <,ervice area is now covered with 100 cells. Compute the system
ca,n,city while keeping the frequency rcu?,c factor a1 4.
(c) <Amt.idcr 1t,c cell •,i;r;;. h further reduced w th;,,t the same service area is now covered with 700 cells with frequency
rcu•,c f~ t{)r r,f 7. Oimputc rtic .~y~tcm capacity.
ft1 Soln.:
Numhcrof voice ch/Jnnefq ;,,v1Jil;,,ble = /WO.
► 1->t.t:p I : To dctermim.; tlie clu, tcr ciipacity,
In ii c.:cl~ul/Jr 11y., tcm, ha•.cd on frequency reuse concept, all the given available channels that is 1000, are allocated to
c;,ch clu~tcr uniformly. Jfoncc, each clw,tcr CIJJl 1,er1e HXX) active users simultaneously.
The capacity uf a cluster = J000
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'
..
,,,,
,.
.- -. ,. .,,.
,,,.,
.nl

b!I Sotn. •.
Given:
1
Service area of cellular system = 4200 km
1
Coverage area of cell = 12 km
N = 1001
Step I : To calculate number of clusters. cellcapacity and system.capacity.
Area of cluster = Number of clusterS x area of cell.

1
Area of cluster = 7 x 12 = &4 km •
Service area of cellular system - ~
Number of clusters = area of cluster 84
Number of clusters = 50
\ As total number of available channels are allocated to one cluSter

•
'.• .·. Number of channels per cell =
N
Cluster size -7-
1001
=
I J Number or channels per cell or cell capacity= 143 channels/cell
-'
System capacity = N x Number ofclustecs
.. System capacity = 1~!tso

-
l. ►
~ii
System capacity = 50050 channels
Step II :To find new system capacity for reduced cluster size.
New cluster size = 4
= Number ofcluster x area of ceJI =4 x 12 =48 krn1
Service area of cellular system _ 4200
Number of clusters = area of clusr.er 48
Number of clusters = 87
System capacity = N x Number of clusters= 1001 x 87
System capacity = 8708, channels
The decrease in cluster size from 7 to 4 results in increase in number of clusters. Also, the system capacity is·
Thus, decreasing the cluster size- increases the system capacity. However, the average signal-to-channel in!C!l
also increases, that has to kept at an ~cceptable level to obtain desired signal quality.
Ex. 2.12.6
A cellular communication service area is covered with 12 clusters having 7 cells in each cluster and 16 channels as.lipo!'
each cell. Show that (i) number of channels per cluster are I 12, (ii) the system capacity is 1344.
@ Soln.:
Given:
Number of clusters in the service area-=-12
Number of cells in a cluster= 7
. 1• - • W/u:re ,lut/,ors inspire inDoW1tioo

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Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 2-28 The Cellular Concept-System Design Fundamentals
Number of channels in a cell = 16
► Step I :To detennine the number of channels per cluster.

Number of channels in a cluster is given by the number of cells in a cluster multiplied by the number of channels in a
cell
Number of channels in a cluster = 7 x 16
Number orchannels per cluster = 112 channels/cluster.
► Step II : To detennine the system capacity
The system capacity is given by the number of clusters in a given area multiplied by the number of channels in a
cluster.
Number of channels in the system = 112 x 12
:. System capaclty = 1344 channels system
Ex. 2.12.7
Determine the number of cells in clusters for the following values of the shift parameters i and j in a regular hexagonal
geometry pattern.
(a) i=2andj=4 (b) i=landj=3
Soln.:
► Step I : To detennine the number of cells in a cluster for i = 2 and j = 4 For a hexagon the number of cells per cluster
is,
.2 .. -2
N = 1 + lj + J
2
N = (2)2- + (2)(4) + (4) = 4 + 8 + 16 = 28
► Step II :To determine the number of cells in a cluster for i = 3 and j = 3
N = i2 + ij + /= (3) 2 2
+ (3)(3) + (3)
N = 27
Ex. 2.12.8
Determine the distance from the nearest co-channel cell for a cell having a radius a radius of 0.64 km and co-channel reuse
factor of 12.
&:f Soln. : Given : R =0.64 km Q =12
D
The co-channel reuse factor Q = R D = QxR=l2x0.64
D = 7.68km
The distance from nearest c<H:hannel cell is 7.68 km.
Ex. 2.12.9
Determine the frequency reuse ratio for a cell radius of 0.8 km separated from the nearest co-channel cell by a distance of
6.4 km.
@ Soln. : Given : R = 0.8 km D = 6.4 km
D
Tbe frequency reuse factor Q = R
6.4
Q = o.s= 8
Thus the frequency reuse ratio is 8.
Tech-Neo Publicatioos- - '"1ere ,ludJon inspire ll1110l'lltioo .....A SAO/INSllUI l'eoture

Prove the folio"•· . di 1:u,cc bcl\\ttn lhc ccolc:rx of Ad'
Cell~ ~'\f rc:u, ,.r ins for hc.xn,gon:tl ccllulnr ·y~11:m whh r:id1u< R.D is the mlrumum 1,~
'-<: i1-timcc nnd the ~frcn value o( N. D
( l'l) For N "' l . prove Q ,,. \ D . r.:, (c) r-o, N = 7, pN\'C R = {li
R .., (b) For N = 4, pro,-c R -= VI 2
@ Soln.:
• 7 • 2
Tiic !~lllt'lr)' ll( :\O :un I n ( l'l"Hul:ir lic.t:1j,'110:1l ccJli h

1,ho" n n Fl,. r ,
,-. · 1• 10 "l.r1c: R h the r:idiu, l''
11,c hcUf,'t.\t\.il
<Yll ( fl't'l11 ih c-r
nll-c ' " Ill<' ''<'11C'\ ). A II(' ui:,'>!1 ' '-"' ,1, r.qui,l1\li1nl
O('ash~ns hr , :1 {\IH ~..\('(lnd1n11 10 '" ,1dt", 0 ( 1hr hc\Ji;on,
► ~h-p I : Hd :ith n l'C"l"'N"n J Md R,
l.c1 •he J i..iancc l'CI" t"('O 1hc: C'\"nlrh ll( '"'"' :,.Jp,"Cnl he ui,'tltl\u , e ll• he J.
lllen, J • {j R (11,ini: Ul.f.tltlt'lncl1 14' kl<clllK'>I ( I)
t-le, I'. l. l z.10 : Ul,unC'c ix.t""'" l\l o A.dj11C't11l ct:lls,d

► ,' tc,:, II : Pr,,"t'\.lurt· " ' k -..i11n,: .H •-dlM\nd II
TI,c nc:u'C'1-I '"'" lunnd hn:1r,V1.1I II h, ihc ,'(II un.lct .,,,,,Jct.:.ta o <.!.'II~ ln:.J.!rJ U\JO . ,he ,t11f1 p.u;,.rnctm i, j o(
tu rr ltJTC N in r~pJ!M hn~in:il j."('(\lf'l('II)',
Fig. P. ~I' I .1) ". ~p.sbr ht:.u~ll s;t"Om('1r)' ( ooc c-o<t-.r-xl rdl. C'Clff lllb 10 !!!Y one suJe of~
he. :ll'I Jb folio" ~ .
<•) Fm.tly mo,-e I numt-er o( rel! lJc,ni; the I lU) from the r.trc of t r u ~ r'Cll unr.kr ron, id...~ioo (J.Jy P0illt
X 10 poin, YI ~0011 one 'de of I ron
FIi,!. P. 2.12.JO(a): Co-channel cell In II n.~ular hexngonaJ geometry
_ f ~Gllrflllff1'n,a,r

'
_ MoblllJ Comm, 8 1:11am MU,Sam,7,1:&TC 2-30
(II) Sceo1111ly, turn (i() dcgree11 co11111erclockwlRe,
(Ill) Th,m 111ov11 J n11111her of ccllr; 11long J nxl11 (point Y 10 point Z) 10 loc11te the centre of nearest co-channel cell. Let
0 hn cl11111111ce from lht~ centre of rhe cell under conRldcrulion to the centre of nearest co-channel cell (i.e. XZ).
ll' Rief• Hf I To clcrivr. the relntlon hctwccn D, ti nnd lj,
Applying coHlne l'om111l11 lo A XYZ we gel,
,i = (I X d) l + (j X d)1 - 2(i X d) GX d) cos 120°

2 2 2
0 = 1 d + JV - 2ijcJ1 cos 120°
0
2 2 2
= d (1 + J2 - 2 X ij X -d)
1
0 = cJ1 (11 + ij +/) ... (11)
S11h111i1111lng r--'1111111011 (I) In &)11a1io11 (II) we gel,

1 2 2
0 = 3R (1 + ij +/)
2
Oul N = i + ij +j2 (given)
2 2
0 = 3R N ... (III)
► Step JV : To c111Uhli1ih rclution hctwcen Q and N,

2 2
0 = '.3R N
Toking 11quure root of both the Rides,
~ = ~
Let D
R = ffe . .. (IV)
D
(a) To Hhow that R = 3 for N = I
Con11idcr &1uation (fV), suhstituting N = 3 we get,

D
~ = ✓3 x3 R = 3
Hence proved
(b) To show that~ =../12 for N =4

Sub,;rituring N =4 in Equation (fV) we get,
~ = -,/3x4 =..Ju
Hence proved
(c) To 11how tha1 ~ ={21 for N =7
Subr«ituting N = 7 in Equation (JV) we gel,

D - ~ _r,;;- Ill
R. = v3 x 7 =v2t =(21)
H.enc.e proved.
Tr.ds.ft,,o Publ'u:ation,••.H __ w,,~ AuthoninHpirr: innov11tion ..JSAC/1/NSfl.1/1 l'enture

- ·•••I I
Detc . . . i the system in Ex. 2.12.10 in dB, assuming
mune the signal-to-interference (co-channel) ratio orred . l20 sectors what will be th Path lciss
n ::: 4 F • h · secto m ' e irn ~
signat · . or the same system, if eac is . dB7 Also,. determine the adjacent channe .Pt()vCth.:_"'
te
-tO-mterfercnce ratio compared to non-sectored syS m 10
l lll.tcttc ~
same system. ,
.
Ii'.[ Soln.·
.
Given : Pa~ loss exponent n =4

For a seven cell reuse pattern,
~ = '1JN =f3x? =ffe :4.582

The~ ratio assuming that there are six-co-channel cells (io = 6) in the first tier and all of them are at the same
from the mobile is

'
s {✓JN}" {4.582) •
I =- io
- 6 (n:: 4 givtt)
'
) s
I = 73.46
§.
I = 10 log (73.46) = 10 X 1.8660
.
..... t
§.
.. I = 18.66d.B
If the same system is sectored in 120 secto~ then the number of interferes in the first tier is reduced from six to two·
io= 2 it is because only two of the six co-channel cells will receive interference with a particular sectored group.
. s
resultmg can be found as,
1
§. <FN1• (;J@). s
=2
441
=220.5
t = io 2 I
.§:
I = 10 log (220.5) =23.43 Db
There is an improvement over the non-sectored case. If a mobile is 20 times as close to the base station as amm
mobile and has energy spill out of its passband, the signal to interference ratio at the base·station is
s
I =-
S
For n=4. I = -52d.B
If the (IF) Intermediate Frequency filter of the base station has a slope of 20 dBi octave, then an adjacent cbalJIIII
interferer must be displaced by at least six times the passband bandwidth from the center of the receiver fJC(!lld'J
passband to obtain 52 dB attenuation.
\ A separation of approximately six channel ban~widths is needed for typical filters in order to provide o dB Sil_
from a close-in adjacent channel user. It indicates that six channel separations are needed to bring the adjacent c~
• interference to an acceptable level.
\
s'
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Tech-Neo Puhlicataons...--•
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~ MobUe Comm. System MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 2-32
Total allocated spectrum bandwid~~~z )

Simplex channel bandwidth = 25 kHz
Duplex channel bandwidth = ·25 kHz x 2.= 50 kHz
- '- ,,.I
36MHz
(i) Number of duple~ c_hanriels = 25
kHz x
2
=720
(ii) Total number of channels per cell if N = 4
Total number of channels/cell = Total number of channels

N
720
= 4 = 180 channels
@Sotn.:
Given:
Total available channels = 960
e =
Total coverage area of system = 2000krn
6km
2
► Step I:
To find the system capacity, if duster size N = 4
2
:. area of cluster with reuse=4 x 6 = 24 krn
total coverage area
Number of cluster covering total area = area of cluster
2000
= 24
= 83
Number of channels per all -- 9460 -~ 240
:. system capacity = nu!_llber of clusters x total available charinels =83 X 960
Tecb-Neo Publicatioos---Where Authon inBpin: inoor.Jtio11 --" SACHIIYSHAH Yentun:

n,680 channels for N=4
System capacity = 7
,I ► StepU: '
To find the system c11pocity, if cluster size N= 7 .

2
se -7 x 6=42km
'th
area of cluster w1 reu - total coverage area = 2000 "' 48
.
Number of clusters covenng to tal area = -area of cluster 42
_ ~ .. 137 channels.
Number of channels per cell - 7
f sters x total available channels
:. system capacity = number O c1u
= 4Sx960
System capacity = 46080 channels for N = 7
► Step III:
. . decreased from 7 to 4, the system capacity

If N 1s . increases
. from 46'080 to 79680 channels. Thus' a decrcase in
increases the system capacity. 1
UEx. 2.12.14 MU• a. 4(a). Ma 16. 10 Marks . · . · _;·"·f' ... ,,

• ' • , • / •j; • ~ /f 4.
Consider geographical area of a ceilular system Is 480sqkm. A total of ~dio ~ nnels are available for traffic ·_,;"'
suppose, area of a cell ls 8 sq km. : -,, · ·
~ . >
(1) How many times would the cluster size of 7 have to be replicated In ordar'to cover the entire service area?·CA~ df ·
. ----Wli
number of channels per cell and system capacity. ·· · • . ·:/ / ~i;;,.,.
• • • . • , _/. , 'C. /
(2) · If the cluster size Is decreased from 71o 4 then does It result-Into increase In system_capacity. · , ..--: :_. ~ ,
., ~ , ....
@So1n. :
I• Given:
Service area of cellular system = 480 lcm2

Coverage area of cell = 8 km2
► Step I : To calculate number of clusters, ~~II capacity and system capacity.

C.e,¼.. flY)
Area of cluster = Number of clusters x area of cell.
I I
1 - 1 . .
Area of cluster = 7 x 8 =56 km2•
I ' I Number o( clusters = Service area of cellular system 480
area of cluster = 56
I Number or clusters = 9
As !ot~um~r of availa~le channels are all~ ated_to one cluster

,..- . . .
/ .
.·• Number of channels per cell = -:::-----:-'rh-~) ~f¼Q.

' . . ·. -~ ~- · ; 7
•• Number or channels per cell ~r_cell ca~city::: 130 channels/cell
System capacity = N X Number of clusters
-::::i'-:i~iv;;:;~;;=:=~~~~~~~=-----
T ech-Neo Publications _ Jrhcrc Autlion itupire iaaoralioD - - - - - -------::::::----
SAOlfNS/J,41/ fe,/111 __,4

~ ~~ 5 ' ! s ! e : n l l e s l ; r . ~
= -...:C=.--- :~ -,~ s •-:=:_=-.: >.: ~ t t-=
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= ~ - -.i:= = R=""'= :ir :!'Ii-..: s"ipii1..~

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r-----.__
(10 Marks)
{5 Mart:s)
15 t.bn:s)
r,o Ma11:s)
(5Mart.'.s)
◄ :m: er

- - .,..,, nn-.n 1e umbrel1acen approarJI '/ (JVJI>,' ,,.,,w, - atlO) and cf~(atz/J r,,
im,;-,fer~fi r
Q. 6(a) Derive relatlomhip between S/I (6¥Jll3I to
(Ans, : Refer tJ6C11on 2.8)
- Dec.2013 :I
2111 and2.11,5,
, Refer ssctfono . ,
0. 1(b) EY.plajn cell dragging and d'llell tJme. (Ans, ' _A,.4ton 2A)
(AnD• : ReforDtJW
0.1(d) Die.cuss abou1 frequenc/ reure in cellular system,
• May2014
•Refer Sl)Ctlon 2. 11,6)
O. 1(a) Explain umbrella cell coor...ept in cellular system, (AnG, '
,. , Dec. 2014
2
0. 7(b) WfltB short note on : FrequeOC'/ reuse.(An5.: Refer e,ecvon A)
,,_. May2015
. .., ratio) and cluster tl.

Q. 1(a) Derive relationuup between Sil (S'~ to inte,~erence
(Ans. : Refer sectJon 2.8)

Q. 1(d) Explain hard hand-off and ooft hand-off, (Ans. : Refer eectk)n Z 11.7)
0. 7(a) Write short not'3 on: Umbrella cell app<oach. (Ans. : Refer section 2-11-8)
1
• Dec. 2015
a. 1(b) ff 36 MHz total spectrum is aJfocatoo fo< a·duplq-1. wireless ceUular system anu simplex channel has 25
KHz AF bandwidth find totaJ number of duptID: chann1:13, number of channels per cell if M = 4 cell reu&s ia
used. (Ans, : Refer UEx. 2.12. 1Z) (5 Marb)
0. 2(a) If a signaJ to interference ratio of 15 dB is required for eatisfactoiy for11ard channel performance of a
cellular system, what is frequency rewe fact.or and cluzter size that should be used for ma,-Jmum
capacity if path loss 1:r1.pooont is :
1) n = 3 and 2) n = 4. Aewme ert. first tier co channel cella and mobile unij is at the center of cell.
(Ans.: Refer UEx. 2.8.1) (10 Mam)
• May2016
O. 4{a) Consider geographical area of a i;.etlu1ar 6'/s:tP.m 13 400-'~. A to1aJ of 91 o radio channels are avallatle
for traffic handling WPJJ0013, ar6'8 of a cen ia 8 gq km.
(1) Ho-1~ many tim% wo1Jld 1M dUo-tsr {>iza of 7 have to be replicated in order to cover the entire
service area? ~a~late t~ 01JfTlbc:r of channeia ~ ~ and 3'/31em capacit'/.
(2) If the cluster size 1s dt;cr~ from 7 to 4 then oogg it result into increaoo in system capacity.
(Ans. : Refer UEx. 2.12.14) (10 M,arb)
_.4 .s;u.11111.s1w1 YePII

li1
- Mobi'le Cotml. System (MU·Som.7•E&TC}
ult l)ee.2016
2·36 Tho eonu\ar Concepl•Syslem Design Fundamentals
Q. 1-(b) Compare between FCA and DCA channel assignment strategies.
(Ans. : Refer section 2.5.3)
a. 2(a) Consider n cellular system with Sil ratio of 18 dB. The frequency reuse factor is N ::r 7. Calculate the
worst case for slgnal-to-<:o-<:hnnnol lntorforonce ratio. Is tho frequency reuse factor 7 s1m being
acceptable 7 II not, what is tt ? Assumo pnth•loss exponent as 4 in a mobile radio environment.
(Ans. : Rater section 2.8) (10 Marks)
• May2017
a. 2(b) A receiver in an urban oellular radio system dotocw o 1 mW signal at d = do = I meter from the
transmitter. In order to mitigate co-channot tntorloronco effoctB, it Is required that the signal received at
any base station receiver lrom onothor bnso stnllon transmitter which operates with the same channel
must be below · 100 dBm. A moosuremont toam hos dotermined that the average path loss exponent In
the system is n = 3. Determine the major rndlus of each coll if a 7-cell reuse pattern Is used. What Is the
fJ.ajot radius if a 4-ceU muse pattom Is usod? (Ans. : Rotor UEx. 2.8.2) (10.Marka)
Q. 2(a) Explaln HandoH in 2G, 3G & 4G In detaM. (Ans. : Rofer section 2. t t) (10 Marka)
a. 1(d) Explain how prioritizing In Hand off Is done. (Ans. : Refer section 2. t 1.4) (5 Marks)
lJlt Dec.2017
o. 2(A) While designing a cellular system, how are co-channel and adjacent channel interferences kept under
control ? What Is the role of SIi ratio and O in this ? (Ans. : Refer sections 2.6, 2.7 and 2.8) (10 Marks)
May 2018
a. 1(e) If a total of 33 MHz of bandwidth is allocated to a particular FOO cellular telephone system which uses
two 25 kHz slmplex channels to provide full duplex voice and control channels, compute the number of
channels available per cell if a system uses (a) four-cell reuse, (b) seven-cell reuse, and (c) 12-cell reuse.
(Ans. : RefBJ UEx. 2.42) (5 Mark.a)
a. 4{b) Consider a cenular2system in which total avanable voice channels to handle the traffic are 960. Toe area
of each cell is 6Km and the totsl coverage area of the system is 2000KM2. Calculate
(1) The system capacity if the cluster size, N = 4
(2) The systBm capacity if the cluster size, N = 7
HcrN many times would a cluster of size 4 have to be replicated to cover Iha entire cenular area?
Does decreasing the reuse factor N increase the system capacity? Justify your answer.
(Ans.: Refer UEx. 2.12.13} (10 Marks)
• Dec. 2018
Q. 2(8) 1here are six co channel cells in the first 1heir and all of them are at the same distance 1rom the mobile
{N = 7), if a signal to interference ratio of 15dB is required for satisfactory forward channel"performance of
a ce ular sys1em. Calculate frequency reuse factor and cluster size that should be used for maximum
capacity iJ path los.s exponent is TJ = 3 and fl= 4. (Ans.; Refer UEx. 2.8. 1) (10 Marks)
Chapter Ends...
□□□

Cellular Capacity and
Improvement Techniques
3.1 Introduction ·······-·....................- .................................................................3-1

LO. 3.1.1 Which two factors need to be considered in moblla communication systems ? ...................................3--1
3.2 Trunking .......................................................................................................................................................................3-1
LO. 3.2.1 Write short note on Trunking theory. 3-,
........................................................
······················ii..E~·····a...........................3-,
3.3 Grade of Service (GOS)......................................................................
UQ. 3.3.1 With respect to trunking theory describe following terms :
System and Erlang-C System (iii) Grade of Service (GOS\•
(i.a.rouq~
~••m Jlj:
&9;tj 'iJiHFI ············•........3-1
ua.
3·3.2
UQ. 3.3.3
i.i,w,:.:.~,ri;,m:~~.~~~~~.~~'.~~~~.~~~:.~'.~.~.~~.~.~~.~.~~~.~~~··································3-,3-1
Write short note on : GOS. .. .....................................................................
3.3.1 Terms usod In Trunking Thoory......- - - ··-·- - ·-···-.....................................'7". ... ......_ __ _ .3-~
UO. 3.3.4 With respect to trunking theory describe following terms : (ii) Traffic Intensity A
3.3.2
,;,o,;,w:,.w;a:i,;,i~&ur:..~~~~.~~~~'.~~.~~.~~~~~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....3-2
Traffic Intensity por Channel .................................................................................................................
~2
3.3.3 Types of Trunked Systoms ................................................................................................................... 3-3

UQ. 3.3.5 Explain bioclc caUed dolayod and block call cleared system. .. ............. .3-3
3.3.4 Capacity of ERL.ANG·B System ...........................................................................................................3-4
3.3.5 Capacity of Erlang-C Systom..............................................................................................................3~12
3.4 Improving the Coverage and Capacity In Cellular Systems and Related Design Problems ........................................3·16
ua.
341
· ·
UQ. 3.4.2
i.a,~d.ii1lD'.~~.~~~~~~~~.~~·~·~·~·~'.~.'.~..~.~~'.~'.~~.~~~~~:. . .. .. . ..... . ...... . . . . . .
What are the different methods to Improve the capacity of cellular systems. Explain it.
.3•1 a.
t•tttm1at11F•t••Nmn .............................................................................................................:3-1~
ua. 3.4.3 List and explain various methods to improve the cell capacity. .. .........3-17
UQ. 3.4.4 Discuss different methods used for Improvement of cellular capacity
with suitable diagraml•E@l•J#◄ r•r••i~@n ...............-..-.............--..--·-·.. ---- - -3·17
UQ. 3A.S Write a short note on : Cellular capacity and coverage improvement Techniques.
a. 6(2). Cec. 15. 10 Marks ..............................................................................................................3-17
3.4 .1 C eTI Splilling....................................................................................................................................... :3·17'
3 .4 .1(A) Antenna Downtilting ............................................................................................................................3·16
3.4.2 Cell Sectoring ....·- ···-······ - - - · ·· ..···-···-····..··--··· ......- .....................................................3-18
UQ.3.4.6
UQ. 3.4.7
,.:m Mfwtteai~1t?M1td?ai.irima. .... ... . . . . . . .· · · ··· · ···· ······ ·. . . ...
6
~1
0 1
E*lain how does 60° and 120° sectoring improves signal to interference ratio.
3-16
i• 1di1'1Mtlt•i1fifflfl...............................................................................................................3•ta
3.4.2(A) Ditterence between Cell Splitting and Cell Sectoring ..........................................................................3-20
LQ.3.4.8 Explain the difference between c ell splitting and sectoring.................................................................3-20.
3.4.3 Repeaters ...........................................................................................................................................3-20
3 .4.4 Microcell Zone Concept ......................................................................................................................3-21·
UQ. 3.4.9 Microcell zone conce~helps in Improving capacity of a cellular system. Justify.
i•lt©l•Mif&i&~D ................................................................................................................ s-21
3 .5 DesJgn Problems.........................................................................................................................................................3-22
UEx. 3.5.9 ................................................................................................................3-27
UEx. 3.5.10 ........................ .......................................................................................3·28'
3.6 University Questions ...................................................................................................................................................3-31
• Chapter Ends ............................................................................................................................................................3-33

~ - . . 'Z¼4!@1@1..~~wef-Jn~corasmu 11•;•:!e"!.,
- ~ - .;;-.,;: : , , . . ~ . , ~ """ "'-=tt,,,r~ l(\ ~ - m d.:am-:
, :.: . ,~ ~- ~-..,. i,.~\
. ,_ =-
•. J1"t-,~
r.tm.."-:r;_t rr,..-."T' rr- -si.=~'llal::
- ~~.~t~..._i ?°'i" ~ -
.Jl ~ numt>::r of u.= in n limited spectrum. 11ic
m.= 1=-c ~ ~ ~-Ahility of-.:i mohile u.<:er 10 acce!:s n tru!IClllcd sysrcm in
ii!C◄tef·i ISi♦Mfflff'I
~~~..,._~ - ~ - :>--.<:;:ihl.• -J.-. ~-.,. many . i i = ~ i.bai:: ~ IWDlbcr -Of mobile clwmcls in a <:ell.
"""''"'-..""tr....__-.,,,...,.,..... n;,rl:':mffltj ~ = d :ilm.::zrin-.i;-:i ::h:mn:l.
-~ .~ ::,-esl-1 th=n fmm the y,oo1 of the d=mcJs the required chmmel will
-= ~ _; eznci;: r=rned to ttr pool of ?tr a,-mlable chsmlcts.
~~- :-:-- =-~-:: :· r-:t..-vi=- rr;· n=- -sr, rtlllI :i ~ numbc:r of channels or circuits can
- -- ....
mom· - TI' r=gn nunl..--ed radio sy~ th3t is capable of hsndling a

~ -,-- ~ .
1:-.. -,, -.:;;,t,•,-i ~~ = cnnnr.::J is c ~ ~ om- ~ - e,g. a radio chsnnel thsl is

~ :n."'-""'.::.--=-n :-;;~~-llr~ ~
~-,,...:,..c--,---.-,.~t,_;l ~l'Jl'ti..
{ii_ --~ UU-Q_11a). Dec_ ,s.~ J.b,i.s

MU- 0 61c 1. ON: _1 7. 51.latl.s
- - - -- .. - - -- - - --
-'SJQ/ll'Sll4l/ lmlsr.

'l 7
1i.. , ;, ltd# o, ICru",, mo,, h • ''" ...w r ,,, ,,,,., . ,,1111 >' ,,, " uv' i,1 "'' , .. • uw,l, ., • r•'""' itwrnt 11111 ,.,.1r._,ti,,.,,
'ft~ t...7 t-JWr I, t~J"rlftrtit '"' ,,~ 11. , 11 ij, 111111 ,.t.,. ,1,.. '"" 11 j.,,.,, ,lutln,: • w,,~ . llotlf1lh ' " y,11,
1l,c 1.-if1•11 iUl(f vi 111111 ll11hil •y11, ,r1 , . '" n,,,,, t,yIf• l'J-'"' ,,, ,,i.,, li Ir 11111 1,u11~•··• • y t ll' III 1 llo111ti • It,.,.. ' 111 ... . , ..
nrn ht ti..- l•u~i, u Io n 11.,.n lift 11 1 rrur,h ,1 , 7,1r1r1 h n (rt ll ,I 1o, 1111 l,t, el • 71fr,n
l1o1,u\rr 111 llll f l " "' o,.. ,~ Of .., n ltfl , , O'IJ, ,,, 1/1,1'( ,., ,.," .,, rc r111"'1, tl,r ,,,... 111,11111 I "l hM JI)' '""" ,I ,,If 1111,. ii1l111
r ,;,1Urh nu11,t.r, ,,, , ... 1111 <111110d, In ,1.,, cJr,1,11
1llC' t r•1cl t-1 V l \k( la . 1... , II llll"ll•lllt' " ' 1• ,nrr • l lilft lh,d h . ,.... tflrrl •• ,,.,. , ....,,.,,111,, ,,, • •• 11 ,.. ,,.. 111... ~ ... ,,.,.
Yrlanc " ) .., 11t11hal,lhl7 ,, un 1.. 1111 tt.l•7w! l...-71.nd • 1ulal11 .,,.., 0111 ,,t ,t,..., 11' •1• 11 11 (').
·"' J .J .1 Torrn, uted In Trunking Tiloory
J. 'l-n•up tl.m, 1 II 1t oar tm,c tt ..&JrJ 111 .JJ. .u • u ,J ,,.J,., tl.v,,,d ,,, 11 uvt lJ~ t lu, 1n11,ccll'1I h
"k,(lf'd ,an I JI II a on ,,..,, Car~ rC , .,. tl'"'f ~v,J M ti, ''" ' I ( ,,,,,~t( I r( ..,Jv 1,( ll.rflY.rLllr,o II l lllJ 1tlt1) f ullri1
~ k-1ral
7. (;,-.ck «A ~ n k-, ,,;o,) : Is 1, • mc,~u,c ..t (l,t1ttU~,n rlu l h " '" , (.,.,j ., II,;; pn,!,.,l11l11y r,f 1l11; 1.11111.-dnr, lilt.I(. krd
ff"..rhnt H) 1,r th:: pnh.ilnlny 11{ n ,tl lrctnr; drl~7ttJ fl t1.mi CJ
a. Tru:r,lJn,: cff,ucncy : II 11 • 11..-a•.urc: o ( d(1o crw.y f•lf • 1rur, l •}'&V-11~, . II H 11.e m.;u1111um 111,ffic ln1e r1, lty u u icd hy
the: aynt-m W r-ct lo I given V~ uf l<f'tlCC
3.3.2 Traffic lntenatty per Channel
TI,c tr.J fic lmct.ll.4')' llwt 1, vlfocd l>y I UI.C't 1.1 ,J,c t.~l ,r,f"-u 1-"': u.u.lu~M:d IJy tJ..: ,,..,14111~ &.i 111c , II Cfo(..11 u~
rr-ncnitn • tatric 1111c,n11y or"• f:JIQ/lf' 11,n.
A,, • )JI .. ..tJJ . I>
J & 111/Hi U/111 I(._,_

3-3 CelUarc:e:, and ~rm,:
A : A~ nurnt,n o( call rt"Q\'O'-' rtr urul time for c«h usu.
_ ll • •)")lml 1w U w.m anJ wu.no~1' numhrr ot ciwlDtli_ lhtn lht ~ otrcrrd tntrw: in&e1Wty.
A • U~ 1 . .. (3.3.2)
~ "bm. U : T\Ul numbct <'I UJ.Cn
11 the tn!flc , ~ \Wly ifulnbuteJ &ml'lall C dwioc.11, ltiCA the tnf11.c. ln.tcnuty pct chl..Mcl Ac ls.
lJAu ... (3.3.3)
'' • t:
3.3.3 Type• of Trunkod Sy1tem1
Q1•HW•ii◄fl0Mii I
tu) Tr- ~ •) •cm ~ ,lh QUC'\)C frc I IJU\, the ~h tlut uc Mt W

Tkrt a."t'. &1 :ll\C\.I u l,1.W l'aU L'kan-J ll,l'C) At\J 1.-1 l'.U l)ru, (I.CU) l)"\1.cnl.
1)~ rJ lfVIIU'd IJWllllf
Quc-wog u d.:tt fo, bolJing lhc: blockcJ

c.1ll,
l
~ C1'ef .., 11 ~ fl \ t'.n
rm:nn1Ju !IC'Cn I the r.kiJo Od.1~ lre introJuc-c,d.
~ I 1( he/Jae m!.ll"~J1 1rquc:..1 :u\1.1 no ~ up tune
.. ~ 1
II i_s u lkJ "lUodtd calls cku)td"
mcthoJ.
It ,~ ollcd J11 " fUoclcd n il cic-an-d" mrtlio..l
t1t. J.3.1 ; 1') pn oC lrunlc-d ) ) )km..,c
- In the Lmt Call C.lnin-d {I.CC) , lrm no queuing is :ill ed for the c.111. I( the uxr Wlnt.S :t ~ ice it will be
loCf' la'1 ~ 1L!un s nurumum 111nc.
- 0--~ 1.i.c the c.,JI ~ tll he bl l.r<l. 1( then: i\ no dunncl :i, :iibblc to :U)i~n. The g_radc o( service is described by
F.rtaac R fonnulw f u~r r\rcrirn.."ln~ bk ·L. :di , 1 cu~ in the ··o l ed alls cl~M system.
- 111 the Lo,,J call dtbJNI S) Inn tv IUodtd ra.lls ric-2n-d S,stffll lhc: queues arc lll3de 10 hold the call requests th.at
"'Cft initially M ~l ed Ir II UIC! rr e~a c.111rt:q~ it "' ill be ~n'Cd ir :t ctunncl is :t,•3.ib bk/ 00( :1v:1.ifablc at that time.
The rcq1JC.\t 1on ll be dcl.:i 'c:J ulJ lbc clunDc1 ox.s :i,'lliliblc...
- 11 il dctamincd by Eru.ng C fortmlh. TI1e &r:lde of sen ice i.n this system \lo ill aprcss the prob3bilily of thc dchyi.o.g
time frx I all Then: ll1'C I lv-gc ounltlcr of u._.-.c.r-s io this r lcm. This tnmklni method ls widdy used.
_, !(OllfSIIJ1I rt.at.re

f-.rtq 8 foonula ~ I.ht- p,-~lrt cha a .a.!J u N ·d .cJ Tiiu
{I)
All ffflC chaMd• ~ fully 1n1l.ahlc (iy 9"\lOn& :all ull aU ,&n.Nh vr
1
l
lli'
(tu) TBffie n:quoh arr 11atnt,uu,d hy f\'lu.,n J 1i.tnt"11M-
( ' )
1
b 11t:n11T1 , al umr-• o/ a11~ ..i1 ~ , ~nr ol , .a.. h 1.tl('f.
,, ) nar P \ ~ '.I( 1 1.1.n 1>;
1
' " ' a tu.'ll)Cl U r .,,-w-nt,...U Juu11'u,ll'J,
( '1) TI.ar aumt.-, N NII ) t\At\lVh I rqual C,l Uil" t,\J:rOt,r .., ""•r U:11'0
~ rroba-~ ) r-1 hb.~nt ...
(1 • (J H J
r~ - ~ - c; c>-i
r rr- A'
., T, itaJ t1t'Jrlf'! t1.JT ..

~-·
r; ;uu. ,J 4) 0 (L>\nj,.. r.1t-,,ll f,-.,,.-.,.t1 1 II( ( ,ta.I." t 1• ~ II t••~ !or!,.
T1 l<M . I I c•. , -11 d a.e J',1..t ~ " , •.crm
.L
~ c·.pMtt, • •~ Lu.4 '"" c;o,
--•bnr• ,,I,....,._ •
,__ _ __ _ __j - • o• l . u ,:,~1. o -: :;:-;.-
t-____J _ _ __j1 u , , 1 u w ., 1.-

,- - -·
,_____•____ !_o_v,. ; (I ,, I t• H
I I\ ; -, ,,. , 1
I I '"
·--
;_ _ _ __i
10 t ' , I Jlt )
I: 0 10 I
I. J 110 I, ,
70
l (JJ
---
I -'
IU
77 " 1 1
Scanned with Cams canner

-
·[iJ Mobile Comm. S~tem (MU-$em.7-E&TC)
' '""""('. ' ''

It, "· ~ \ · ,i.;,,
~-- .
;~·--... ~
~\.,.•\·.ll~• .. ~ ' .. .. . ~ ........_ . (Offered Load) ·
..
:, .:'-.· •• f.
3-5
Table 3.3.2 : Complete Erlang B Traffic Table
.. '. . .. "
, ,
'
_
..
Cellular Capac!~ and Improvement Techniques
A In Erlangf,
• .. . .4
•
•
••
:.. -.~
, •• t
,(:.:-: . -
·:::~-~ -·
.
J}t ~~,_\ / ~-:--.:. I . .~.. . ... - \ .... .·; : : :~;r.~

1[~} \~, ~ . ~- •l
. . ~ 11 -(Bloc~g Probability). · '
'' : "
\'>' 0.02% 0.03% 0.05% 0.1%' 0.2'-'i ,0.3%" 0.4%

!'· 0.01% 0.5%" 0.6% 0;1% 0.8%" . .;:9"%''.
l 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003 0.0005 0.0010 0.0020 0.0030 0.0040 0.0050 0.0060 0.0070 0.0081 0.0091
2 0.0142 0.0202 0.0248 0.0321 0.0458 0.0653 0.0806 0.0937 0.105 0.116 0.126 0.135 0.1443
3 0.0868 0.110 0.1 27 0.152 0.194 0.249 0.289 0.321 0.349 0.374 0.397 0.418 0.4374
4 0.235 0.282 0.315 0.362 0.439 0.535 0.602 0.656 0.701 0.741 0.777 0.810 0.8415
s 0.452 0.527 0.577 0.649 0.762 0.900 0.994 1.07 LL3 1.19 1.24 1.28 1.326
6 0.728 0.832 0.900 0.996 1.15 1.33 1.45 1.54 1.62 1.69 l.75 1.81 1.867
7 1.05 1.19 1.27 l.39 1.58 1.80 1.95 2.06 2.16 2.24 2.31 2.38 2.448
8 1.42 1.58 l.69 1.83 2.05 2.31 2.48 2.62 2.73 2.83 2.91 2.99 3.069
9 1.83- 2.01 2.13 2.30 2.56 2.85 3.05 3.21 3.33 3.44 3.54 3.63 3.7110
10 2.26 2.47 2.61 2.80 3.09 3.43 3.65 3.82 3.96 4.08 4.19 4.29 4.381 1
ll 2.72 Z.96 3.12 3.33 3.65 4.02 4.27 4.45 4.61 · 4.74 4.86 4.97 5.07
12 3.21 3.47 3.65 3.88 4.23 4.64 4.90 5.11 5.28 5.43 5.55 5.6T 5.18
13 3.71 4.01 4.19 4.45 4.83 5.27 5.56 5.78 5.96 6.12 6.26 6.39 6.50
14 4.24 4.56 4.76 5.03 5.45 5.92 6.23 6.47 6.66 6.83 6.98 7.12 7.24
15 4.78 5.12 5.34 5.63 6.08 6.58 6.91 7.17 7.38 7.56 7.71 7.86 7.99
16 5.34 5.70 5.94 6.25 6.72 7.26 7.61 7.88 8.10 8.29 8.46 8.6 1 8.75
17 5.91 6.30 6.55 6.88 7.38 7.95 8.32 8.60 8.83 9.03 9.21 9.37 9.52
18 6.50 6.91 7.17 7.52 8.05 8.64 9.03 9.33 9.58 9.79 9.98 10.1 10.3
19 7.09 7.53- 7.80 8.17 8.72 9.35 9.76 10.l 10.3 10.6 10.7 10.9 ll.l
20 7.70 8.16 8.44 8.83 9.41 10.1 10.5 10.8 11.1 11.3 11.5 11.7 l l.9
21 8.32 8.79 9. 10 9.50 10.1 10.8 11.2 11.6 11.9 12.l 12.3 12.5 12.7
22 8.95 9.44 9.76 10.2 10.8 I 1.5 12.0 12.3 12.6 12.9 13.l 13.3 13.5
23 9.58 10.1 10.4 10.9 11.5 12.3 12.7 13.l 13.4 13.7 13.9 14.l 14.3
24 I0.2 10.8 11.f r r.6 12.2 13.0 £3.5 13'.9 14.2 14.5 [4.7 14.9 IS.I
25 10.9 l l.4 11.8 12.3 13.0 13.8 14.3 14.7 15.0 15.3 15.5 15.7 15.9
26 11.5 12.l 12.5 13.0 13.7 14.5 15.l 15.5 15.8 16.l 16.3 16.6 16.8
27 12.2 12.8 13.2 13.7 14.4 15.3 15.8 16.3 16.6 16.9 17.2 17.4 17.6
TecL-Ne. MliatiOIII- Here ,lutl,onwpire irmo1-ati0D _,t SAaJIJrSl1.lll Yeatare

~ 3-6 c~•uW csP"cilY and ,mprovementT~
:,g ·:2_;· 13.S 13-9 14.4 !S:2 ;6.1 16.6 17. I 17.4 17.7 1SJ> 18.2 18.4
19 3
19 1
185
29 11.6 14.2 14.6 15.1 15.9 16.8 17.4 !7-9 !8.Z IU . .
19.6 19.9 20.1
19.0 19.4
7
15.3 15.9 16.7 17.6 18,2 l8.
30 14.2 14.9 20.7 21.0
r9.o 19.5 19.9 zo.z 20.5
31 14.9 15.6 16.0 16.6 17.4 [8.4
21.3 21.6 . 21.8
20 7 21.0
16.& 17.3 18.2 19.2 19.8 20.3 -
.32 15.6 16.3 22.7
2 9 22.2 22.4
19.0 20.0 20.6 2£.1 2 1.5 1.
33 16.3 17.0 17.5 18.l
23.0 233 23.5
18.8
19.7 20.& 21.4 21.9 22.3 23.5
34 17.0 17.& l&.2
35 T7.8 18.5 19.0 19.6 20.5 21 .6 22.2 22.7 23.2 23.5 23.8 24. l 24.4
36 18.5 19.2 19.7 20.3 21.3 22.4 23. L 23.6 24.0 24.4 24.7 25.0 25.3
37 19.2 20.0 20.5 21.1 22.I 23.2 23.9 24.4 24.8 25.2 25.6 25.9 26. 1
25.7 26. l 26.4 26.7 27.0

21.9 22.9 24.0 24.7 25.2
38 19.9 20.7 21.2
26.1 26.5 26.9 27.3 27.6 27.9
22.0 22.6 23.7 24.8 25.5
39 20.6 21.5
25.6 26.3 . 26.9 27.4 27.8 28.1 28.5 28.7

22.2 22.7 23.4 24.4
40 2L4
24.2 25.2 26.4 27.2 27.8 28.Z 28.6 29.0 29.3 29.6
41 22.t 23.0 23.5
24.2 25.0 26.0 27.2 28.0 28.6 29. 1 29.5 29.9 30.2 30.5
42 22.8 23.7
24.5 25.0 25.7 26.8 28.1 28.8 29.4 29.9 30.4 30.T 31.l 31.4
43 23.6
44 24.3 25.2 25.8 26.5 27.6 .28.9 29.7 30.3 30.8 31.2 31.6 31.9 32.3
45 25.1 ·26.0 26.6 27.3 28.4 29.7 30.5 31.1 3 1.7 32.1 32.5 32.8 33. t
46 25.8 26.8 27.3 28.1 29.3 30.5 31.4 32.0 32.5 33.0 33.4 33.7 34.0 .
47 26.6 27.5 28.1 28.9 30.l 31.4 32.2 32.9 33.4 33.8 34.9 ·
34.2 34.6
,48 27.3 28.3 28.9 29.7 30.9 32.2 .33.1 33.7 34.2 34.7 35.1 35.5 35.8 -
·49- 28.l 29. l 29.7 30.5- 31.7 33.0 33.9- 34.6 35.l 35-.6 36.0 36.4 · 36.7
50 28.9 29.9 30.5 31.3 32.s 33.9 34.8 .35.4 36.0 36.5 36.9 37.6 -
37.2
Teel-Nee Pul,licetien• n- Autl»nm.,;re imHwatioa

----
--tuCllllfSf/,U/ r~
~
-
[iJ Mobllo Comm. Syslom (MU-Som.7-E&TC)
<Orre.roo IAAcl)
Tnhlf'.U.2
-
Collultu Cflj>O{;lly nnd ''':f"lll)rMf11 1!!':htlltfl'J"I
75l iii Fii!i
A In t,'.,t._n,~
• P,
. LO% l .2% 1.5% 2% 3% 5% 7% l0 % 15%
-
W% JO'lo 40% ~~
-- -- -
I 0.010 1 0.()1 21 0.0152 0.0204 0.0:lo<J 0.0526 0.753 0.111 0.176 0.150 0..12') 0,6(,7 I CXJ
· - - -·-
2 0. 153 0.168 0.190 0.223 0.282 0.38 1 OA-70 0.595 0.796 1.00 I A~ 2.!XJ 2.7J
3 0.455 0.489 0.535 0.602 0.7 15 0.899 1.06 1.27 1.60 I .')] 2.(,.l J.-IK .l.51)
-1 0.869 0.922 0.992 1.09 1.26 1.52 1.75 2.05 2.50 2.95 3.89 5.02 (,.50
5 1.36 1.43 1.52 1.66 1.88 2.22 2.50 2.88 ) ..15 ,1.01 5. 1'J 6.60 R.44
6 1.91 2.00 2.11 2.28 2.54 2.96 3.30 3.76 4.44 5. 11 6.51 8.19 10.4
7 2.50 2.60 2.74 2.94 3.25 3.74 4.14 4.67 5.46 6.2) 7.86 9.80 IV I
8 3.1 3 3.25 3.40 3.63 3.99 4.54 5.00 5.60 6.50 7.37 9.2 1 11.-1 111.3
9 3.78 3.92 4.09 4.34 4.75 5.37 5.88 6.55 7.55 8.52 10.6 13.0 16.3
10 4.46 4.6 1 4.8 1 5.08 5.53 6.22 6.7K 7.5 1 8.62 9.68 12.U 1.U IK.J
11 5. 16 5.32 5.54 5.84 6.33 7.08 7.69 8..19 9.69 10.9 13.3 16.3 20.3
12 5.88 6.05 6.29 6.61 7.14 7.95 8.6 1 9.47 10.8 12.0 14.7 18.0 22.2
13 6.6 1 6.80 7.0.5 7AO 7.97 8.83 9..5-1 10..5 11.'J 13.2 16. 1 19.6 '.M.2
14 7.3.5 7.56 7.82 8.20 8.80 9.73 10.5 11..5 13.0 1-1.-1 17.5 21.2 26.2
15 8. 11 8.33 8.6 1 9.01 9.65 10.6 I 1.4 12.5 l ,U 15.6 18.') 22.'J 28.2
16 8.88 9. 11 9.4 1 9.83 10.5 I 1.5 12.-1 13.5 15.2 16.8 20.3 24.5 30,2
17 9.65 9.89 10.2 10.7 11 .-1 12.5 13..l 1-1.5 16.3 I R.O 2 1.7 26.2 32.2
18 10.4 10.7 I 1.0 11.5 12.2 13.4 14.3 15.5 17.4 19.2 23.1 27.8 J.1.2
19 11.2 11.5 11.8 12.3 13. 1 14.3 15.3 16.6 18.5 20A 2-l.5 29.5 6.1
20 12.0 12.3 12.7 13.2 1-1.0 15.2 16.3 17.6 19.6 21.6 25.9 31.2 J8.l
21 12.8 13.1 13.5 14.0 14.9 16.2 17.3 18.7 20.8 22.8 27.) 32.t! 40.l
22
23
13.7
14.5
14.0
14.8
14.3
15.2
1-1.9
15.R
15.8
16.7
17. 1
18.1
18.2
----
19.2
19.7
20.7
- 21.9
23.0
2-1. 1 18.7
--
25.l JO.I
1,5
Jo.I
-1..?. l
,1-1,1
- - - --
24 15.3 15.6 16.0 16.6 17.6 I 9.0 20.2 2 1.8 2-1.1 Z<d .l 1.6 J7.K ,Ii>. I
2.5 16.1 16.5 16.9 17.5 18.5 20.0 21.2 22.8 25.J 2'/.7 .1.1.0 .NA ,IS. I
26 17.0 17.3 17.8 IK..I 1'J.4 20.9 22.2 219 16 ,I 2ll.'l

--- --- -- -- _,,., 41.1- - I j(\
J,&.,i
--
20J
-- -24. 2'/-.r, -l .15 K -H K 5Z. I
27 17.8 IR.2 18,6 19.'.l '.! I.') 2:).2 1)
,II)
Ttdi.Neo Puhllt.a1ion1_ _ IJ'Jm• A11tb on uvplm '1,1wr11rm1

J
C ipocltY 1Jnd 1mprovornont TochobJ..
Collulnr ll ...
3·0
[j;] Mobllo Comm. Syetom (MU-S0111.7-E&TCl A In .er11111&1'
(Ofkf'l'CI IMC!)
r. 50%
• 20% JO% 40%
I 51{, 1'li JO% rs%

2~ 3%
t.O .. l.l~ I.S~ 37.2 44.4 54. 1
26.0 28.7 31.4
2 1.2 22.9 24.2
28 Hl.6 19.0 19.5 20.2
I 25.2 27. 1 29.9 32.6 38.6 46. 1 56. 1
21.0 22.I 23.8
29 19.5 19.9 20.-1
40.0 47.7 58.1
' 30
31
20.3
21.2
20.7
21.6
21.2
22.1
21.9
22.8
23.I
24.0
24.8
25.8
26.2
27.2
28. 1 31.0
29.2 32. I
33.8
35.1 41.5 49.4 60. 1
33.3 36.3 42.9 5 l.l 62.l

24.9 26.7 28.2 30.2
32 21.0 21.5 23.0 23.7
34.4 37.5 4'$.3 52.7 64.1
24.6 25.8 27.7 29.3 31.3
33 22.9 23.3 23.9
32.4 35.6 38.8 45.7 54.4 66.l
34 23.8 24.2 24.8 25.5 26.8 28.7 . 30.3
31.! !JA 36.7 40.0 47. 1 56.0 68. 1

35 24.6 25.1 25.6 26.4 27.7 29.7
27.J 28.6 30.7 32.3 34.5 37.9 41.2 48.6 57.7 70.l
36 25.5 26.0 26.5
37 26.4 26.8 27.4 28.3 29.6 31.6 33.3 35.6 39.0 42.4 50.0 59.4 72. 1
38 27.J 27.7 28.3 29.2 30.5 32.6 34.4 36.6 40.2 43.7 5 1.4 61.0 74.1
39 28.1 28.6 29.2 30.1 31.5 33.6 35.4 37.7 41.3 44.9 52.8 62.7 76. 1
40 29.0 29.5 JO. I 31.0 32.4 3-t.6 36.4 38.8 42.5 46.1 54.2 64.4 78.1
41 29.9 30.4 31.0 31.9 33.4 35.6 37.-1 39.9 43.6 47.4 55.7 66.0 80.1
42 30.8 31.3 31.9 32.8 34.3 36.6 38.4 -10.9 44.8 48.6 57.1 67.7 82. 1
43 31.7 32.2 32.8 33.8 35.3 37.6 39.5 42.0 45.9 49.9 58.5 69.3 84. 1
44 32.5 33. t 33.7 34.7 36.2 38.6 40.5 43.1 47. 1 5 I. I 59.9 71.0 86. 1
45 33..t 34.0 34.6 35.6 37.2 39.6 41.5 4-t.2 48.2 52.3 61.3 72.7 88. 1
46 34.3 34.9 35.6 36.5 38. 1
•
40.5 42.6 45.2 49.4 53.6 62.8 7-1.3 90. 1
47 35.2 35.8 36.5 37.5 39.1 41.5 -13.6 46.3 50.6 5-1.8 6-t.2 76.0 92. 1
48 36.1 36.7 37.-t 38.-1 40.0 ·'2.5 -14.6 ·l7.-1 5 1.7 56.0 65.6 77.7 94. 1
49 37.0 37.6 38.3 39.J 41.0 43.5 ·15.7 ·Hl.5 5~.9 57.3 67.0 79.'.l % .I
: 50 37.9 38.5 39.2 40.3 •I I.CJ -t-1.5 ,16.7 ·W.6
-5-1.0 51U 6lU

81 .0 48. l
~ Mobile Comm. system (MU-$em.7-E&TC) 3.9 Cellular Capacity and Improvement TechnkJU::
==
Table 3.3.2: (Continued)
(Offered Load) A ln Erlanp .

• P._
-
0.01% 6.02. % 0.03'1, O.OS% 0.1% .0.2% 0.3% QA% 0.5% 0.6% 0.7'1! 0.8% ,_Q.9'1,
50 28.9 29.9 30.5 3 1.3 32.5 33.9 34.8 35.4 36.0 36.5 36.9 37.2 37.6
51 29.6 30.6 31.3 32. l 33.3 34.7 35.6 36.3 36.9 37.3 37$ 38. 1 38.5
52 30.4 3 1.4 32.0 32.9 34.2 35.6 36.5 37.2 37.7 38.2 38.6 29.0 39.4
53 3 1.2 32.2 32.8 33.7 35.0 36.4 3-7.3 38.0 38.6 39.1 39.5 39.9 40.J
54 31.9 33.0 33.6 34.5 35.8 · 37.2 38.2 38.9 39.5 40.0 40.4 40.8 41.2
55 32.7 J3.8 J4.4 35.3 · 36.6 38.1 39.0 · 39.8 40.4 40.9 4 1.3" 41.7 42.1
56 33.5 34.6 35.2 36. I 37.5 38.9 39.9 . 40.6 41.2 4I.7 42.Z 42.6 43.0
57 34.3 35.4 36.0 36.9 38.3 39.8 40.8 41.5 42. l 42.6 43.l 43.5 43.9
58 35. l 36.2 36.8 37.8 39. 1 40.6 41.6 42.4 43.0 43.5 44.0 44.4 44.8
59 35.S 37.0 37.6 38.6 40.0 41.5 42.5 43.3 43.9 44.4 44.9 45.3 45.7
60 36.6 37.8 38.5 39.4 40.8 42.4 43.4 44.1 44.8 45.3 45.8 46.2 46.6
61 37.4 38.6 39.3 40.2 41.6 43.2 44.2 45.0 45.6 46.2 46.7 47.l 47.5
62 38.2 39.4 40.1 41.0 42.5 44.1 45.l 45.9 46.5 47.l 47.6 48.0 48.4
63 39.0 40.2 40.9 41.9 43.3 44.9 46.0 46.8 47.4 48.0 48.5 4&.9 49.3
64 39.8 4 1.0 4 1.7 42.7 44.2 45.8 46.8 47.6 48.3 48.9 49.4 49.8 50.2
65 40.6 41.8 42.5 43.5 45.0 46.6 47.7 48.5 49.2 49.8 50.3 50.7 51.l
66 4 1.4 42.6 43.3 44.4 45.8 47.5 48.6 49.4 50.1 50.7 51.2 51.6 52.0
67 42.2 43.4 44.2 45.2 46.7 48.4 49.5 50.3 51.0 51.6 52.1 52.5 53.0
68 43.0 44.2 45.0 46.0 47.5 49.2 50.3 51.2 5L9 52.5 53.0 53.4 53.9
69 43.8 45.0 45.8 46.8 48.4 SO. I 5 1.2 52.1 52.8 53.4 53.9 54A 54.8
70 44.6 45.8 46.6 47.7 49.2 51.0 52. l 53.0 53.7 54.3 54.8 55.3 55.7
71 45.4 46.7 47.5 48.5 50.1 51.8 53.0 53.8 54.6 55.2 55.7 56.2 56.6
72 46.2 47.5 48.3 49.4 50.9 52.7 53.9 54.7 55.5 56. 1 56.6 57. l 57.5
73 47.0 48.3 49. 1 50.2 51.8 53.6 54.7 55.6 56.4 57.0 57.5 58.0 58.5
74 47.8 49. 1 49.9 51.0 52.7 54.5 55.6 56.5 57.3 57.9 58.4 58.9 59.4
75 48.6 49.9 50.8 51.9 53.5 55.3 56.5 57.4 58.2 58.8 59.3 59.8 60.3
76 49.4 50.8 5 1.6 52.7 54.4 56.2 57.4 58.3 59.1 59.7 60.3 60.8 6 1.2
fecli-"Neo P-uLliatioDJ _ _ IJ!ere ,lutl»rsiaspire iaaoratioa -4·s.,1CIJ1KST/All r~1nm
--- Scanned with CamScanner

d improvement TechnlQ
cllY 011 -
couuror caP . .
~10 dS
., ~ ~· lri JtrltJflw
i::&1C, ~ - - - · , ...
ri:"I (MU-Sorn,1• ~ ------ ·
LR! Mobllo eomm. St_~ ~ )
~ {Otrcrccl A> P-11 ,--
,--,.,----;;.;%
'Ye 0,6%
·0.9'% ~ i : - - ~ - f ·-- - i
J . . . - - ~ o.4% o.5 ~ 62 1
· ___ ,__ oz% o.:J% - - - ~ 6 t.2 6 1.7 ·
. ,.. - - - - - 05"'1 O,l %1....:.-~ 6().0 60,6 , - ~
I
o·oi% a.O Z % ~ ~ ~ 511 ss.3 ~ i - 1 - - 621 6Z.6 63.I
• , 536 55·2 ~ - - 609 615 .--
~ 51,6 5~ ~ - - 59,2 60· 1 I___:.-..-~ 5 64.0
77 50.2- -•- 56. l 58.0 - - ~ 24 63.0 63.
53.3 54.4 i - - - - - 61 0 61.8 6 . _,_--ji---,
78 51.I 52.4 _i-,-- 9 58 8 60. 1 .-i-- 63.9 64.4 64.9
54,1 55.3 ~ ~ i - - - 9 62.7 63.3 ~- - j i - - 7
53 2
7n 51.9 • - 7 61 ,0 6 1• - ~ 65 8
.,, - 57 8 59, ~~~--r 64.8 65.4 ·
1--4--,- 5,1,9 56,1 ~ - 63.6 ,_64 _ .2- r - - ,- - j i - - - ,
80 527 54.1 - - 61 8 62.8 ....l
. - 58 7 60 6 . - 66 J 66.8
569 · . - 657 ·
53.s 5,1_9 55.8 . '_L.:....--r--r 63.7 64.5 65.2 .
81
61.5 62.7 7
82 54.3 55.7 56.6 57~ 59,5 -;- 6 64.6 65.4 66. 1 66.7 67 .2 67.
83 55.1 56.6 51.5 58!_ 60.4 62-: ~:5 65.5 ~ 67.0 67.6 68. I 68.6
57.4 58.3 59.5 61.3 63. 68 5 69 1 69.6

84 56.0
64. I 65.4 66.4 672. 67.9 . . .
60.4 62.l
70.5
67 3
1-::..:::+;-:-.:-r-:-::-~7 :~ . 61.2 630 650 66.3 - ::·: : : : ::·: ::::
7L.4
65.9 67.2 68.2 > • • •
87 58.4 59.9 60.8 62. I 63.9
72.3
62,:; 64.7 . 66.8 68. 1 69. 1 69.9 70.6 7 1.3 7 1.8
88 59.3 60.8 61.7
65.6 67.7 69.0 70.0 70.8 7 1.6 72.2 72.8 73.3
89 60.1 61.6 62.5 63.8
64.6 66.5 68.6 69.9 70.9 71.8 72.5 73. 1 73.7 74.2
90 60.9 62A 63.4
67.4 69.4 70.8 7 1.8 72.7 73.4 74.0 74.6 75.1

91 61.8 63.3 64.2 65.5
92 62.6 64.1 65. 1 66.3 68.2 70.3 7 1.7 72.7 73.6 74.3 75.0 75.5 76.l
93 63.4 65.0 65.9 67.2 69.1 71.2 72.6 73.6 74.5 75.2 75.9 76.5 77.0
9,1 64.2 65.8 66.8 68.1 70.0 72.1 73.5 74 .5 75.4 76.2 76.8 77.4 77.9
95 65. 1 66.6 67.6 68.9 70.9 73.0 74.4 75.5 76.3 77. 1 77.7 78.3 78.9
96 65.9 67.5 68.5 69.8 71.7 73.9 75.3 76.4 77.2 78.0 78.7 79.3 79.8
97 66.8 68.3 69.3 70.7 72.6 74.8 76.2 77.3 78.2 78.9 79.6 80.2 80.7
98 67.6 69.2 70.2 71.5 73.5 75.7 77.1 78.2 79. l 79.8 80.5 8 I. I 8 l.7
o - 1 ~ ~ 76.6
r99--t_ 6_18_A-t-_10_.0_ 1__1_1_. 78.0 79. 1 so.o 80.8 8 1.4 82.0
82.6
100 69.3 70.9 71.9
73.2 75.2 77.5 78.9 80.0 80.9 81.7 82.4 83.0
Tr.d1-f1eo rulilicalil>IIM........... W/,r,rr, Author,, i1111pirn innor11tio,, 83.5

li1
- Mobllo Comm. Syt1lom (MU•Som.7•El'.TC)
((}m,ffll t.ni.d) A ln 1,:rbn_,.

• r"
l .0 % t.l % l.S'l, 2% 3% 5% 7% IO% JS% 20% 30% 40% so~
50 37.9 JS.5 ) 9.2 ·\0.3 4 I.f) 44.5 4li. 7 ,19.6 54.0 58.5 68.5 8 1.0 98. I
5 1 38.8 J9.4 -40. 1 41 .2 42.9 ,15.5 47.7 50.6 55.2 59.7 f:FJ.9 82.7 100. 1
52 39.7 40.3 41.0 42. I 43.9 46.5 48.8 51.7 56.3 6 1.0 7 1.3 84.J 102_ I
53 40.6 ., 1.2 42.0 43. I 44.8 47.5 49.8 52.8 57.5 62.2 72.7 86.0 IQ.ti
54 41.5 42.J 42.9 •M.O 45.B '18..5 50~ 51.9 58.7 63.5 74.2 87..6 106..1
55 42.4 43.0 43.8 44.9 46.7 49.5 5 1.9 55.0 59.8 64.7 75.6 89.3 108. 1
56 4 3.3 4 3.9 44.7 45.9 47.7 50.5 52.9 56.1 6 1.0 65.9 77.0 9 1.0 110. 1
57 -M.2 44.8 45.7 46.8 48.7 5 1.5 53.9 57. 1 62. 1 67.2 78.4 92.6 11 2. 1
58 45. 1 45.8 46.6 47.8 49.6 52.6 55.0 58.2 63.3 68.4 79.8 94.3 114. 1
59 46.0 46.7 47.5 48.7 50.6 53.6 56.0 59.3 64.5 69.7 81.3 96.0 I 16. 1
60 46.9 47.6 48.4 49.6 51.6 54.6 57. 1 60.4 65.6 70.9 82.7 97.6 I 18. 1
61 47.9 48.5 49.4 50.6 52.5 55.6 58. I 61.5 66.8 72.1 84. 1 99.3 120. 1
62 48.8 49.4 50.3 51.5 53.5 56.6 59.1 62.6 68.0 73..1 85.5 101 .0 122. 1
63 49.7 50.4 5 1.2 52.5 5-U 57.6 60.2 63.7 69. 1 74.6 87.0 102.6 124.1
64 50.6 5 1.3 52.2 53A 55 ..1 58.6 6 1.2 6--l.8 70.3 75.9 88.4 i°'u 126. 1
65 51.5 52.2 53. 1 54 ..1 56.-l 59.6 62.J 65.8 7 1.4 77. 1 89.8 106.0 128. 1
66 .52.4 53. 1 .S.1.0 553 57.4 60.6 63.J 66..IJ 726 7LI 9 1.2 107..6 130.J
67 53.4 54. 1 55.0 56.3 58.-1 61.6 6-U 68.0 7Jll 79.6 92.7 IC9.J 132.J
68 54.3 55.0 55.9 57.2 59.J 62.6 65.4 69.1 7-1.9 so. 94. 1 111 .0 13-U
69 55.2 55.9 56.9 58.2 60.3 63.7 66A 70.2 76. 1 82. 1 95..5 112.6 136. 1
70 56. 1 56.8 57.8 59. 1 61.3 64.7 67.5 71.3 773 83.3 % .9 114.J 13 . I
7 1 57.0 57.8 5 8.7 W I 61.3 &5.7 685 72.4 78.4 84.6 98.4 115.9 140. 1
72 58.0 58.7 SlJ.7 6 1.0 63 1 66.7 69 6 73.5 79.6 5.8 9'>.8 117.6 142_I
73 58.9 59.6 60.6 62.0 ~ -1 67.7 70 6 7-l.6 80.8 87 0 101.2 119.) l"4. 1
74 59.8 W.6 61.6 62.9 65.2 68 7 7 1.7 75 6 8 1.9 Ko 1 1(12 7 1209 1-16 I
75 W.7 61.5 62.5 63 .9 66.2 69.7 72.7 76.7 MJ. I IS') S I°"\ I 121 c, 1-t 0
76 6J.7 62.tl 63A 6-1.9 67.2 70.8 73.K 77.8 S-1.2 90 8 !05 5 114. l 15-0 0
_ , 'U:BJ.HJJJJJ •~

[§;J Mobile Comm. Svotorn (MU-Som.7-E&TC)
; (Ottered l...oac.lJ
-
•
77 62.6 63.-1 MA (,5.H (,fl.I 71.H 74.fl 711/J flj A 'J'/,JJ J<;fi,'J 17.~.'J InJJ
t--+----4- - ~ - J - - - -<1--1- - ,_ - ·- -- ---t---
78 63.5 M.3 (6.3 (,6,IS (fJ.I 7V, '/5.9 ?.M> ?,f,,fJ '/'~3 J<tt,A I'£1/J l~J;
79 64.4 65.2 6(,,3 67.7 70, 1 73.'1, 7(,,') 'l,1,1 '1,7.7 94.~ 1<1).Y, J2'J.:~ J~/J
80 65.4 66.2 61.2 68.7 1 u 74.i n,r, '1,2.2 r.r..'J 'J~.1 i, 1,2 i :1,.'J 1~'l,JJ
81 66.3 67.1 68.2 69.6 72.1 75.H 79.0 '1,3,3 'J<J.J 'f/JJ I J2h 132/i lf/J/J
82 67.2 68.0 69.1 70.6 73.0 76.'J W.1 ?AA 'JJ.2 '/1,,2 I J4, J J:¾3 J(fl.JJ
83 68.2 69.0 70. 1 71.6 74.0 77.'J 8Ll 'l,5,5 'l2A '/J,5 J 15.5 13~.'J J(AJJ
\I 84 69. I 69.9 7 J.O 72.5 75.0 n .'J '1,2,2 ~,fd, '/3,(J H/J.7 J I (;,'J J37h J f,ljJJ
85 70.0 70.9 7J.9 73.5 76.0 79.'J 83,2 87.7 94,7 J()2JJ J J,',,3 J3'J.3 J(~J)
ll
j 86 70.9 71.8 72.9 74.5 77JJ ~<J.!J M.3 'l,'1,7, 'JS.'J Jf/3.2 J J'J2 J4tJ.'J J7fJJJ
87 71.9 72.7 73.8 15A 781> 821J 85.3 W).'J 'fl.I HJ4,j 121.2 142/4 172/J
88 72.8 73.7 74.8 76.4 7K9 SS3.0 r-,r,A 'JJJJ 9'1,.2 J<i5.7 IZ2f, 144.3 l74JJ
89 73.7 74.6 75.7 77.3 79.9 f'A.O iflA 92.J 1/JA l<.n.9 l24JJ 145.9 17£,JJ
90 74.7 75.6 76.7 78.3 8<J.9 k5.<J 8%.5 93.J J(;IJ.6 l<~.2 1256 147/, JnJj
91 75.6 76.5 77.6 79.3 8 L9 86.0 %9.5 94,2 J()J.7 J(fJA l21J.9 J4!J.3 l~/JlJ
92 76.6 77.4 78.6 80.2 82.9 87.l 90.6 95.3 102.9 J10,7 lV,,3 l~)!) 1%2.n
93 77.5 78.4 79.6 81.2 83.9 88.1 9 1.6 %A 1()4, J 11 1.'J lT'J.7 1 l52h l Jl'Al)
94 78.4 79.3 80.5 82,2 84.9 89, l 92.7 97.5 I

)(}5,3 l 13.2 J31.2 J54.3 J ?,/.;iJJ I
95 79.4 80.3 8 1.5 83. 1 85.8 90. l 9'3.7 93.6 HY.A 114A l 32jj 155.'J j l ~J)
96 80.3 81.2 82.4 84.1 86.3 !) l.J 94Js C/J.7 J(fi,f, l 15.7 1341) l57h l 1'/)J)
97 81.2 82.2 83.4 85.J 87.8 92.2 95.8 JOO.~ J00.8 11 6.'J J3.5.5 t l.59.3 l J~JJ
98 82.2 &3.J 84.3 86.0 88..B 93.2 96.9 JOL9 lf/J.9 JJU 136.91 Jff).'J I 1941)
99 83. 1 84.J. 85.3 87.0 89.8 94.2 'fl.'J JJJ31) Ill.I 119A IV..3 1tf,2h1 l¼JJ
JOO 84.l 85.0 86.2 88.0 90.& 95.2 C/)j) 1()4.1 112.3 12/U, 139.7 1JG,U l':IU) l
B: 3.3.5 Capacity of Erlang-C System
In the Erlang-C system, a queue is used to hold an reque"..ttd can~ th;:t cwtr,.A Le irr..rr~y ;;,,,,izr_,!rl a ch~1od.
The Erlang C formula is given by,
'.

.[!;;1 MobTie Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 3-13 Collulor Capacity ond lmprcwornont TochnlqtJM
C
A
P(call delayed) = c _ = GOS ...(3.3.S)
1
C
A +cI 1-c;
( A:'\ A'
L kf
k=O
If no channels are immediately available, the call is delayed and held in a queue and the probability that the delayed
call is force<1 to wait more than t seconds in the queue is given by,
...{3.3.6)
where. C: Total number of available channels

t : Delay time
H : Holding time
The probability that any caller is delayed in the queue for a wait time greater than t seconds is,
P (wait> t) = P (call delayed) P (wait> t/ call delayed)
-=-- P (call-delayed) exp [- (C- A➔ t / H] ... (3.3.7)

The average -delay D for all calls in a queued system is given by,
(X)
D = f P [call delayed] exp [- (C -A) t / Hl dt

.0
H
D = P'{caUdelay] C-A ... (3.3.8)
H
Where the average delay for those cans that are queued is C _ A .
Table.3.3.3; Erlang C T.raffic Table: Muimnm Offered.Load Versus B .and NB is 1n. %

.
o.or ~o~o.s- . 0-,l . 03 · r.o
NM -- . .. .. -z ..s· . ..·.10. ...·15· 20· . 30 . ·40
1
., . . '
, ;~ ... - .
~ - ;
1 .0001 .0005 .0010 .0050 .0 I 00 .0200 .0500 .1000 .1500 .2000 .3000 .4000
2 .0142 .0319 .0452 .1025 .1465 .2 103 .3422 .5000 .6278 .7403 .9390 1.117
3 .0860 .1490 . 1894 .3339 .4291 .5545 .7876 1.040 1.231 1.393 l.667 1.903
4 .2310 .3533 .4257 .6641 .8100 .9939 1.319 1.653 J.899 2.102 2.440 2.725
5 .4428 .6289 .7342 1.065 1.259 1.497 1.905 2.313 2.607 2.847 3.241 3.569
6 .7110 .9616 1.099 1.519 1.758 2.047 2.532 3.007 3.344 3.617 4.062 4.428
7 1.026 1.341 1.510 2.014 2.297 2.633 3.188 3.725 4 . 103 4.406 4.897 5.298
8 J..382 1.758 1.958 2.543 2.866 3.246 3.869 4.463 4.878 5.210 5.744 6.178
9 1.771 2.208 2.436 3. 100 3.460 3.883 4.569 5.218 5.668 6.027 6.600 7.065
' 10· 2.189 2.685 2.942 3.679 4.077 4.540 5.285 5.986 6.469 6.853 7.465 7.959
~-.NeoJ»ublic■liDDI l1'Jerr A,ud,on uupirc UUJ(IY6UOII -4 s.«:1/JNSI/JI/ Yabff

~ MobTie Comm s
;;; ystem {MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 3-14 CeTiular Capacity and Improvement T8th
..... -· .. ....,.- 4.
Iii
.. -0.1 .. . . ,.
t-
. -
·10
...
- .. ••
15 •_ 20 ..; . .30 ·'

.1.1,,.:' ~
N/8
~
0.01 . o.os. . .5 t-~~ ....

..O.S. 1.0
7.280 7.688 8.336 8.857
11 2.634 3.186 3.470 4.279 4.712 5.213 -6.015 6.765
8.530 9.212 9.761
12 3.100 3.708 4.018· 4.896 5.363 5.901 6.758 7.554 8.099
8.926 9.379 l0.09 10:67
13 3.587 4.248 4.584 5.529 6.028 6:602 7.511 8.352
10.98 11.58
14 4.092 4.805 5.166 6.175 6.705 7.313 8.273 9.158 9.760 10.23
12.49
15 4.614 5.377 5.762 6.833 7.394 8.035 9.044 9.970 10.60 11.09 11.87
16 5.150 5.962 6.371 7.502 8.093 8.766 9.822 10.79 11 .44 11.96 12.77 13.41
17 5.699 6.560 6.991 8.182 8.801 9.505 10.61 11.6 l 12.29 12.83 13.66 14.33
18 6.261 7.169 7.622 8.87 1 9.518 10.25 11 .40 12.44 13. 15 13.70 14.56 15.25
19 6.835 7.788 8.263 9.568 10.24 l 1.01 12.20 13.28 14.0 1 14.58 15.47 16. 18
20 7.419 8.417 8.914 10.27 10.97 11.77 13.00 14. 12 14.87 15.45 16.37 17.10
21 8.013 9.055 9.572 10.99 Jl.71 12.53 13.81 14.96 15.73 16.34 17.28 18.03
22 8.616 9.702 10.24 11.70 1246 13.30 14.62 15.8 1 16.60 17.22 18.19 18.96
23 9.228 10.36 10.91 12.43 13.21 14.08 15.43 16.65 17.47 18.11 19. 10 19.89
24 9.848 11.02 11 .59 13. 16 13.96 14.86 16.25 17.51 18.35 19.00 20.02 20.82
25 10.48 11 .69 12.28 13.90 14.72 15.65 17.08 18.36 19.22 19.89 20.93 2 1.76
26 I I.II 12.36 12.97 14.64 15.49 16.44 17.9 1 19.22 20.10 20.79 21.85 22.69
27 11.75 13.04 13.67 15.38 16.26 17.23 18.74 20.08 20.98 21.68 22.77 23.63
28 12.40 13.73 14.38 16.1,l 17.03 18.03 19.57 20.95 21.87 22.58 23.69 24.57
29 13.05 14.42 15.09 16.89 17.81 18.83 20.4 1 2 1.82 22.75 23.48 24.6 1 25.50
30 13.71 15.12 15.80 17.65 18.59 19.64 21.25 22.68 23.64 24.38 25.54 26.44
31 14.38 15.82 16.52 18.42 19.37 20.45 22.09 23.56 24.53 25.29 26.46 27.38
32 15.05 16.53 17.25 19. 18 20. 16 2 1.26 22.93 24.43 25.42 26.19 27.39 28.33
33 15.72 17.24 17.97 19.95 20.95 22.07 23.78 25.30 26.32 27.J0 28.3 1 29.27
34 16.40 17.95 18.71 20.73 21.75 22.89 24.63 26.18 27.2 1 28.01 29.24 30.21
35 17.09 18.67 19.44 2 1.5 1 22.55 23.7 1 25.48 27.06 28.11 28.92. 30.17 3L l6.
36 17.78 19.39 20. 18 22.29 23.35 24.53 26.34 27.94 29.00 29.83 3 1.10 32.10
37 18.47 20.12 20.92 23.07 24.15 25.36 27.19 28.82 29.90 30.74 32.03 33.05
38 19.17 20.85 21 .67 23.86 24.96 26. 18 28.05 29.7 1 30.80 31.65 32.97 34.00
39 19.87 2 1.59 22.42 24.65 25.77 27.01 28.9 1 30.59 31.7 1 32.57 33.90 34.94
40 20.58 22.33 23.17 25.44 26.58 27.84 29.77 31.48 32.61 33.48 34.83 35.89
.....ASACO/HSIMJI *

~ Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 3-15
--~-•-·
Cellular Capacity and Improvement Techniques
-- ·NIB r,&.el,
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~:ft,,~~ -~ 1,( '!)>-~
~.(
41 21.28 23 .07 23.93 26.23 27.39 28.68
30.63 32.37 33.51 34.40 35.77 36.84
42 22.00 23.81 24.69 27.03 28.21
"29.51 31.50 33.26 34.42 35.32 36.70 37.79
43 22".71 24.56 25.45 27.83 29'.02 30.35
32.36 34.15 35.33 36.23 37.64 38.74
44 . 23.43 25.31 26.22 28.63 29.84
31.19 33.23 35.04 36.23 37. 15 38.58 39.69
45 24.15 26.06 26.98 29.44 30.67 32.03
34.10 35.93 37.14 38.07 39.51 40.64
46 24.88 26.82 27.75 30.24 31.49 32.87
34.97 36.83 38.05 39.00 40.45 41.59
47 25.60 27.57 28.52 31.05 32.32
33.72 35.84 37.72 38.96 39.92 41.39 42.54
48 26.34 28.33 29.30 31.86 33.14 34.56
36.72 38.62 39.87 40.84 42.33 43.50
49 27.07 29.10 30.08 32.68 33.97 3.5.41
37.59 39.52. 40.79 41.76 4327 44.45
50 27.80 29.86 30.86 33.49 34.80 36.26 38.47 40.42
41.70 42.69 44.21 45.40
51 28.54 30.63 31.64 34.31 35.64 37.11 39.35
41.32 42.61 43.61 45.15 46.36
52 29.28 31.40 32.42 35. 12 36.47 37.97 40.23 42.22 43.53 44.54 46.10
47.31
53 30.03 32.17 33.21 35.94 37.31 38.82 41.10 43.12 44.44 45.47 47.04 48.27
54 30.77 32.95 33.99 36.76 38.t5 39.67 41.99 44.02 45.36 46.39 47.98 49;22
55 31.52 33.72 34.78 37.59 38.99 40.53 42.87 44.93 46.28 47.32 48.93 50.18
56 32.27 34.50 3557 38.41 39.83 41.39 43.75 45.83 47.20 48.25 49.87 51.13
57 33.03 35.28 36.37 39.24 40.67 42.25 44.64 46.74 48.12 49.18 50.82 52.09
58 33.78 . 36.06 37.16 40.07 41.51 43.11 45.52 47.64 49.04 50.11 51.76 53.05
59 34.54 36.85 37.96 40.90 42.36 43.97 46.41 48.55 49.96 51.04 52.71 54.01
60 35.30 37.63 38.76 41.73 43.20 44.83 47.29 49.46 50.88 51.97 53.65 54.96
61 36.06 38-42 .39.56 42.56 44. 05 45.70 48.18 50.37 5L80 52.90 54.60 55.92
62 36.82 39.21 40.36 43.39 44.90 46.56 49.07 51.27 52.72 53.83 55.55 56.88
63- 37.59 40.00 41.16 44.23 45.75 -47.43 49.96 52.18 53.64 54.77 56.49 57.84
64 38.35 40.80 41.97 45.06 46.60 48.30 50.85 53.10 54.57 55.70 57.44 58.80
65 · 3-9.12 4 1.59 42.78 45:90 47.45 49.16 51.74 54.01 55.49 56.63 58.39 59.7<5
66 · 3'9.89 42.39 43:58 46.74 48.30 50.0 3 52.64 54.92 56.42 57.57 59.34 60.72
67 40.66 43. 18 44.39 41.58 49.16 ·sn.90 53.53 55.i3 57.34 58.50 60.29 61.68
68 41.44 43.98 45.20 48.42 50.01 51 .77 54.42 56.75 58.27 59.44 61.24 62.64
69 42.Zl 44.78 46.02 49.26 50.87 52.65 55.32 57.66 59.20 60.37 62.19 63.60
70 42.99 45.58 46.83 50.10 51.73 53.52 56.21 58.57 60.12 61.31 63.14 64.56
71 43.77 46.39 47.64 50.95 52.59 54.39 57.11 59.49 61.05 62.25 64.09 65.52
Tetia-~Pablieationa__ ~,4at/Jonmspireizmumioa _A 5ACRIN5IL4IJ fmt~
=----
~ Mobile Convn. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC)
3-16
Cellular Capll_clty and improvement Techn~
......
20 30 40
NIB 0.01 e.os 0.1 o.s 1.e 2 s . 10 1S
65.04 66AS
58.01 60.41 6 1.98 63. 18
72 44.55 47. 19 48.46 51.79 53.45 55.27
5S.90 61.32 62.9 1 6-U2
65.99 67.44
73 45.33 48.00 49.28 52.6-1 54.31 56.14
62.24 63.84 65.06 66.94 6SA0
74 46.11 48.81 50.10 53.49 55. 17 57.02 59.S0
63. 16 6-1.76 66.00 67.89 69.31_
75 46.90 49.6 1 50.92 54.3-t 56.03 57.90 60.70 I
6-1.07 65.69 66.94 6S.85 70.33

76 47.68 50.42 51.74 55.19 56.89 58.78 61 .60
66.63 67.SS 69.S0 7 1.2~
n 48..t7 51.23 52.56 56.04 57.76 59.65 62.50 64.99
67.56 68.82 70.75 72.25_
78 49.26 52.05 53.38 56.89 58.62 60.53 63.40 65.91
68.49 69.76 7 1.70 73.22
79 50.05 52.86 54.21 57.74 59.49 6 1.41 64.30 66.83
69.42 70.70 71.66 7-U S
80 50.84 53.68 55.03 58.60 60.36 62.30 65.2 1 67.75
7 1.6-1 73.6 1 75. 14
81 51.63 54.49 55.86 59.45 61.22 63. IS 66.11 68.67 70.35
72.58 74.57 76.11
82 51.43 55.31 56.69 60.30 62.09 64.06 67.0 1 69.59 71.28
75.52 77.07
83 53.22 56.13 57.5'2 6 1. 16 62.96 64.94 67.92 70.5:2 72.::!2 73.52
76.47 78.04
84 54.02 56.95 58.35 62.02 6.ll\3 65.83 68.82 7 1.44 73.15 74.46
85 54.81 57.77 59.IS 62.SS 6.UO 66.71 69.73 72.Jh 74.0S 75...l0 77.43 79.00 I
86 55.61 58.59 60.01 63.73 65.57 67.60 70.63 73.28 75.02 76.35 78.38 79.97
I
87 56.41 59.4 1 60.84 64.59 66.45 68.48 71.54 7-U I 75.95 77.29 79.34 80.93
88 57.21 60.23 61.67 65.45 67.32 69.37 72.45 75. 13 76.89 78.23 8030 8 1.90
89 58.02 61 .06 62.5 1 66.32 68.19 70.26 73.35 76.06 77.82 79. 18 8 1.25 82.86
-
90 58.82 61.88 63.34 67.18 69.07 71.15 7-U6 76.98 78.76 80. 12 82.21 83.83
9 1 59.62 62.7 1 64.1S 68.04 69.94 72.04 75. 17 77.91 79.69 8 1.06 83. 16 84.79
92 60.43 63.54 65.02 68.90 70.82 72.92 76.08 78.83 80.63 S2.0 1 84.12 85.76
93 6 1.23 64.36 65.86 69.77 71.70 73.81 76.99 79.76 8 1.57 82.95 85.08 86.73
94 62.04 65. 19 66.70 70.63 72.57 74.71 77.90 80.69 82.50 83.90 86.03 87.69
95 62.85 66.02 67.54 71 .50 73.45 75.60 78.8 1 8 1.61 S3.44 84.84 86.99 88.66
96 63.66 66.85 68.38 72.36 74.33 76.49 79.72 82.54 84.38 85.79 87.95 89.62
97 64.47 67.69 69.22 73.23 75.2 1 77.38 80.63 83.47 85.32 86.74 88.9 1 90.59
98 65.28 68.52 70.06 74.10 76.09 78.27 81.54 84.39 86.26 87.68 89.87 9 1.56
99 66.09 69.35 70.90 74.97 76.97 79.17 82.46 85.32 87.20 88.63 90.82 92.53
100 66.91 70.19 7 1.75 75.84 77.85 80.06 83.37 86.25 88. 13 89.58 91.78 93.49
N is the .number af servers. The numerical beadings indicate blocking probability B in %. Table generated by Dan
Dexter.
:> 3.4 Improving the Coverage and Capacity In Cellular Systems and Related Design
Problems
UO. 3.4.1 Write short note on : lmproi.4ng ooverage and capacity in cellular system. MU - a. 7(d). Dec. 11. s Marks
lJQ. 3.4.2 What are the different methods to improve the capacity of cellular systems. .Explain it.

[§] Mobile Comm. S stem (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 3-17 Cellular Capacl and Improvement Technl ues
MU - a. 2 a . Dec. 12, 10 Marks
MU - a. 3(b), Dec. 13, 10 Marks
_ ·Jn order to increase the coverage area in a cellular system, it is important to allocate more number of radio channels to a
.cell so .as to meet the mobile traffic.
More number of channels indicates that the coverage distance will be large leading to higher coverage capacity.
In order to enhance the cellular coverage capacity many methods used in practise are
(i) ·Cell splitting (ii) Cell sectoring
(iii) Repeaters for extending range (iv) Microcell zone conc~pt.
B. 3.4.1 Cell Splitting
Cell splitting is a method of subdividing the congested cell into smaller sized cells, each within its own base station
following a decrease in the transmitter power and the height of the antenna.
The parent cell that was originally congested is called as ''macrocells', and the smaller cells are called ''microcells".
The main· advantage of cell splitting is that it increases the cellular capacity of the system where the frequency reuse
technique can be efficiently implemented.
Ex. : assume that a congested cell is divided into smaller cells as shown in Fig. 3.4.1. Each microcell bas a base station
antenna. The-radius of the microcell is half the radius of the macrocell.
To cover the entire service area with the new microceUs,

four times as many cells are required.
The increased number of cells will increase the number of

clusters over the coverage area and will increase the
number ofchannels per unit area.
11iis indicates that the capacity of the system is increased.

Cell splitting improves capacity by replacing large cells
with smaller cells, while disturbing the channel allocation
method to maintain the minimum ~a-channel reuse ratio.
Fig. 3.4.1 : Cell splitting (Macro and Microcells)
For the new cells to be smaller in size, the transmitted power must be decreased.
Assuming P, as the received power at the old cell boundary and P1N as the received power at new cell boundary.
0
-.n
P_,0 oc P.LI R }
P,N oc Pa @Sn .. . (3.4.1)
where, P11 : Transmit power of macrocell.

u--4 SACH/JVSH,lll J'mture
Ttdi-Neo Publications- Where Authon inspire innor•tion

' '·~ • 1 h"1lt.Jr1il t u:rl " ' ,nii ,.~ u.
fl • l',.th )n-., C"\ f'vtl'hl .
H n , 4 "~, u "<' a"'"'ln<': thnt the rt- \IN JYrv.cr, ;'(fC t..imc. then
!:u
Jt,
Thi" io..Hutc, th.:11 lhc tr:mwiit power ,nuu be rc-doc.ed by 12 dll inorucr to fill In lhc °' f uu.J Ct>'ICH~
1
miO'N' 11 for nuinL1foing the f rcquircmenL
l n cell , rl ittini I rt'ICe." the large macroccll\ arc dcdic.,tcd to hi gh 5pced rrnffic. The rc.:i._'>on I, the nu mber of 7t..1nJ
u. rn he le\, in larger cell :md the call pro~~ Cln be smoothly carried in larger cells.
Aho the c h..r.nnch in the old cells need to be dhi dcd into two groups bec!lll5C of fo llowing poin ts :
(i) If :s ~ c U"an_Smit power is used for lhe cells that arc .:ivailnblc then some of Lhc channels u._\G£) by ,m.a.t.Icr ~
m:sy not be completely M:pJJ11led by the co-ch3Ilnel cells. It may lead to intcrfcrcncc.
(ii ) If ~m:.illcr tr.sn~mit power is u-.ed for the avai lable cells then there is probability o f "unserved .. problcrn. n.i;
'°me pans of the larger cells would be left out "unserved'". It is also not ncccptablc. t
Hence. the clunncl · of mocroccJl ha"c to be divided inlO macrocclls and microcclls. The mncrocells un: dcdJc~I
high peed tr.lffic :md microcclls arc dedicated to low speed traffic rcgions.
.,
3.4.1 (A) Antenna Downtlltlng
Antcnn!l downtilting i. perfomted to enhance the c.ncrgy that is rJdiutcd from the Buse Stution ( BS) IOWi.Uds
ground and not tow:ird the horiz.on in order lh:11 the radio covc:rnge of t11e new microcclls shall he com:c tly limited.
a 3.4.2 Cell Sectoring
UO. 3A .6 How does sectoring Improve S/1 ln ceUular system ?
UO. 3A.7 Explain how doos 60° and 120° sectoring improves slgnaJ to interference ratio . .....,._.-.,;,.
Scanned wit h CamScanner
[iJ Mobile
-.
Corm\. setem (MlJ-,Sem.7•E.&TC) 3-19 Cellular Capacity and tn-gowment T ~
nu.1s.. the method of dccrea._,ing the cochanncl interfen:ncc
,,.iuc and e.nhancing the i:ys;tcm performanc.c by using the
~ antcnnu is a.I lod as -Cd) Sectorinc".
n,e niduction in the co-clwmcl inter!erencc is dependent

00 tbe amount of soe10ring wed.
A cell is gc-ncraJly divided into 120° soc1ors or (IJ4
$Cd0n- If the MX:toring is 120° then the hcugon cell

coo5i~ of lhn::c M:IClOn as ~wn in Fig. ).4 .2. fl&, 3..4.l: 120° Sedorin&
If the MX:toring is roo then lhc hcxni;on:iJ type cell

of ~1 !ott'tors :a~ iJ)()"'•n :is i.hown in Fig. 3.-l.3.
(X)(l~M)
If cell i.cctoring i) employed lhCl'I the c:luanncl ~ In 11

crll "'''II tic di,·itkd into i;roups i.e. ~1nrcJ puups u
they :are ~ onl )' \I, ilhin .s )«10(,
Fig.. 3A.4 !Jlo\l,~ .s 7-a:JI ~ (Ullc.m \l,'il.b 110•

IIC.'Ctoring. lllC pos.~ble numhcr of lntafrrrn. in tile '1n.t
tier \I, ill tic l\1,-0,
Thu indic"11C) tJut only N-o C'clls of the ~il co lu.nncl
cclIs 1;c1 intctfacd from .s J)3Jliru I:ir ~ , C\rcd Ct" II . n,. JAJ : 60 • Sc-dorinc
Comida Fig. 3.•U the intaf~ e1pcricn~ h)•
mobile I .\led in the right mo).( ~°'
in the ~ntcr
ccJI l.ibc:Jlcd -A-.
1 ~ .sre t.hrtt co-clunnd !,0Cl()('S b~lcd - A - to

the right of the center ~II and three 10 the kft of
cent.er ct,II.
OJ1 of lhesc i.1: co-clunnct channeu, only two C'clls

hJ\'e i.ecton ,;i,i th mtcnru p.lttam t1ut r:idi:ue into
the centre cell. 11,e l"OUIUo,:
s
1 ls lmproH-d.
Fig. J..U : Co-duwnd lnttrf~nn~ ttductlon u.slng 12()0 sectoring
lbc f impro\'ement allo\l,•s the ccJlulllt provider 10 decn:asc the cluster siz.e N in order to improve the frequency reuse
and thus. Lhc system Cll.pacily.
J.n «J" sectoring the number of interferers is reduced from 6 to I.
The penalty for improvement in ~ and capoci1y by decreasing the cluster siz.e N is an increased number of antennas at
cxh bue station. II reduces the trunking efficiency because of clunnel sectoring at the base station.
Sectoring dc:cl"C4..~ the coverage area of .i specific group of channels. Th.is increases the number of hand-offs.
If the total number of channels in a cell is subdivided and nUotted to different sectored areas then the trunking
efficiency dccrea.~.
- ' S.40IJNSllU/ , ~

I Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 3-20
Cellular Capacity and mprovement Technb I
& 3.4.2(A) Difference between Cell Spllttlng end Cell Sectoring
I ,· ..-:. · · Cell splitting ·

...
' > • • ..
I.
. ·'
Cell splitting is a method of subdividing lhe congested cell into Cell sectoring is a method of decreasing ~
smaller cells, each with its own base station and a correction cochnnnel interference and enhancing the sys!(i
--
reduction in the antenna height and transmiller power. performance by using directional antennas.
---..
2. The radius of the cell is decreased nnd the cochannel reuse ratio The radius of the cell is kept constant and 1
D 1s
R · k·ept constant to improve
. the capac1·iy. · R
cochannel reuse ratto D 1.s dccrcased to ·•mpro
the capacity.
~
3. The cell is divided into smalJer cells (microcells). The cells are divided into 120° and 60° sectors.
4. In cell splitting the transmit power must be reduced lo maintain Cell sectoring improves the s ratio usi
s .
th e ratto.
I
1 directional antennas.
5. In cell splitting large macrocells are dedicated to high speed Cell sectoring decreases the coverage area of
traffic. The reason is number of hand-offs will be less and caJI group of channels and increases the number 1
progress can be smoothly done. hand-offs.
a 3.4.3 Repeaters
The users of wireless networks require dedicated coverage for coverJge in areas like mountains, valleys, buildings el
To provide such range capabilities radio retransmitters called as "repeaters" are used.
Repeaters are bidirectional. They simultaneously transmit and receive signals from the serving base station.
They operate using-over-the-air signals so that they can be installed anywhere.
Repeaters are capable of repe.1ting an entire cellular band.
When the signals from base i;tation are received, the repeater amplifies and reradiates the base station signals to th
particular coverage region.
The noise that is received and interference are reradiated by the repe.ater on the forward and the reverse link. S
repeaters must be carefully insttdled to adjust the forward and reverse link amplifier levels and antenna patterns.
Dir,ectional antennas are conne:ted to the inputs or outputs of repeaters for localized spot coverage in tunnels 1
buildings.
1f the coverage of a cell that is in use is modified then the user can allocate some base stations traffic to areas covere
by the repeater.
The repeater does not add capacity to the system. They are used to provide coverage into and around buildings whcl
the coverage is weak. Repeaters with DAS (Distributed Antenna Systems) network are installed within the buildings I
provide coverage into targeted areas.
Knowledge of correct location for repeaters and distributed antenna systems within the building needs plannin
because into the building the im'erference levels are reradiated into the building from the base station and from ~
interior of the building to the base station.
Tedt-Neo PubIiea lions _ _ WI,~ Authors itrspire ll1110l'3tioa

·-..A SACl/f!t'SI/AH feJ7{11
-
-~ 3.4.4 Mlcrocell Zone Concept
3-21 Cellular Capacity and Improvement Techniques
uo. ,A.8 Mlcrocell zone
We know that cell sectoring decreases the coverage area of group of channels thereby increasing the number of band-
offs. This is one of the problems associated with cell sectoring. It results in increased load on the switching and control
link elements of the mobile system. ·
To minimise this problem Mlcrocell zone concept was presented by I...cc. Fig. 3.4.5. shows the microccll zone concept
As shown in Fig. 3.4.5 there arc three zones with T/Rx set up. All arc connected to a single base station and share ~e
same radio equipment
For establishing the connection between these zones and base station microwave link or coaxial cable or fibcroptic
cable is used. Such nn urrnngement of multiple zones and a single base stntion constitute a cell.
Mlcrowavo or
fiber opllo link
Base
Station
1•--Txl f\ Trano3vler
, ~----r-Mobile user
Fig. 3.45 : Mlcrocell zone concept
When a mobile user lrJvcls i.e. roams from one zone lo the other zone 2 then zone 1 will have ~;trongest signal with
respect 10 the base station. However, the cell retains the same channel.
When the mobile Lravcls between zone I within the cell, a hand-off is not required.
Microcell zone concept is useful along highways or urban traffic corridors.
The antennas are placed at the edges of each zone such that when the user moves from one zone to the other zont~ the
signal strength does not reduce.
Advantages
(i) Improved signal quality is possible.

(ii) Reduced number of hand-offs when a call is in progress.
Ttdi-N«:e Puhliation.s-- ficrc Authors inspire iD.no,-.tioa -A SACHINS/lAIJ lmtare

~ Mobile Comm. System (MU-Som.l-E&TC) a-22 Collutor Copnclty ond lm£'<WomontTochn"""'
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(iii) When lhc: mobile: user tmvels from one wne to n11otl1er zono within the imme cell the 11ume chunnd 111 mulnUtlncd fo.
cnll progress.
(iv) As low power tnmsmitters are used in euch zone npnrt from control buse stntlon the effect of inlcrfcrcncc l11 rcduee<J.
(v) As the cell maintains n specific coverngc radius, the co-channel interference in the cellulor system i~ m.lucc<l.
<>- Appllcatlons
(i) Highwnys (ii) Urban traffic corridors.
~ 3.5 Design Problems
Ex. 3:S.t
I
(a) Show that if n = 4, a cell can be spljt into four smaller cells, each with half the mdius and 16 of the transmitter power
of the original' cell.
(b) If the path_ loss exponent is three, how should the transmitter power be changed in order to split a cell into four
smaller cells ?
lt'.J Soln.:
(a) We know that,
Now if n = 4 and the set received powers arc equal or each other then,
p
(R)
-4
- 4 .:.!l
P,2 2 = P11 R P,2 = 16
It indicates that the transmitter power of the new base stations must be reduced by 12 dB to fill the- area with
microcells, while maintaining ( ~)
(b) Ifn=3
.-. Pa =
~
8
Th·e transmitter power of the new base stations must be reduced by 9 dB to split the cells into four smaller cells.
Ex. j,5.2;
In Ex 3.5. I if the new radius is f, then what will be power reduction for n =3?
01.;o1n.:
If the-received powers are equal then,
P, 1 (Rf" Ifn = 3
-- pti (R)-3
The transmitter power of new base stations needs to be reduced by 14.3 1 dB.
Tcch-Neo Publications•.- ..- Where Authors inspire i11non1tion -...A SAC/lli't'SHAH Yr.otmt
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ex,3.5,3
A total of 24 MHz of bandwidth is allocated lo a particular FDD cellular telephone system that uses two 30 KHz simplex
cballDels to provide full duplex voice and control channels. Assume each cell phone user generates 0.1 Erlang& of traffic.
AssUJDC Erlang B is used.
(a) Find the number of channels in each cell for a 4-cell reuse system.
(b) Find the maximum number of users per cell that can be supported at 2 percent blocking.
Given! Total spectrum= 24 MHz

Channel bandwidth-=-2 X-30-KHz::.60 KHz
Au = 0.1 Erlangs
Erlang B-is. used-
GOS- = 0.02
(a) Nwnber of channels in-each cell for a 4 cell reuse system.
6
. Allocated spectrum 24 x 10
Total number of channels per cell C = Channel bandwidth x Frequency reuse factor = 60 x lif x 4
Total-number of channels per cell C = 100
(b) Maximum number of users per·cell at2 % blocking.

GOS·= 0.02 and C = 100, from the Erlang B chart the total traffic carried A= 88 Erlangs.
Number of users _per ceUu = .A.

Au u -- !!
0.1
U = 880'users
Ex. 3.5.4
Fmd·the number of users per cell for the data given in Ex. 3.5.Z at 2 % blocking if
(a) 120° sectoring.is used.
(b) 60° sectoring is used: Also compare the trunking efficiencies with the omnidirectional case.
@Sain. ~
(-a) For 120° sectoring
C 100
The number of channels _per sector =3 =3 =33
GOS = 0.02, C = 33 from Erlang B table.
A= 24.626 Erlangs
:. Maximum number of users = U= Au

A 24.62
=(}.l
Maximum number of users· = 246

Number of users per cell· = Maximum number of users x 3
= 246 X J= 738
Tedi-Nee Pultlitatiom_ &reAuthors inspire iruttwalioa .....A SAOllNSll,U/ Yt:fdJzrr

[iJ Mobile Comm. S tom MU-Som.7-E&TC 3·2◄ ect"
ovomont T
(b) For 60° sectoring

C JOO
The number of channels per sector= 6 = 6 • 17
GOS = 2 %, C = 17
From Erlang B table
A = 10.656 Erlangs
A 10.7
Maximum number of users = U = Au =QI= I 07 users/sector.
Number of users per cell = 107 x 6 =642

(c) Compare the trunking efficiencies.
In case of I 20° sectoring the decrease in trunking efficiency will be
88 38
[( ~;; )] X JOO = 16 %
In case of 60° sectoring the decrease in trunking efficiency will be
[ 880-642]
8S0 X 100 = 27 %
Sectoring decreases the trunking efficiency while improving the f ratio for each user in the system.
Ex. 3.5.5
For a seven cell reuse system with I percent blocldng probability and average call length of two minutes, find the traf
capacity loss due to trunldng for 57 channels when going from omnidirectional antennas to 60° antennas. (Assume 1
blocked calls are cleared and the average request rate is 1 call/hour).
@ Soln. :
Given: N = 7, C = 57
P (blocking) = 1 % H = 2min
I
A = I call / hour = call/s
60
l
Au = A H = 60 x 2 = 0.033 Erlangs
(a) Omnidirectional case
GOS = 1 %, C = 57
From Erlangs B Ulble, A = 44.2
:. Maximum number of users U = :u = 0~ :} 3 = 1339
(b) For 60° sectoring
GOS = 1% C = 657 =9.5

From the Erlang n table
A = 4.12
Tech-Neo Publications.__ ,n,er,: Aut/Jon m.plrr: lnno,,.tlon -A SACHINSRAH Ye1111
. I. L.:..
-
- .
:. Maximum number of users U
A
= Au 4.12
=M33
3-25 Cellular Cspacity and Improvement Techniques
U = 124.8 users/sector
:. Tow number of users = 124.8 x 6 =749

(c) To fmd decrease in trunking efficiency
docfCaSC in trunking efficiency for 6()0 sectoring _ 0 339 - 749) 7<. 100 _ 44 %
1339 -
Ex. 3.5.6
A cit)' tus an area of l600 square miles and is covered by a cellular system using a seven cell reuse pattern. Each cell has a
D(iius of 4 miles and the city is allocated 40 MHz of ~r,cctrum with a full duplex channel bandwidth of 60 MHz. Assume a
GOS of 2 percent for an Erfong B system is specified. If the offered tnffic per user is 0.03 Erlangs,
compute:
(l) Number of cells in the sc.n·ice ru-ca
(b) The number of channel per cell
(c) Traffic inten ity of each cdl.
(d) The mllimum c3llied traffic
(e) The toud number of users th:it can be served for 2 percent GOS
(f) nic number of mobiles per unique: clunncl
(g) The theoretical mllXimum number of u~rs thJt c;in he ~rvcd nl one time by the system.
@ Soln.:
Ginn: Toul CO\'crage :lrC3 = 1600 squ:irc: miles
Cell radius R = 4 miles
l
Arc3 of hexagon = 2.5981 R
1
Cell JrC3 =(2..598 1) x (4 ) =41 .57 square mile
N=7
(1) 11lC total number of cells arc
Ne = 41600
1.57 =38.5 Ne = 39
(b) 11lC total number of channels per cell C

6
Allocated spc.:ctrum 40 x 10
1
= Channel bandwidth x Frequency reuse factor 60 x 10 x 7
= 95 channels/cell
(c) Traffic intensity of each cell.
GOS= 0.02. C = 95. From Erlang B table, A = 83 Erlangs/cell
(d) Maximum carried traffic= Number of cells x Traffic intensity per cell
= 39 X 83
= 3237 Erlangs
(e) Traffic per user= 0.03 Erlangs

A 3237
:. Total number of users = U = Au =o.03= 107900 users
--4 S.4CHIN SH4H J'm~
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~J 'Ar Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC)
107900
3-26
Cellular eapacity and Improvement Tectm~
.......
Number of users----:- = 666
(I) Number of mobiles per channels - Number of chanllels
-162 mobUes'cbanDel .
- f
ailable channels in the system (all channc4
b.l is the number o av
(g) The theoretical maximum number of served mo t es
occupied)
C X Ne = 95 X 39 = 3705 users
Ex. 3.5.7 S dB . the ·t F·

that tolcr.w: a - of 15 Ul wars case.. ind the
A cellular service provider decides to use a digit.nl TOMA scheme C3ll r
optimal value of cluster size for
(a) Omnidirectional :!ntennas
(c) 60" sectoring. (Assume n = 4).
@ Soln. :
Gh-m : (f) = 15 dB= nnt.ilog ( 1.5) = 31.62. n = ·1

CII.II
(a) For omnidirectional antennas io = 6
s {..ffe}• 31.62 =
(ffe)'_mi
6 - 6
I = io
Nl = 21.08 N = ,1.59
We select N = 7
(b) For I20 sectoring io = 2
{..ffef
:. (t) = 2
31.62 =
.. Nl = 7.0266 N = 2.65
Select N = 3
(c} For 60° sectoring io = I
(FN)" (..ffe)'
:. (¥) =
'o
= I
31.62 = 9 N
2
.. Nl
= 3.513 :. N = 1.87
We select N =3 the next higher val ue of N.
Ex. 3.5.8
How many users can be supported for 0.5 % blocking probability for following number of trunked channels in a blocked
calls cleared system ?
{a) I (b) 5 (c) IO (d) 20 (e) 100
A.~ume each user generates 0. 1 Erlangs of traffic.
From Erlang B table we can find the total capacity in Erlangs for the 0.5 % GOS for different number of channels.
0 Sofn. :
(a) C = I. Au= 0. 1. GOS= 0.005
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.....-
Mobile .Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 3-27 Cellular Capacity and Improvement Techniques
From F.rlang B table, A = 0.005
:. Total number or users = U .A_ 8.005 oOS

= Au = 8.1 = . users
(b} C =5, i\i = 0.1. GOS= 0.005
From Erlnng B tnblc, A = 1.13
:. Total numbu or users = A 1•13 11

u =Au= 0.1 = users
(c} C = to, Au= 0. I. GOS= 0.005
From Erlang B tnblc

A= 3.96
:. TolAI number or U.4'US = U = ;u =

3
0~ • 39 users
(d) C = 20, Au= 0.1, GOS= 0.005
From Erlang D tnblc

A = 11.10
A I I.I
:. Total number or users = U = Au =ai= Ill users
(e) C= 100,Au =0.l,GOS=0.005
From Erlang B l!lblc

A = 80.9
A 80.9
:. Total number or users = U =Au = 0.1 = 809 users
UEx, 3.5,9 • r 1
A hexagonal cell ~ithin .a four-cell sysicm 1w a nidius.of 1.387 Km. A IOtnl of 60 channels nrc used within the cotirc'sys&cm. J.!thc load'
per user is 0.029 &tangs and ). = I call/bour. compute the follo\\ing for an Erung C system th:11 has a probability of 5% of a delayed call:
(a) How many usen. per sqlW'C kilometer wiU tlili; systtm support '!
(b) What is the probabiUty that a delayed call will have to w:ut for more thnn 10s7
(c) What is the probability that II call wiJJ bo delayed for more lhAn IO seconds?
0 Soln. : Given : R = 1.387 Km

2
Arca covered per cell = 2.598 x ( 1.387) = 5 sq. Km.
N = 4
Total number of clr.mnc-ls = 60
:. Number of channels per cell = 460 =15 channels
(a) From the Erlang C chan for 5 % probability of delay with C= 15,
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. ' A
11 • ,_ • 11 nn ti,..n. 111t .c v <u11.Jl
r rw.il lh•ll&l1 NJ) • nril H' - .A ) t/HJ
• op( - (l:, - ?()) 1 0/l() l ◄ ) • O M?

• ~.1, ~
(<) l'JflhAht111y Iha! • call h &:lt),cJ rnt11c lllJ.11 10 '-ttonJi
I' (c:&11 delayed) • 5 'X • O O~
I' (Wo,1 > IO) • J• (crul dclll)·c:dJ I' (\io.tJI > t/c:ill dclJ)cd)
• 0 ()~ ,. O.Sf,29 • 0 Olli I • 2.8 1 '
U&.3.5.10 MU• 0 . 3 n . Doc. 15. 10 Mnr111
An urti~ ~• J10PUl:ulon Is or 2 million n:., ldcna. TI1r« competing 1runlcd rrK>bilc: ncrworu c,~tcm X. Y 111141 Z) P"oYidc
cellular IICl\'icc ln tJ1is o.rt:a. Syr.tcm X ha.\ 3')4 cclh and 19 channel\ each. )y,~m Y ha.s ?8 cclh '4 ith ~ dunnch c.acb aw.t
,y'1c.m C 1w 49 cells wilt1 100 c~nc_u CjCJ\_ Find the number of U\Crs th:11 C:l.ll be ~upponcd :a 2 % hloclJng 1( t:acb ~
n tn&es 2 al"/hour :it nn avenge durmion of tJmx minute1. A'isuming rhnt nil thm: trunked , y,tcrrn arc ~ •
muimum C~J:n'ily, c:ompurc rhe percentage mukct pcncunrion of ~h cellular provider.
@ Soln.:
Cl) Sy~tcm X:
Prob:ibtlity of hlocling • 2 % .. 0.02
Number of dumnel per cell u..a! in rhc ~,•1-1em C c: 19 traffic intcn,ity per u-.cr
Au c: ).I f = 2 (c!,) Au = 0.1 Erl"1lg5
GOS ::z 002

From &lnng n chl.fl for, C = 19,
A = 12 Erlang~
:. Number of U!>ers th:11 can !'IC ~upponcd rc1 cell =

12
u = 01 =120
A~ U)C:fe l1fC 39.s cell~. the lotllJ numl'Cr or suwnl'>et5 tJ1.:ic1can I'<: wp rt:J by') ~Lem X • I :w J~ • .f71!)0 uwn

[§) ~ Comm, S m MU-Sem,7-E&TC 3-29 CellularC
Of) SyJtOD y:
p1&.sbillty of blocking =2 % =0.02

,Nu1Jlbef of channels per cell used in the sy1>1etn, c = 57
rraffJC intensity per mer
3
Au = 1.H = 2 x
60 = 0.1 Erlangs
For GOS = 0.02, C = 57
from Erlang B chart
A = 45 Erlangs
:. Number of users that can be supported per cell = U = ~ = i.~ 450

=
A5 there are 98 cells, the total number of subscribers that can be supported by the system Y =450 x 98 =44100
(lil) Systmi Z :
Prol,abiJity of blocking= 2 % = 0.02

Number of channels per cell C = I00
Traffle intensity per user
3
Au = }..H = 2 X 60 = 0.1 Erlal)gs
For GOS = 0.02, C = I 00
From Erlang B chart
A = 88
A 88
:, Number of users that can be supported per cell = U = Au= o.T = 880
A5 there are 49 cells, the total number of subscribers that can be supported by system Z = 880 x 49 = 43120 users.
(I,) Total number of subscribers that can be supported by three system
= 47280+44100+43120 = 134500users
(Y) AA there are two miJUon residents and the total number of cellular subscribers in system X -= 47280
The market penetration = 2 :x 100=2.36%
44100
Manet penetration for system Y = 200000() X ] 00 = 2.205 %
~=x
43120
Market penetration for system Z = 2000()()() X 100 = 2.156 %
Marxet penetration for 3 systems = 100= 6.725%
1 ~ P ~_ _ fiaeAatm ~ omumiw -4 SACHINSIIAII J'ea11m:

I
f
G.t..,.. 1
~~ c11armd hand• 1dt.h (k' • fU MH,1• ~ Mlfz

f ~ il l,Juf)lcl dlllflud • • );J t r ? • tlJ K If l
~ x 10' x 1
Nuw!)Cfol ·~...
.._
,Jc,. ~ h ltw c.iC.b dJ •
UJ 10
• 667
(i) J a:nd llo<" nur11hr:r ofr..imull.Jlo«) ta nu:nunk.:iucxn th.al b.11 he Wrf'1'1cJ hy 1 , in,:lc <'CU In c.a..h i picin-
Numhct of i.in1ull.it1C'UU) Numl"ld t,( Jurin du.MC h fot c.a. h ,·c II
Mtrunun cat1LVhi.uppi-'1111'\d hy ..intk cell • ~
l, Y N•◄
l1ir nunil\c';r of
r.1mull:lll<"<)l1~ ill~
• 1tt1mild' of Juplc I c-h~h dvplJC.u1vn ( .a. t ( ,t
nomhrr of iJmult ~ cn rn.mun, IDon 667

= - . - 167
MJl'fl<'""" h 1>.1 n£-lc rll
1
..
nunlhn- of s.imult~ C-0:Ml'.!IDnD!XU 667

~u~ 'l!1rJ h , ~ IC' ~n • 1' .. 15
(ii) FtnJ the, numhc:r of i.imult~n."'1\b :JI th.11 ~ ll(' .urp..Y\t'J l-) , ..,..b ~>~.xm if Lu.1UT of cell~ (~. 19) i., ih.:fi{:..~ I
llmcL
Tic numhc<.r of
wnuhahro ui. all, = numhc-t of Jupki A!'.!'IC'h J ~..moo tJt<.
{ilil To fm.J ll.c 411\"i COuc-Jtd ui u, t,)' c-.acli ~~ wt".ru

l'".ur N =-'

~ ~ Comm Sy.Jorn (MU-Sorn.7-EATC) 3-31 CeQul.:lr 9:P::!:X and ~ , e n t T ~
- n~ .,J bot!IS ~
;,..,a 10 find th: 1ot:IJ numba of u'°' lh:u om be ppon.cd b)· ad:i system if 3yc r~ u_c,,cr ~ 6 ~ per -
(i\')
n,c::sn o.11 dur.mon t\ o ~ -
0 cillJ 6
A. = 1-4 hou~ 6 minutes A,. = 24 X 60 X 60 X 6 X 6()
A. " 0.025 Erlan

667
T ('IU} number of user\ = 0 025 = _68SQ Iller$,
(' ) Fin.! I.be :i, 'er.l~C n:vcouc per u1c:r ( ARP U) ,f bilh.oi;: 1:i. ...i r.uc 50 p20:lln:uru:.c.
For cXli iby lhc ARPU = o..so · 60 x 1,; .. ~ no
~ 3.6 University Questions

-
.- [)eC.2010
a. 6(b) A h ngon. I cc-U -.·,1hin a lour-coll -)'-1 m h.! r.ufa.1!i ol 1-387 Km. A to:al o.f 60 cha.Meis are ~
'"j)C,tho l"Ol llil:,' IQm. II th lood ~ , u~r 1:l 0-0?.9 Ert'lng5, n.nd i. • 1 ~Whour, compute the foQcrn-, ng
ttN n Ert:ln9s C ~ ~ m thoI h .,!l , s•,. pro . • ty of • d •ayr.-d C:l
l•) How m. ny u~(.'r:. pc1 !:QU!lJ rw: -: "" ~ -.-,,-.tt.-m !.L'PP0(1?
fail Wh!'tt 15 tho pro • ' ty th. 1. '· •,,(j c.1 :t v. ~ h.'\ to v,. : !0< morn th.ln 10 sec?
( ) Wh:?l tS U-.Q prob l-!y th.!\! :1 c.,q :rt Ix; dt-l , fot mor ~ 10 ~ ? From Erlang C char1, 5%
prob. 'Ty ol ~:iy -. .~ C • 1S COCt ,. ·1 to tmlfc • ' "'/ • 9 8'.J.."'l,g:S
( 10 l.lar1ts)
• I.lay 2011
a. 3(b) HO"'' does SOC!OMg i:npH>Vc Sil in c.o!!u!.:u s,~:cm '! (Am : R<--!ar s.DC!,On 3 42) ( 10 Marks)
• Dec. 2011
a.. 7(d) Wm e shan no!o on : Improving co-:emga and c.:1p:ie1y tn ce!!u!aJ syS!em.
(Ans : Re!a1 sec1JO/ls 3 .:, 3 .:. 1, 3 4 2. 3 .: 3 and 3 .:. ..:) (5 Marks)
May 2012
a. 2(a) How docs &.octoring improvo Sil in cellular syslorn ? (Ans. : Ro/er seelJOn 3.6) (10 Marks)
0 . 6(b) Whot oro tho dtflc rent method!; to Irnprovo tho capacity ol cot!ular systems. Explain i1.
(Ans.: Refer sect.ions 3.4. 3.4. 1, 3.-L2, 3.4.3 and 3.4.J) (10 t.laru)
• Dec. 2012
O. 2(a) list and oxptoin vorious methods to Improve the cell capacity.
(Ans.: Ro/or soct,ons 3.4. 3.4. 1, 3.J.2, 3.4.3 and 3.4.J) c10 Mam)

,
..
/i l
~ Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 3-32 cellular Ca eel and Improvement Tochnl 11~
111
I
• Dec. 2013
Q. 3{a) Explain block called delayed and block call cleared system.
(Ans. : Refer section 3.3.3) (10 Marq}
a. 3(b) Discuss different methods used for improvement of cellular capacity with suitable diagram.
11 (Ans. : Refer sections 3.4, 3.4.1, 3.4.2, 3.4.3 and 3.4.4) (10 Marki)
.l 111
• May 2014
a. 2(a) Explain how does 60° and 120° sectoring improves signal to interference ratio.
(Ans. : Refer section 3.4.2) (10 Mark&)
11
• Dec. 2015
a. 3(a) An urban area has a population of two million residents. Three competing trunked mobile networks
(systems A, Band C) provide cellular service in this area. System A has 394 cells with 19 channels eact,,
System B has 98 cells with 57 channels each; and system C has 49 cells each with 100 channels. Find
the number of users that can be supported at 2% blocking if each user averages two calls per hour at an
average call duration of 3 minutes. Assuming that all three trunked systems are operating at maximum
capacity, compute the percentage market penetration of each cellular service provider.
Data: GOS =0.02; (Ans.: Refer UEx. 3.5.10) {10 Marks)
a. 6(2) Write a short note on : Cellular capacity and coverage improvement Techniques.
(Ans. : Refer sections 3.4, 3.4.1, 3.4.2, 3.4.3 and 3.4.4) (10 Marks)
11
• Dec. 2016
a. 2(b) With respect to trunking theory describe following terms:

(i) Busy Hour
(ii) Traffic Intensity A

I
I'
I
(iii) Average call arrival rate and Average call duration H.
(iv) Ertang-B System and Erlang-C System

.I .
(v) Trunking efficiency and Grade of Service (GOS)
(Ans. : Refer sections 3.3, 3.3. 1 and 3.3.2) (10 Marks)
Ttth-Neo Publicalions..- -~· W/,en: Aullron inspire innoration .-A SACJIINSHAii Yentm

-----
[§iJ ~ eorr,n. sx:tom tMU-Som.7•E&;;J
.....
.-Ji 0-C· 2017
0. i(B) t,AIC(O()OD rono ooocc,pe holpa In lmPfovlng capn,oity of a collular 1y11om. Ju1Uty.
(5 Mark•)
(AM, : R • soctioo 3,4.4)
(10 Marb)
Q. 6(c) Wrtto shot1 note on : Trun~ 11nd GOS (Ans. : Rofor 1oct,on:, 3.2 ond 3.3)
_. [)eC. 2018
Q. 1(•) W«h rosp,od to trunking thoory doo;cribo following tonns.

(Q Busy Hour M TraN10 lnlo~
{tul Avon,l)O cnll Rrttv11I roto H (Iv) Avornoo caQ dvrolion
(v) Trul'\~g onicloncy Md OoS
(5 Marke)
(.Ans. : nnl0< $«1/onJ 3.3, 3.3. 1 llnd 3 3 2}
Chaptrr £ruls...
□□□
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Mobile Radio Propagation :
Large Scale Fading
I 4.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................:.....................................4-,
LO. 4.1 .1
ua. 4.1.2
Which are commonly used wireless propagation models? How do they differ? ...................................4-
What is multipath signal Propagation ? ................................................4-

1
1
4.2 Free Space Propagation Model and Free Space Propagation Loss Equation ..............................................................4-
2
La. 4.2.1 With necessary equations explain free space propagation model in detail...........................................4.
2
UQ. 4.2.2 Why propagation path loss is one of the major paramelers of interest in analysis of radio wave
propagation for mobile communication ? Discuss free space propagation model and derive an
expression for the received power. Q. 2(b , Dec. 18, 10 Marks .. ......................................................4-2
;
· 4.2.1 Path•loss of NLOS and LOS Systems ..................................................................................................4.3
,. LQ.4.2.3 Define path loss. Derive the path loss equation for NLOS and LOS systems...............................- .....4.3
4.3 Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms .........................................................................................................................4.9

LO. 4.3.1 Explain the three basic propagation mechanisms which impact the propagation
of signal in a mobile environment. ........................................................................................................4-9
4.4 Reflection ......................................................................................................................................................................4-9
4.4.1 Reflection from Dielectrics ..................................................................................................................4-10
4.4.2 Brewster Angle ...................................................................................................................................4-12
4.4.3 Reflection from Perfect Conductors....................................................................................................4-13
4.5 Ray Ground Reflection Model ..................................................................................................................·-··-··--···-4·15
La. 4.5.1 Derive an expression for a ground reflection model assuming distance between
.transmitter and receiver antenna is very large compare to heights of the antennas.......................... .4·15
ua. 4.5.2 Explain the use of two ray model to explain mobile radio path loss and
antenna height effects? a. 4(a), Ma 18, 10 Marks ........................................................................4-15
4.5. 1 Advantage of Ray Ground Reflection Model ......................................................................................4-18
4.5.2 Disadvantage of Ray Ground Reflection Model.. ................................................................................4·18
4.6 Diffraction....................................................................................................................................................................4·21
4.6 .1 Fresnel Zones.................................................................................................................................... .4-21
LO. 4.6.1 What ls a Fresnel zone ? ....................................................................................................................4-21
4.6.2 Knife.edge Diffraction Model ..............................................................................................................4-22
LO. 4.6.2 With figure explain Knife-edge diffraction model in detail. Write the equation for diffraction gain.......4-22

ua. 4.6.3
.&.0.3 Mlllllf>lo Knilo o(l{Jn l >illlll(!oo J. ti
,4,7
soouoting ...... ····· ., ......... ... -·
A,8 •••• >♦ • I
LO{)·d lnlnnco ~>nth I.or.., '•'«lM

.. ..... ·-·.
.&.8.2 Loo•normnt Shndo~.fog ................. - .. .
······ ........... -··-···--···-·
....o Mnxirnum Dlotonco Covorogo Formula
......................................._.. ... ..
-4 . 10 Emplrlcol Formula tor Poth Loss. .. ....................................... ..
LO. 4.10.1 Doscnbo cmpiricol tormulo for pnlh loss In mobtlo notv.Qlks..................
Indoor Propagolion Models
4.11 ... ···················• . .................. ............................... _.,,..............
ua. 4.11 .1 Writo a shor, nolo on : Indoor propagation models.
1•lfft<)l•Mfiii1 1•1Mlfltl•J§W81•irlfflli••Stffl9 .................................,_......... . .t 7'
4.11.1 Partition Losses : Same Floor in a Building .......................................................... -............. 4 >
4.11 .2 Partition Losses: Between Floors in a Building................................................................. . ,;.y,

4.11 .3 Log-distance Path Loss Model .... ........................... ............................... ..................... ... ..... " ,;.
4.11.4 Ericsson Multiple Breakpoint Model....................................................................................... ··- 4, 1
4.11.5 Attenuation Factor Model .. .... ................ ............ .......... ............ ... ...... ......................... .......... ... • ~- #
4.12 Outdoor Propagation Models .......................................................................................................................... . ~ 4-11
4. 12. 1 Longley-Rice Model ................................................................................................................. . .. 4~2
4.12. l (A) Drawbacks of Longley-Rice Model ................... .'................................................................ ·· -· ,4-.43
4 .12.2 Duoon•s Model ................................................................................. .............................. ..... .
4.12.2(A) Advantages of Durkin's Model .......................................................................................... ··-·
4.12.2(8) Disadvantages of Dur1<in's Model .................................................................................... ·-
4.12.3 Okumura Model ................................................................................................................ ,.
LO. 4.12.1 Discuss the Okumura's prediction method with necessary equatioos. ... .. ............... -....
4.12.3(A) Advantages of Okumura ~.'.odel ............................................................................... ··- · - - -
4.12.3(8) Disadvantages of Okumura t..\odel .......................................................................... - ··· - ---
Hata Model ............................................................................................... .. .. .. . ~

4. 12.4
4.12.5 PCS Extension lo Hala Model .................................................................. _...... ..
4.12.6 Wideband PCS Microcell Model .............................................................................." ....- -•····- -·- _ -t-4~
4.12.7 Walflsch and Bertoni Model (V-181\) ........................................................... - - ...·..·-·- ..-· --···· .. --
4 · ,
4.13 Unlvorsily Quosllons ond Answers ................................................................................................- - -- ··~·
• Chaptor Ende .............................................................................. ·-······............. _ .___
- -- - - - -- - - - - - - - - : - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -.__ ,_,u&.-.'11.IJI •.-itt1rt

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[§;) Mobile.Comm. tom MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 4-1
Mobile Radio ·p ,
--
~ 4.1 Introduction
The perfonnnnce of wireless communication systems has some limitations because of the mobile radio channel. ~
transmission path between the transmitter and receiver can vary from simple Line of Sight (LOS) to one that is severely
obstructed by mountains, buildings and so many obstacles.
The performance of wired channels can be predicted. However the radio channels are very random. They cannot be
easily analyzed. Also ns the mobile equipment moves the signal level fades.
Hence, modeling a radio channel is

difficult part of mobile radio system
design.
\1 A radio channel is modeled based on
measurements done for a specific
~
j:... Scattered
radio wave
communication system or spectrum
allocation. (a) Renecllon (b) Diffraction (c) Scattering
The basic propagation methods is
I
mobile communication systems are Fig. 4.1.1 : Basic propagation mechanisms in mobile
'' communication systems
Reflection, Diffraction and Scattering.
Majority of the cellular radio systems operate in urban areas. There is no direct Line of Sight (LOS) between the
transmitter and the receiver. There is severe diffraction Loss because of the tall buildings in such areas.
As there is no direct Line of Sight (LOS), multiple reflections from different objects causes the radio waves to travel
along different paths of varying lengths resulting in fading as shown in Fig. 4.1.2.
The interaction between these waves causes

multipath propagation at a particular location.
As the distance between the transmitter and

receiver increases the strengths of the waves
decreases.
For modeling the radio channel, the propagation

models are based on predicting the average
I' received signal strength at a specific distance from
I the transmitter and the varying signal strength at a

specific location.
Distance (m) or lime (s)
Fig. 4.1.2 : Fading

The propagation models that predict the mean signal strength for a lransmitter-receiv~r (Tx - Rx) separation distance
are useful in computing the radio coverage of a transmitter. They are called ns large scale propagation models. They
characterire signal strength over large Tx - Rx separation distances.
The propagation models that predict the rapid fluctuations of the received signal strength over very short time
durations are called as small - scale propagation models or fading models.
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1,
\
Ir

[§iJ t.40bllo Comm. S tom MU-Som.7-l:&lC
._ the m,~ilo trn,'('I~ mTr ~mnll ,11,tn I I· i

,,s , 'llet,, t ,c Itl\tn11t11nr."" IN'dvnl ~lr.nal utrntth wlll ""''I ,~p,dly rt"' 11"! "
•5
n"ll-stalc
-
radln,t. 1111s Is IX'\:nu'C tho rr1•dvc,t ~Ignn11 , the ~u111111.1tlo11 of •lltfl.'lh fo1111 ctlffcrrr,t cl11t,1,.,o,
· ;.
-n..A
11
"'
l'('(-th"C'<l sign:il l">wtr will ,•nn1 t ti tree or four ordcn. o( m.1goltude (JO or ,10 dll) u the ,a thtr I•
• 1 lY trtnCI
t tr/ ;
rraclion or wa-.·dengtl1.
As the mobile lnlvels over long distances i.e.
4 w:i)' from the transmitter and rcc-eivcr, the
:wc.rnte rccci\'cd signal strength will dccrca_,;c,
It is p~dicted with the help of large scale
propagation models.
The average received power is found out by

a,'Cfllging the signal measurements. Generally
for cellular and PCS frequencies in I GHz _ 2
GHz band. the average power received is
measurement in the circle of I m - Io m. Fig. 4.1.3: MulUpath prop11g11llon
This chapter covers large scale propagation and a number of methods that arc used to predict the received power '"
mobile communication systems.
The chapter 6 covers small scale fading models and methods to measure and model multipath in 11"K>b1lc
communication systems.
The commonly used wireless propagation models arc :

(i) Free space propagation model (ii) Two ray ground rencction model
(iii) Knife edge diffraction model (iv) Log distance path loss model
(v) Log nonnal shadowing model (vi) Indoor and outdoor propagation models.
~ 4.2 Free Space Propagation Model and Free Space Propagation Loss Equation
LO. 4.2.1 With necessary equations explain free space propagation model In detail.
UQ. 4.2.2 Why propagation path loss is one of the major parameters of interest in analysis of radio wave propagation tor
mobile communication ? Discuss free space propagation model and derive an e><presslon for the reoeNed
power.
- The "Free space propagation modcl'' is used for the measurement of received signal strength when the tr.uumiuc-r
and receiver of the communication system have clear, line of sight between the tran mitter and ~~i,cr. It :1.150
confirms that there is no obstacle between the transmitter and receiver.
- The free space propagation is useful for microwave radio links and satellite communication.
- The free space propagation model predicts the received power decay level as u function of the Tx • R'< scp:1tU1ion
distance.
The Friss free space equation expresses the free space power received Pit (d) hy the re-cc.+,c-r 1111tcnru lh:ll is S('p,a.rnl~
from a radiating transmitter antenna that is separated from a r:1diating transmitter a111c1111a by II dbtJJll~ J, it i· ~in·n :1,
1
p (d) Pr GI GK'); ... (-&.2. 1)

it = (41t)2 d2 L
_ 4J.U1llt'.W fll fi-rrtun-

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~ Moblle Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC)
4.3
Mobile Radio Propagation : Large Scale ~
Where, PR (d) free spnce received power.
PT trnnsmittcd power.
\ GT
GR
L
d
tmnsmitter antenna gain.
receiver antenna gain.
distance between the transmitter antenna and receiver antenna in meters.
system loss factor (L ~ I)

A wavelength in meters.
lf A,, is the effective antenna aperture then gain.of antenna is given by,
41t A, ... (4.21)
G = ).·"
The effective aperture 1\ is related to physical size of antenna and wavelength A is given by equation.
, _ £ _ 2rrc ... (4.2.3)
,... - f - (Oc
Where, f carrier frequency in Hertz.

coc carrier frequency in rndians per second.
c speed of light in meters per second.
The values for PT and PR must be expressed in same units. GT and GR are dimensionless quantities. The system loss
factor L is ~ 1. The losses are because of transmission line attenuation, filter losses and antenna losses in the
communication system. L = 1 indicates no loss in the system.
According to the friss free space Equation (4.2.1) the received power reduces as the square of the distance of separation
between the transmitter and receiver i.e. the received power decays with distance at rate of 20 dB/decade.
An ideal antenna that radiates uniformly with unity gain in all directions is called an isotropic radiator. In wireless
systems it is used to reference antenna gains.
The Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) is
EIRP = PTGT ... (4.2.4)

It represents the product of two parameters power and gain of the transmitter. The gain of the antennas are given in
units of dBi (dB gain with respect to an isotropic antenna).
'Z9.. 4.2.1 Path-loss of NLOS and LOS Systems
LQ. ~.2.3" De~{le path loss. Deriv~ the path loss equation for NLOS and LOS systems>
The Path Loss (PL) represents the signal attenuation as a positive quantity. It is measured in dB. Path loss is defined as
the difference (in dB) between the effective transmitted power and the received power and may or may not include the
effect of antenna gains.
The free space propagation loss equation when antenna gains are included is given by, PL (dB) = tO tog :TR
...(4.2.5)
GTGR .Al
PL (dB) =- 10 log [ (41t)1 dz j
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r.;;1 Mobile comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC)
~ 4-4 Mobile Radio Propagation : Large Scale Fading
e free space propagation loss equation wh
... have uni·ty gain)
Th en antenna gains are not included is, (the antennas are assumed to
PL (dB) = 10 log~ [ 'A.2 ]

P-R PL(dB) =- l0 log 2 2 .. . (4.2.6)
. (4n) d
nee the fnss free space propagation mod 1 •
... }{e ' . th dist.an "d" . . e is a better method to determine the value of received power PR (d)
l)Sidermg e ce into account The val .
co ues of d are m the far field of the transmitting antenna.
The ear-field region or the Frauohofer re io f . .
- d that is related to th g n °
a transmitting antenna is defined as the region beyond the far-field
disl3flCC r . e parameters largest linear dimension of the transmitter antenna aperture and the carrier
wavelength. The fraunhofer distance is,
2D2
dr = T ... (4.2.7)
where D : largest linear dimension of the antenna elem t
en.
der to remain in the far field region d d • .
_ In or • r nee s to sattsfy two conditions. They are
(i) dr > > D (ii) dr << ,_
... (4.2.8)
_ If d = 0 then Equation (4 -2 -1) will not hold. Hence, large scale propagation models use a close-in distance do- It is called
as received power reference point.
_ Then the received power PR (d) at any distanced> do can be related to PR at do- The reference distance must be selected
such that it lies in the far field region i.e. d0 > dr and d0 is selected to be smaller than any practical distance used in the
mobile communication system. Using friis free space equation, the power received at a distance greater than do is given
by,
... (4.2.9)
_ To express the received power levels units used are dBm or dBW as the dynamic range is large. Equation (4.2.9) can be
expressed in units of dBm or dBW by taking the logarithm of both sides and multiplying by 10.
PR (d) = dBm = 10 log[:.~~] ~ ~ dr

+ 20 log(~) d d0 ... (4.2. l0)
PR (do) : unit of watts
- The distance d0 . is chosen to be Im in indoor environments and l OOm or 1Km in outdoor environments to simplify path
loss computations.
- Based on the empirical data a model has been developed for NLOS propagation. It is given as,
-n
L (d) a. Le * (¾) ... (4.2.1 1)
- It indicates the mean path Joss L that increases exponentially with distance d.
n: path loss exponent . 3.5 ::; n ::; 5

d: distance between transmitter and receiver antennas
do : reference distance
la: propagation loss of LOS path for do[n]
-------:---=-=-~===~=-~----:----:-:--:-----------------:.:.
L: Loss of combined NLOS and LOS signal palh.
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~ Mobile Comm. S tem (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 4-5 Mobile Radio P
The path loss exponent n indicate.,; how fast the path loss increases with diswnccs.
do assumes
- . frec sp:tcc
• that there ts . - (tinobstructed)
prop:tgu11011 •
between the nntennu and d0• Practicul values for Ind....
""\I
free space prop:tg:tlion comer distance do is between I m nnd 3 m.
Absolute mean pnt.h loss in dB is defined :tS the p:ilh loss in dB from the trnnsmittcr lo 1J1e reference fatancc l<dJ
nlong with the additional p:ith loss described by Equation (4.2.11 ). .
The absolute mean p:tth loss is,
L(d) [dB) = L(do) - 10 nlog (:J ... (4.2,12)
Typicnl NLOS outdoor cellular mobile syslent~ have a path loss exponent of 3.5 S n S 5 and indoor channels have 1
path loss of 2 S n S 4.
Ex. 4.2.1
Find the far-field distrutce for :u1 antenna with ma.,imum dimension of Im nml operating frequency of 600 MHz.
\ 0 Sotn.:
Gh·en: D=I m f = 600 MHz
8
c 3 x 10
The wavelength ). = f = 600 X I 06 = O.S m
1
20 _ ~
The far-field distance is, d•· = A - 0.5 =4 m
Ex. 4.2.2
If a transmitter produces 50\V of power, express the transmit power in units of (a) dOm and (b) dOW. If SOW is applied 10 a
unity gain antenna with 900 MHz carrier frequency, find the received power in dOm al a free space distance of I 00 m from
the antenna. Assume unity gain for receiver antenna. What is P11 ( IO Km) '?
@ Solo.:
Given:
PT = 50W fc = 900 MHz
(a) Transmit power in dBm
PT dBm = IO log [p~ (m:J = IO log [

m I X 10· 1
50
] = 46.98.,. 47 dBm
(b) Transmit power in dBW

0
PT (dBW) = 10 log[p~:)]= 10 log [~ ] = 17 Dbw
(c) Received power at 100 m from the antenna.

1 2
PTGTGRA 2 50 X. I X I X (-3 )
6
PR = (47t)2 dz L = (4 7t)2 x (JOO) x I= 3.5 X 10- W = 3.5 X 10-J mW
3
PR (dBm) = 10 log PR(mW)= 10 log (3.5 x 10· mW)
= -24.SSdBm
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0 Sc,ln.:
r,i.,rn : d IOK111 ,, • ~o w f, ,: ~•Oh I. ..

I " If)
I
'-
c;r G 2
fl w td) "" IO!tl' ( -

P, G, GI(}.~
)- ~ = I0li1•
( 50
:
I ,( '.! •• G
.
)! ) = IOlu,; ( II 11 )
1 :
{·111 u (•I!'! ) -< ( 10 • 10 J I · 1 11 I • If./
10
;;; IOlll,'(7.035 10 )a - 9 1S:!dUW
r ~ cd) 111 dB Ill i:-,
P1t Cd) = Ill I<,~ (

"] QJ5 , JQ
,
I) = - li l S dlhn
' I ll.l
P, \JI I :-th (J
lEl ;::
G, ): ~-r. =\
'
3. rtru Hllld.g<' LlppUNJ lu U.li' rt'('ch c:r
The nm voh:igc ll.flflhcJ lU the rt"<.~ri, cr 1:,.,
\I,_ = ✓.P, (J t ·•. R = { 7 u_;_s,.,10 "' "l = 0. 1. ( mY
&.4.2.4
If P, = 10 W, Gr = 0 dll, G~ = 0 Jl3 ?lOJ I, = 'l Ml k f ltiJ I' ,: .11 , ·:.~:~ 1,1 !·o: i h ,~ ..!..1~1 ..1.c r L
@ Soin. :
Gh,illl: p, = !OW ,.. = . I Mltz ;:; :...

= ..,
\ , IV1
H/
-5
G, = 0 dD = 10 x d lllill •~ (0 <lU)"" J uh = u -ilJ;:; w :--· •J1i ,u> a: I
h
·oo Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC)
4.7
pTGTGR A
Mobile Radio Propagation : Large Scale i:
2 ~
2
(41t/ X (d)
I PR =
(10) x (I) x (I) x
2 32
(½Y
= 7.036 X 10
_, W :::-51.52 dBm
I
(47t) X (10)
Ex. 4.2.5
· . • frequency is 6GHz and free space propagar1
Assume a receiver is located I0Km from a 50W transmitter. The earner on1
assumed. Gr= I and GR = I find the power at the receiver.
r
I
0°So1n.: 8
1 c 3 X 10
Given: d = lOKm Pr = 50W f, = 6GHz ')., = f = 6 X l09 = 0.05 m
GT = GR =
The received power is
2
PT Gr GR (A)
2
50xlxlx(0.05) _ 0· 125 ~= . s1x10- 12 w
32
7 91
(41t/ X (d>2 = (41t/ X (10 X 10 ) - 157.91 X 10
= -81.01 dUm
Ex. 4.2.6
Calculate the Fraunhofer distance for a uniformly illuminated horn antenna at 60 GHz with dimensions of 4.6 cm X 3.5 c111
Assume the transmitter power if I W at
60 GHz is fed into the transmitted antenna.
(i) Calculate the free space path loss at I m. 100 m and IOOO m.
(ii) Calculate the received signal power at these distances.
@' Soln.:
Given: a = 4.6cm b = 3.5cm f = 60GHz
8
C 3 X 10
= f = =0.005 m D = ✓ 8 2 + b2 = 5.78 cm
"' 60 x 109
(I) The Fraunhofer distance is,

2 2
_ 2D _ 2 X (0.0578) _
d' - ).. - 0.005 - 1.34 m
(ll) Free space path loss at 1 m, 100 m and 1000 m.
41tab 41t x4.6x3.5xl0- ◄

4nA.
GT = GR=~=~ = (0.005)2 = 809.27
Gr = GR = IO log (809.274) =29 dB

')., = 0.005 m do = Im
d, = IOOm dz = 1000m
41tcJo 41t x I
PL (d0) = 20 log -')..- = 20 log _
0 005 = 68dB
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~ Mobile comm. S tem (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 4-8 Mobilo Radio P
pL(d,) PL (100 m) = 108 dB

dl
PL (di) = PL (do)+ 20 log - =68 + 20 log (1f°) = 68 + 60 = PL (1000 m) • IVJ dB
do
(iH)
Received signal power at 1 m, 100 m and 1000 m.
PR = PT+ GT+ GR -PL= 30 +29 + 29-PL

PR = 88-PL PR(do) = 88 - PL (do) = 88 - 68
Pa (do) = 20dBm PR (d1) = 88- PL (d1) = 88-108
Pa (di) = - 20 dBm ; PR (dz) = 88 - PL (dz) = 88 - 128
Pa (di) = -40 dBm
Ex.4.2.7
Compute the absolute mean path loss at do= 3 m and at d = 22 m for a mobile radio system operated in the 2.4 to 2.48 GHz
authorized band. Assume the path loss exponent is n = 3.5. Assume the first two meters arc LOS, afterwards NLOS
propagation should be assumed.
@ Soln.:
do= 3 m. d = 22 m - 3 m = 19 m, n = 3.5 m, f = 2.48 GHz= 2480 MHz
The propagation loss L, is,
L, (dB) = 10 log GT+ 10 log GR - 20 log r + 147.56 dB

for unity gain. isotropic transmit and receive antennas
The transmission path loss is,
La (dB) = 27.56 - 20 log f [MHz] -20 log r [m]
La (de) = 27.56 - 20 log 2480 MHz - 20 log 3 m = 27.56 - 67.889 - 9.542 = - 49.871 a - SO dB
The absolute mean path loss is,
L(d) dB = L(do)-10 n log (!J =-50 dB - 10 x 3.5 x log (11)

(as first 2 m are LOS)
L (d) dB = - 50- 35 x 0.977 =-50-34.22 =-84.22 dB
Ex.4.2.8
Calculate the received power al a distance of 3 km from the transmitter if the path loss exponent a is 4. Assun'K' that the
transmitting power of 4 W at 1800MHz, a shadow effect of I 0.5 dB, and the path loss at a reference JistMCt
(do= 100 m) of - 32dB. What is the allowable path loss ?
0 Soln. : The power received under NLOS conditions and considering shadowing effect is expressed as,
Py(d) = JO log (P0 (d0)] + 10 a.log ( ! 0

) + X0 dllm
a = Path loss exponent = 4, d0 = 100 m, d= 3 Km X 0 = 10.5 dB
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Mobllo Comm, S lom MU-Som.7•E&TC
(_l(XJ~
I', = - 32 + IO x 4 101:t !Jooo) + IO.S • - 80.5 dH,n
The nllowuble path loss - p _ p = 10 log (

• - I '
4
)-<-80.5) = 36.02 + 80.5"' J J6.52 dlhn
IX ,o-3
Ex. 4.2.9
The received power 111 n distnncc or JOO km is 5 nW for a communication link. Determine the received power :11 u rllu..
.., . I . ~
..00 km for the same link. Assume free space propagnuon mc.c rnmsm.
@So1n.:
Ginn: P, (do) = 5 nW d0 = 100km d = 200 km
To find : P, (d) i.e. power received at 200 km

9
P.(d) = P,(do)+20log (~)= 10log(\~~~- )+201og(~:)=-53.01 -6.020 =-59.0JdDm
:> 4.3 Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms

-------------------,------------
LQ. 4.3.1 Explain - lhe three basic propagation mechanisms Wf1Ich impact lhe propagation of signal In a l1'lObla
1
environment.
The three basic propagation mechanisms in wireless communication systems are Renection, diffraction -..I
scattering.
The large-scale propagation models are based on the physics of reflection. diffraction and scattering. These modcb
predict the received power or path loss.
Reflection takes place in elc.ctromagnetic wave propagation whenever the hits an object that has very large dime~
as compared to the wavelength of the propagating wave. The reflections take place from buildings, walls and from th
surface of earth.
DirTractJon takes place when the radio path between the transmitter and receiver is obstructed by a surface that bl
sharp edges. The secondary waves from the obstructing surface exist throughout the space and also behind th
obstructed surface, resulting in bending of waves. Al high frequencies diffraction depends on the geometry of the objea
and amplitude, phase and polarization of the incident wave at the point of diffraction.
Scattering takes place when lhe wave hits on a rough surface, the energy reflected will be scauercd in all directions. b
mobile communication systems street signs, lamp posts, foliage induce scattering.
:> 4.4 Reflection
Whenever a radio wave that is propagating in one medium hits another medium with different electrical properties, th!
wave is partially reflected and partially transmitted.
If the wave is incident on perfect dielectric lhen part of the energy is t.rnnsmiued into medium 2 and the remaining
energy is reflected back into the first medium. If medium 2 is perfect conductor then all the incident energy is refleciOI
back wilhout loss of energy.
The electrical field intensity of the transmitted and reflected waves can be related to the incident wave in the mediUII
through the Fresnel renecllon coefficient (t).
Tech-Neo Puhlinitions____ JJ'hM: Au//,or., iMJH'rr: innor11/ion .._tf SAC/11,VSIWI I ~

-
[§J Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 4-10 Mobile Radio Propagation: Large Scale Fading
_......
_ The reflectJOn · coeffiic,ent · of the properties of the material and depends on angle o r ·mci·denee• wave
· ('t) ·is a function
p0Jarization and frequency of the propagating wave.
~ 4.4.1 Reflection from Dielectrics
_ fjg. 4.4.1 shows an electromagnetic wave incident at an angle 8; with the plane of boundary between two dielectric
media.
fMedlum~f]
[Medium 1•!
( Medlum2j
(a) E-field in the plane of incidence (b) E-field normal to plane or Incidence
Fig. 4.4.1 : Calculation of reflection coefficients between two dielectrics
- Some part of the energy is reflected back to the first medium at an angle 0r and some portion of the energy is
. transmitted to the second medium at an angle 0i-
- The reflection changes with the direction of polarization of the electric E field. We will consider two cases of
Fig. 4.4.1.
- The plane containing the incident, reflected and transmitted rays is called as the plane or incidence.
- As shown in Fig. 4.4.1 (a) the E-field polarization is parallel with the plane of incidence and in Fig. 4.4. l (b) the E-field
polarization is perpendicular to the plane of incidence.
- The parameters E 1, µ 1, cr 1 and e 2, ~ . cr2 present permittivity, permeability and conductance of medium 1 and medium
2. The subscripts i, r and t indicate incident, reflected and transmitted fields.
- The dielectric constant of a perfect dielectric is,
E = EoEr ... (4.4.1)

-12
Where Eo = 8.85 x 10 F/m
Iflhc dielectric material is lossy then it will absorb power.
. .. (4.4.2)
(J
Where, e' = 21tf ...(4.4.3)
Where a : conductivity of material in Siemens/meter.

- If the material is a good conductor i.e. ( f < ~ ) then the terms er and er are insensitive to frequency. Table 4.4.l
EoEr
gives the material parameters at various frequencies.
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~ Mobile Comm. S stem MU•Sem.7-E&TC) '
Mobile Radio Propagatlon : Large Scale

I 4·11
Tobie 4.4.I .• Mulcrlul puramctcrs ut various frequencies
'MalerlaJ. R~loUve,permlttlvlty·e 0 €0!1d.udlvlty a.(S/riJ) f!equ~,ney ~ ;·
Poor Ground 4 0.001 100
Typical Ground 15 0.005 100
Good Ground 25 0.02 100
Sea Water 81 5.0 100
Fresh Waler 81 0.001 100
Brick 4.44 0.001 4000
Li lllCSlonc 7.51 0.028 4000
Glass, coming 707 4 0.0000018 1
Glass. coming 707 4 0.000027 100
Glass corning 707 4 0.005 10000
We know 1hu1 only two orthogonnl polariznlions can be considered.
The reflection coefficients for lhc two cnscs of pamllcl und perpendicular E-ficld polari1.ation at lhe boundary of two
dielectrics arc
T1 =
_s. __..
11z sin 0, - n1 sin 01
_ _._.,_.___..._ (E-ficld in the plane of incidence)
E1 - l] 2 sin 01 + TJ, sin 01 ... (4.4.4)
_s_ TJ, si111 01- n1 sin 0,

T2 = = _.._ _._"-'--_..._ (E-lield normal to the plane of incidence) ... (4.4.5)
E1 T] 2 sin 01 + 11 1 sin 01
Where n, is the in1rinsic impedance of i'h medium (i = 1,2) and is given by,
The velocity of an electromagnetic wave is

I
V = WE
The boundary conditions at the surface of incidence sa1isfy Snell's law 1ha1 is given by,
~ sin (90-0;) = ✓112e 2 sin (90- 0,) ... (4.4.6)

The boundary conditions from tl1e Maxwell's equations are used lo derive the equations.
... (4.4.7) ... (4.4.8)
... (4.4.9)
Where Tis T, or 'ti depending on whether lhc E-lield is vertical or normal 10 the plane of incidence.
If the medium I is free space and µ, = ~. the rcfleclion coefficienls will be,
- Er sin 9.I + ✓E r - cos2 O1-
... (4.4.10) · ... (4.4.11)
For elliptically polarized waves the wave can be depolarized into its vertical and horizontal E-lield components and
superposition can be applied to find lhe transmilled and the reflected waves. The vertical and horizontal field
components at the dielectric boundary can be related as
[:fl = RT De R [ :i] ,. (4,4.12)
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8 : ~b:aeen!WO~ ci~ 2
-n-
,~
det<k,.:~
•
- -- ,ix D_
..
rs ~ b\·
- ,.1•
Hari:mtal U'N
Ex. 4.4.1
Show !ha! if medimn l ?:S free sp::ice- and ~um 2 is 2 d:~ boui r.11.,L'd t--:1 ~ l ~ 8, ~ if ~-w.~
ofE:-
-E, sin8-, + ✓ E, - coi8,

•1 = E ,sin8;+ ✓ E, - coiB,
✓E, -1
Subs:timting B; = if •1 = ✓E, - 1 = I
sin 8; - ✓ E -cos: B,
r I
"2 =
sin 0-, + ✓ E r - cos 8,I
2
0- ✓E,-1
Substimting a., = 00 "2 = =- 1 tt:1 = 1
O+~
Thus proved.
'B.. 4.4.2 Brewst er Angle
The angle at which no reflection occurs in the medium of origin is called as the Brewster angle.
It occurs when the angle of incidence is such that the reflection coefficient is equal to zero.
The Brewster angle is denoted by Ba and is expressed as,
.•.(4.4.13)
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Mobu,, Comm. S,...m (MU-Sem.7-E&TC! 4-13
If medium I 11 free apace and medium 2 has permittivity e, then,
1lnO.-= ~
£i
e t -1
Brewster angle occurs only for vertical polarization.
Ex. 4A.2
Calculate the Brewster angle for a wave impinging on a ground having a permittivity of E, = 2·
ltf Soln.: Ginn: e, = 2
The Brewster angle is given as,
. ~~'1½'
sm 88 = ~ = _fT"t =
e - I '14- I
t
2
For e, = 2 the Brewster angle ls eqWll lo 45°
a 4.4.3 Reflectlon from Perfect Conductors
lbc electromagnetic energy cannot pass through n conductor. If a plane wave is incident on a conductor then all of its
energy is reflected.
To satisfy the Maxwell's equations the electric field u1 the surface of conductor must be zero. Thus, the reflected wave
must be equal to the incident wa,•e.
If the E-ficld is in the plane of incidence then the boundary conditions need that
and I;= E, } (E-field in the plane of incidence)
If the E-field is normal to the plane of incidence then the boundary conditions need thaL
0. = 0, } (E-field normal 10 the plane of
and I;=_ E, incidence)
For a perfect conductor Tl, =I and T1 2 =- I irrespective of the incident angle.

Ex. 4.4.3
Find the reflection coefficients for typical ground, brick. limestone, glass and water from the Table 4.4.1 at an incident angle
of 30°. Assume lossless dielectrics.
@ Soln.:
Given:
= sin 8; - ✓ e,-cos2 8;
l Tecb-Neo Pablieatio- ~ Autl,ors impire inr»ntioo

•2 sin 8; + ✓ E r -cos2 8-I
-A SAGUNSHAii y,_,.
~ --
,,. . -1,t\ - t1\11"
\fl'
t \ti
•
I' t - - Ii, ~l)

. ,.., \ ~;4•
- -4 ~lrt \(J' • ---- ,,,, ,.

'
I ,,. ..
1,. U " l 'Wt'
•• • - no h "\ I
,,. - Il l a.111 \ fl" • :J.

Walff' 81
If'\ , . , . -
I l '4U T '1{1•
Kl a.111 '.\0- • ✓ 1,--0,-• t, ..
I "": '<1' U :\ ' }' •
[L , .• .•
E~llln ttw- lkrc-11dc1 c ol u1f: c J\lurhnn a. <~ the frrq ucnq• ~nJ :.n kt f ,n.-idcr •c
@ $Gin. :
When • radio lgn:11 hit nn :i rou11,h ud : c the COC'f ) rdkctcJ ,. 111 t ,rrr-'-1 '"'' 111 .,JI d,tn t,.11,~ t ~;.v ,t
aucnn,i.
h, • "'hC"rc I, : :i.nilc of 1111. 11.lcu,.. c
~ s or :lnf.k of In iJrncc Jo:rc.N·)., the .,.n w he rw lier
in 0,•0~ ?- I
I
@soan.:
t, = =0
Squ11ring both the ~idrs.,

t ? .t • , 11 f
.. ' 0I l- l f .'
C, -
'
c-.o, 01 • ~lrl
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Ta\:lng ~qu11rc mot of bo1h r-ldcs we gel, r.ln O,
Hence proved.
------------------------~
! ~ 4.5
L0.4.1.1
Ray Ground Reflection Model
Dertve an exprealon tor 8 ground reflection model assuming distance between transmitter and receiver--...
It very large 00n1)8re to heights of the antennas.
ua. 4.5.2 Explain the use of two ray model to explain mobile radio path loss and antenna height effects ?
~U_• q. 4(a). May 18. 10 f,fark •,
It is also called as ground n:nectJon model or l'wo my ground renection model.
Fig. 4.5. 1 shows 1wo•rny ground rcncction model. It is a propagation model based on geometric optics. It considcn
both direct path and ground reflected path between the transmiller and receiver.
For prcdicl1ng large scale signal strength T(Transmltlor)
over long dislnnces this propaga1ion model

gives uccurnte results. T ElOT = l:i.os + Eg
The eurth's surface is assumed lo be flat I R(Rooolvor)
The distance between the transmiller and

receiver (T - R) is few tens of kilomc1res.
The total E-field Eror is vector sum of
direct line-of-sight component Ews and the
lm77777777T7777~~I
-------d-------..i
ground reflected component E,. Fig. 4.5.1 : Two rny ground reflection model
As shown in Fig. 4.5.1.
h. is height of the transmiuer und
h. is height of the receiver.
If Eo is the free space E-field (in Vim) al a dis1ance do from the transmitter then ford> do, the E-field is given by,
E (d,t) = ¥ cos ( w, ( t-~ )) ( d > d0) .. . (4.5.1)
IE (d,t)I
represents the envelop of E-field at d meters from the trans miller.

At the receiver two propagating waves are present They are the direct wave that travels a dis1ance d' and ~fleeted
wave tJ1at lravels at a distanced". TI1e E-field because of line-of-sight component at the receiver can be given as,
Ews (d', t) = Eod~ cos (w, (1 -~:',J)\'\ ... (4.5.

2)
I For the ground reflected wave,
Tem-Nto PuLllca1lo111. _ lfln.re Author, inspim innora1ion

... (4.5.3)

[iJ Mobile Comm. S tem (MU-Sem.7-E&Tc
Mobile Radio P
Aceording to the laws of reflect.ion in dielectrics,
81 ::. 80 .. ,(4.5.4) ••.(4.S.S)
I; = (I + 't) Ei ••• (4.S.6)
Where -r : reflection coefficient for ground.
,Asswning perfect horizontal E field 1ari.za • ·
- po tion and ground reflection (t = - 1 I;= O). The total clectnc field Eror
(d. t) can be expressed as, 1 •
1Erotl = I ~ + E I ...(4.5.7)
""'LOS I
Substituting values of Ews and E, from Equations (4.5.2) and (4.5.3) we get,
Ero,(d. l) = ~d, cos(.,, (1-1)) +(-1) ~:1- cos(.,,(,~~) ...(4.5.8)
T(Transmltter)
1 I
R(Recelver)
T
f'itn7n:"1?777;7"7n?'777m'f.~~d i
..---------d-------t1
Fig. 4.S.2 : Method of images to find the path difference between the line-of sight and ground reflected paths
_ Fig 4.5.2 shows the method of images to find out the path difference between the line-of-sight and the ground reflected
paths. The path difference 6. is,
6. = dH-d'= ✓ (h,+hi +d2 -~l\-h/+d2 ...(4.5.9)
If d > > I\ + ~ then using Taylor series approximation,

" , 2hl I\.
6. = d - d =-d- ...(4.5.10)
The phase difference 84 between the two E-field components is,

27t 6. 6. (J)c ... (4.5.11)
e.., = T=-c-
The time delay t d between the arrival .of two components is,
a e.., ...(4.5.12)
'td = ~ = 27t fc
.--4 SAODNS/L4H J'eature

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4- Mobile Rad"lO Pr
17
. , d'' 1,ecomes very small and amplitudes of ErMand e
As d becomes large, the difference between distanced and r're
virtually identical and different in phase.
l~dol = 1¥1= 1¥1 ,,,(4,S,JJJ
.I ff at t =
d''
c' the electric field E is evaluated as
I
Ei0T (d, t =d'') = Eo,d cos ( roe (d''; dj)- E:,~ cos 00 •,.(4.S,14)
c) d .
Ei0T (d, t = ~ = ~~o LB,1 - ~,~ I

I
I
/
,/
~(d, ~j t= = ~do [ L06 -1J ,
I
,,
/
Fig. 4.5.3 shows the phasor diagram that shows the electric field ,/
l /
components of line-of-sight, ground reflected and total received ,,
I
l
E-fields.
The electric field (at the receiver)at a distance d from the
Flg.·4.5.3 : Pbasor diagram
transmitter is,
...(4.5.IS)
,,
I
...(4.5.16)
Using trigonometric identities,
...(4.5.17)
Equation (4.5.17) provides the E-field for two ray ground reflection model.
ff the distance d is sufficiently large, 06 will be ~ 1t and the E fi.eW received Erar(d) will decrease with increasiz13
distance. Equation (4.5.17) can be simplified when sin ( ~

6
j = ~
6
•
8,1
It takes place when
2 < 0.3 radians.
Using Equations (4.5.10) and (4.5.1 1).

06 21t h1 h,
2 = ~ < o.3 rad ... (4.5.18)
It indicates that ...(4.5.19)
Thus, as long as d satisfies Equation (4.5.19) the received E-Field can be approximated as,
,I ·I 2 E0 d0 2 1t h1 h, k
Eror(d) = - d - . Ad = 7V/m ...(4.S.20)
. I
II
I Where k : constant
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~ Mobile comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 4-18 Mobile Radio Propagation : 8 Scale Fadln
'Ibe received power at a distance d from the transmitter for a two ray ground reflection model is,
·bl h2
I r ... (4.5.21)
Pr= P1 G1 G,7
_ AccOrding to Equation (4.5.21), as distance increases d >> ~ . The received power falls off at a rate of 40
dB/decade. It is more rapid than path loss in free space. For large values of d, the received power and patb loss are
independent of frequency.
_ 'Ibe pass loss for two ray model is,
PL(dB)= 40 log d-(10 log G1 + 10 log Gr+ 20 log I\+ 20 log h,) ... (4.5.22)
"B. 4.5.1 Advantage of Ray Ground Reflection Model
In the analysis of path loss, the two ray reflection model considers both the direct path and the ground reflected
propagation path between the transmitter and receiver.
"B. 4.5.2 Disadvantage of Ray Ground Reflection Model
This model is oversimplified. It does not consider factors like buildings, terrain profile etc.
Ex.4.5.1
In the following cases, tell whether tl1e two ray model can be applied and explain why or why not.
(i) I\= 35 m. h, =3m. d =250 m (ii) h, =30 m, h, = 1.5 m, d =450 m.
@ Soln.:
(i) l\ =35 m. h, = 3 m. d :::: 250 m
When d > 10 (h, + h,) we can say d >> I\+ h, and we can apply two ray model.
For I\= 35 m. h, = 3 m. d = 250 m d < 10 (35 + 3) < 380 m
Hence, the two ray model cannot be applied.
(ii) I\ =30 m. h,. = 1.5 m. d =450 m d > IO (30 + 1.5) > 315 m
Hence, the two ray model can be applied.
Ex. 4.5.2
,, , 2ht h,
Prove that in the two way ground reflected model A= d - d == d . Show when this holds good approximation.
Consider Fig. 4.5.2.
✓<I\+ h/ + d2 -✓(f\-h/ + d
2
A =
Ford» I\+~ r:h,J r~h,J<<

<< I, 1
U_sing Taylor series approximation
A d[t +½~:h,J]-d [1 +½~~~J]

=
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I§] MobUe Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 4-19 Mobllo Radio Propagation : Large Scale Fa~
Ex. 4.5.3
In the two ray loss with~= - 1, derive an expression for the location of the signal nulls at the receiver.
·1
I @So1n.:
At the location of signal nulls at the receiver,
~ • ~ h,. = 2i1t,
2
86 = i = l, 2, .....
211.~
d;...u. = u:-
where i is a positive integral such that ~ 11111,> do·
\
'I Ex.4.5.4
,,' In a cellular radio system, a mobile that is located 5 Km from the base station uses an antenna with gain 2.55 dB. The
3
E-field at I Km from the transmitter is 10- V/m. The carrier frequency is 900 MHz. Find the elec tric field at the mobile
'
using the 2 ray ground reflection model. The height of the transmitting antenna is 50 m and height of the receiving antenna is
I.Sm.
@' Soln.:
3
Given: d = 5Km E0 (l Km)= 10- V/m, do ::;;; I Km f = 900MHz
8
C 3 X 10 l
A = f - 900 X 106 - 3m h1 = 50m, h,. =1.5 m
d >>~
Hence, the electric field is given by,

3 3
Ea(d) = 2Edodo.21t h~h, = 2 x l0- x l x l0 x 21t x 50 x l.5 =l13.098 x l0-6V/m.
1
MJ S x 10 l x 5 x 103
3
Ex. 4.5.5
Assuming a receiver is located l 0 Km from a 50 W transmitter. The carrier frequency is 1900 MHz, free space propagation
is assumed, G1 = 1, G, = 2 find :
(a) The power at the receiver.
(b) Magnitude ofE-field at the receiver antenna.
(c) Find the power received at the mobile using two ray ground reflection model.
Assuming the height of the transmitting antenna is 50 m, receiving antenna is 1.5 m above the ground and the ground
reflection is -1.
@' Soln. :
I Given: P, = sow GI = G, = 2 f = 1900MHz
I ' c 3 X 10
8
A = f =1900 X 106 = 0.157 m h1 = 50m h,. = 1.5 m

d = lOKm
'ti = -1
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('1 Mob19 eomm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 4-20 Mobile Radio Propagation : Large Scale Fading
n,e Po~ a1 lbc receiver
(a)
P, G, G,Al 50 X I X 2 X (0. J.57):
10
(4nd)1 (4n) 2 x(10x IOl):Z
10
P, rs = II
l.560 x 10 · : 101og ( l.56x 10· ):-98.06dBW
1.56>< IO - I~
= JO log ( IO- 1 -J• - 68.06 dBm
(b) Magnitude of the E-ficld nt lhc rccci\'cr nnlcnnu
>..l IE:1
~ = G, :.; P, (d ) = ~ A.,
P,(d)x 120n 1.56 X IO - x 12()7'[

;. IE1 = G, J.: I •ht Uti x 10, · x ~20 x n = 3.87 1 x 10 · '=3.87mV/m
C
2 X (0.157)' I •ht = ) .9. x 10
(c) In onkr 10 use 1hc 2-r.sy model :i.ppro im., tion. lhc followinll rontJi1lon mu, t be &nri.sficd.
d > ~
). ::; 9500 m.
As d = IOCXX> m. we c.,n use Ilic following c:qutttion~ fo r 1hc 2 r.iy ground rcncct ion model,
h1: h: '
P, (W) =
P, G, G, - , - = 50 x I x '.!
I csor' X. I x(S)
, 5.625 x 10 =
- 11
W
d { IOCOO)
P,(dBm) = - 72.5 dBm

EL ,.s.a
In 2 tat>-r.ty ground rc:Occl.ion model, :issumc lhnt ph:L-.c diffcrcncc must be k.cpt below 6.26 1 radians for phase cancellation
rusons. Assuming 3 ~i\'er hc.ighr of 2 m. :md gi,en u rcquircmcnr th:.it :.u,gcl o ( incidence must be less rllan 5°. what arc
the minimum 3.llowable v:ilucs for the tr.l!l mincr-rccei\'cr scparo1ion di lllncc and the height of 1he trarumirtcr antenna?
Tm rbe carrier frequency :is 900 MHz
la Soln.:
h, = 2m 0~ = 6.26 1 o, < 5°
(
= 900 MHz when d >> h, + h,.
27t 2h, h, 4n h, h, h, + h,
0~ = T .- d- =T · d
1an 01 = - d - < lan5
5
c 3 x I0
< tao 5 A = f = 900 x 106 = 0.333 m
2 2
1+- I+-
h. 1\
< tan 5 12.03 < 0.0874
-47t- x-2-
0.33 6.261
2 2
I+- < 1.05368 h, < 0.05368
h,
_A S4aDNSIWI Yentare
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~
Mobil Com
e m. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC)
A
..-21
Mobile Radio Propagation : Large Scale~
~
~ ~
-..;.;.;..-=.:.:.:!!!!=!.,_----------------.....""
-w 4.6 Diffraction
Diffraction is a phenomenon that occurs when the path between the tr:1I1smittcr :ind ~iver is obSlructed by a SUrf~
that has sharp edges. Diffraction nllows the radio signals to propagate behind obstrucllons.
As the receiver moves deeper into the obstructed region, the received field strength rapidly decreases. The difft'acti~
field is still present and hus enough strength to produce o useful signul.
The phenomenon of diffraction con be explained by Huyiten's Principle. It states that each and every point on 1
paniculnr i"-a,rcfront is c9nsidered as n scc9ndary point source from which the secondary waves tenned as wavcfro114
radiate outw-.uus. ·- - - .
tn11&1
lnddmc
_....front I
- -_..;.tc--lf---=E--1-=----l
Obstaclo with slot

3
No cancellation of
secondary
wavolots
1.2.3,A - lnoidon1 mys Slot In tho

obstade
P 1 10 P 4 - Sooordary pont ao..uoo~
(a) : Huygen's principle of wa,•efront (b) FinJte wn,•efront pas.sing through n slot
Fig. 4.6.l : Electronwitnetk wave dHTrJctlon
The nomul wave propagation with an infinite plane consideration is assumed with many secondary sources like
P1• P:, Pl etc radiating their energy outward in all directions.
But the main original wave tries to maintain iL~ same path in the forward direction evemhough many secondary
wavelet.s get cancelled midway Fig. -t.6.1(a) shown Huygcn ·s principle and Fig. -t.6. 1(b) shows finite wavefront
passing through a slot.
The propagation of secondary wavelets into an obstructed region results in <liffraction. In the obstructed region the
diffracted wave has a field strength that is the vector sum of the electric field components of all the secondary wavelets
in that area surrounding the obstruction.
B.. 4.6.1 Fresnel Zones
!La. 4.6.1 What is a Fresnel zone 7 ]

The diffraction loss that is a function of the path difference is expressed by the Fresnel zones. These zones represent the
regions in which the secondary wavelets have path lengths from transmitter to receiver.
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• TI,(t)' " ' ~ ' '" ('(11\t'(nllir llnJr•. llvlJ' i lrdrt .iti c•lk,1 • • ~'"""' ll#Wt n.r ,,n ;Hl1'!' fr,, u ,o.f ,,.,,,, ~A-
d'f'~ of 111ltr,n1tt l)' llfm iltln• 411,ulftH1h•r 11n,t ik ,4,u<tt~ ir-1, , fnc ~ 1,, tl.r ll •d ,r, H , -v>S • ; ru'
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d, + ,s,
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J, Oi•tancc hc:twccn Ilic oh,taclc Md I.he 1un,m111t r.

d, Di.l.lllllCC hctwccn lhc oh~1aclc and 11,c rocc1\Cf,
). W1vclcng1h
fig. -4.6.2 ~how• Prc1,ncl mne11 wi1h 1l1rcc roO('cnlnc

drcl~ •• nn c:xnmplc. If d 1• d7 und wavelength ), ii
bl<)wn then lhc ra,dlu\ of Ilic n'h Frc, nd 1,vne can be
a)cuhttod.
~ 4.6.2 Knlfe-odge Dltfrnctlon Model
LQ. ,.1.2 With fiouro oxplaln Knlfo-odgo diffraction modol In dolllU. Writo tho oquolloo for d1tfractlon g.iain.
ua. ' " Ooscnbo the Knlfo-od o Dlffroctlon modol. MU_: 0 . G{bJ. Dec . 16. ~ t.liuli•
is one of the 11i111plc111 propogution models where diffmction lo,, can he found our u,ing Frc,ncl '°lu1ioo
(t fut fiid.!
behind II knife edge..
Consider II tranl>rruttcr und a receiver with un ob~tru ring i.cn::.cn In between us , hown in 1g. 4.6.3.
An obsuuctfog i.crccn of c.ffcc1ive height h ~•ith infinite ..., 1dlll is placed between the tall\m111t:r inJ rcc.ci\n u 1
i,,
distance d 1 from the Imm.miller and d, (rum the rt"Cei,er. 111i, model i, called Knlrt t-dgt cJlffnictlon model
T
(Trnnt.rnlltor) (AoOONtit)
FJ,c. 4.6.J: Knife td,:e dUfnartlon ,:romttr)', trunmJllt'r •nd rr<'thc-r ~lib 1W lnllAJlt
Knlrl'-t'd,:e oh\ln1rllo11 hloclr,lnx th, ll11t-or-~Jib1 p•th
Assuming h << d 1, d1 11ml h » A, the dlffercn c hcl\\ ccn 111'!: dirrc:t 1u th dJIJ the J1rfrli(.'tN p.uh calW iu "'\'"' pil~
ltnlfh (A) cun be cJetcunlned from rho ~romclf)' ll),
6. • ✓ c.1; + h2+'10 -(t.1 1 + d,~ ...(-& 6.l)
Tedt-Nt. Pul,lltatle111- lllrrr Aut"- ,i,,pl.rr la•••IW - • i.U'IMYSllUI ,..._.

I [§;] _,_c:.n.,,_"r:l-"(MU-Sem.7-E&TC)
Assuming h « d I• dl
Mobllo Radio Propagatk>n : Largo Scale F~
· .. (4.6.J)
.. .(4.6.4)
.. . (4.6.5)
... (4.6.6)
Tix: EqUilion (-4.6..5 ) h oomuli1A1 U!>Jllf: the J mcn, l nlo, 1-:rc-inel•K1rd I( 1.h(frx tton p~nn1tlef v I~ i~ given by,
\' ::r {;i

.., _
2 cJ , J !
-~\JI ). Cd 1 +- d:)
... (4.6.8)
\\'hen: a. tu unit o ( rndi:,.n
TI.le ~ , , cm be upre~~ in tcnm , ( ~ :1,

.• (4 6 9)
'Thus. the ptu._<.c di ffere nce hc-Nttn 3 dirt"C1 line o ( ,,g111

p!:ll1 md d.tffrxt.ed pllil i~ 3 function o ( hci hi md r,>~ IIOll
o( ob~ u,d the tr<..n rrul tc1' :me! rc-«i\'Cf I :stioo.
When I.he rn.'Ul'llina- ~ rttcivcr hcighu :tre not cq~. \lot
mu~ ~ for cqu1 n .Jcn1 lrufc cdge goomcU)•. \lo here I.he
rra!l.e:Sl height •~ "1.lbt.ncud (ro m :111 other hci&bu a~
UX>\l'tl in Fig.. 4.6.4 and 4.6.5. I-lg. ~.6A : Knife tdge dl!Tr.actlon J!<.<>mctry whffl
LnarumlltH 1u1d rtt~her 11~ nol nc the mme height
!Nal9 : II a and pl1't ernll and h « d1 dz then h and h' are virtually ldontbl.
---- -·:1:~: ' , ...

hobe - h,' ' , , ,
''
',
'
1' ', R
Fig. 4.6.5 : Equivalent knJre rdRe ,:ec>mdr)' where the smallest height (b,) ls rubtraded from all olhu heights
Tem-~ f"llh6eatiem-- fOt'IT' J,,tJ,,,n impirr fflllltl7ti«t --4 SAOl/NSIWI Ya,twe

[iJ Mobile comm. S atom MU-Sem.7-E&TC
4-24
The diffraction loss cun be explained by
' f rcsncl zones.
The frc:snel zones represent successive
glons where the secondary waves huve u
rcath length from the transmitter to receiver
P M
thal are greater than the total path length
2
of 11 )inc-of-sight path. I,
Fig. 4.6.6 shows a trans.parent plane that is

Jocated between a transmitter and a receiver. Fig. 4.6.6 : Fresnel zones
_ 'fhe concentric circles on the plane represent the loci of the origins of the secondary wavelets that propagate to lhe
receiver such that the total path length increases by ½for successive circles. The circles are called as Fresnel zones.
1
_ The radius of n h Fresnel zone circle (rn) is,
rn ---\J~
-~ d 1,d2 >>rn ... (4.6.10)
_ The radii of the concentric circles depend on the location of the plane. The Fresnel zones have maximum radii when the
plane is at the centre between the transmitter and receiver. As the plane is moved towards the transmitter or receiver the
radii will decrease.
In the mobile communication systems, the diffraction loss is because of blockage from secondary waves. A part of the
energy is diffracted around the obstruction, thus allowing only some of the transmitted energy to reach the receiver.
Depending on the geometry of the obstruction the received energy V.:ill be the sum of energy contributions from all the
unobstructed Fresnel zones. Fig. 4.6.7 shows different Knife edge diffraction cases.
T A
(a) a and v are positive, since h Is positive (b) a and v are equal to zero, since h Is zero
- When shadowing is caused by a single object like
hill or mountain, the attenuation caused by
diffraction can be found out by considering the
obstruction as a diffracting knife edge.
- Consider a receiver at a point R, situated in the
shadowed region(or diffraction zone) as shown in
Fig. 4.6.8.
- The field strength at point R is the vector sum of
fields due to all the secondary huygen's sources.
(c) a and v are negative, since h Is negative
Fig. 4.6.7 : Different knHe edge dl.ff'ractlon cases
Tecli-Neo Publications...- .... Where Aulhon in1pin: innoration ....A SIOIINSHAii Yeat,-

(i;] Mobile Comm. S tern (MU-Sem.7-E&TC 4-25
The electric field strength Ed of the knife edge diffracted wave is given by,
Ed (I+ j) OOJ
., .
Eo = F (v) = ~ exp ((-j m1/2) dt ... (4.6.11)
V
Where Ed : Electric field strength of knife edge diffracted wave

Eo : Free space field strength
F(v) : Complex Fresnel integral
The Fresnel integral F(v) is a function of Fresnel-lGrchoff
diffraction parameter v and is found using tables or
graphs for given values ofv. Knife edge
ob■tructlon
The diffraction gain because of knife edge is given by, Fig. 4.6.8 : Recei-ver R located In shadowed region
Gd(dB) = 20 log IF(v)I
.. .(4.6.12)
A graphical representation of Gd (dB) as a function of vis shown in Fig. 4.6.9.
.,'
m
"'O
~
(!)
C:
'iij
CD
C:
0
_: :1::L [_IJ~I1[~:
1' I l · 1
-10 •.. ...••••••j••• •••••..•J.•••••••••••L•••·•• ••••• I••••••••• ••j••• •••••..
1 . J ; _r-:•
••t,,,..-♦on.,,f ..\..,•.-.:•:~
:p
u i i : j ~ ~ ~ ._, . ,,
e
= 1- l . '
i5 -15 ......•••••,.I••..••••••• ••••• • •••••••••(•••••••..• • •••)
I I I . -· -
••••·••••••)•••• • • •••• •••••••••••• •••l••o ouuo,,
(D
CD
i
,g
c
~
-25
-30 . .
-3 -2 -1 0 2 3 4 5
Fresnel Dittraction Parameter v
Fig. 4.6.9 : Graphical repre.5entation of Gd (dB) as a function of Fresnel diffraction parameter v

An approximate solution for Equation (4.6:12) provided by Lee is,
Gd (dB) = 0 For v S- I
. --(4.6.13(a))
Gd {dB) = 20 log (0.5 - 0.62 v) For - 1 ~ v ~ O
. .. (4.6.13(b))
Gd (dB) = 20 log (0.5 exp (-0.95 v)) For OS v SI
.. . (4.6.13(c))
Gd(dB) = 20log(0.4- ✓o.11&4-0.38-0.1 l)
For I ~ V ~ 2.4
... (4.6.l3(d))
Gd (dB) = 0 log (0.2v2f'I
\ ) For v > 2.4 ... (4.6.13(e))
Tech-Neo Publications...HH•- lll,cre Authon in5J1ire innoration

..-A SACHINSHAH Yentme

r
'
comm, S stem MU-5em.7•E&TC
Multlple Knife-edge Diffraction
4-26
, 6,3
~ If•
·ca)ly in areas like mountains, hilly terrains th

,. pr:icti_ 'e need to find out the total d'ff . e propagation path can comprise more than one o~tacle5, In such
situnuons w J ract1on loss due lo all the obstacles.
. ton showed that the series of obstacles c Id . • 6 Jo

puJhn& th 1 . ou be replaced by a single equivalent obstacle as shown 1n Fig. 4. • •
,. tn i}!is method the pa oss can be obtamcd using single knife edge diffraction model.
.. ,illington provided a wave theory I • • •
J.,atef JY• kn' r cd so ution for two knife edges in series. It is useful for predicting d1ffracuon
.,. .,..c due to two 11c ges.
lo=---
Tr■namltter T
Fig. 4.6.10 : Multiple Knife edge model by Bullington
Et, 4.6.1
Ca]culntc the diffraction loss in the Knife edge diffraction model with hr= 50 m. hR = 25 m. knife edge height= 100 m,
d =JO Km. d2 = 2 Km. Assume f = 900 MHz. Also find the height of the obstacle required to induce 6 dB diffraction loss.
I ~~
0 sorn.:
Givcn: hr = 50m hR = 25m
T 100m
h = 100m di = IOKm
T R
~ = 2Km f = 900MHz hy 50m
C
8
3 X 10 I l I25m
l. d,
; ; f;;;; 900 X )06 - 3 m d2
- Drawing the geometry for Knife edge diffraction model.

I· 10Km
+ 21<m-j
Fig. P. 4.6.1 : Geometry of knife edge diffraction model
- Redrawing the geometry by subtracting the height of the smallest structure i.e. receiver.
t} = tan- I ( 75 - 253) :: 0.28650

JO X 10 ~
= tan-I ( 75 3) =2.JSD
y 2xl0~
a = ~ + y = 0.2865 + 2.15 ;;;; 2.434° =0.0424 rad
The Fresnel Kirchoff diffraction parameter v is given by,
2xtoxJ0x2 x J0 _
V= (X 424
(½)x(IOx to3 +2x 103) - •
Teai-Neo Pablications_ Where Authors in.pin: inooY11tion -A SAGONSHAii Y ~

I I I( \ I • ' •
•,
TN" hr ir,ht I, lhc: ' -.J (' ;uJcri...., the

. tn :a \ n Ul I~,; P. ,; I fb). H a, P. 4.JU laJ
T
········•·I:.~.·-··
~[ ·-·-·····-·-··-···--...r·····-..__.
L.-_ __ _ _ _ __ _ __ _...,___ h •••.•j.( ····--.
_ _--:-:----......_
_ _ _ __ _
• A
10 K.-n 2 Km
Flg. P. J.6. 1(b)
h 15
:!YIO' = (10•2)x l o'
AddtO" the \Ubtrnctc:d height. the obrucle bcigtu ·--ill be (15 + -U 6) = 29.16 m
u~ }. =JI m. d1 = I Km. cl, =I Km :ind (3) h = 25 m. (b) h = 0, (c) h = - 25 m. Fer oeb ~

thoc Ihm: O.',,O iooc:,ofy the ~ I t.rmc ~ilhin -which the tip of ~tructjon lies.
0 Soln. :
Chen: .i. = 3m
(2) b =- 25 m
The ~ I d1ffr:-,cuon p;u:imc'.a i
:! (d 1 d.) 2 <I x IO) + I x HY)

---
· - 25
i. d 1 d! - (l)
\j x I x lo-3 Y. l X 10
J = 2.14
For,, > l A , the diffmction loss is..
G, (dB ) = 20 log (-O.T>~

" - ) =20 log ( 0 ~ ) =21.7 dB
274
lh: p.::Ib bigth difTc:rcocc b!tQ.cen I.he dirc:.ct ~ diffract.c.d ra)s li,
b: Id,+ ci:) _ (25J: (I x 10>+ I x IO') _
j, = 1 d, Ii; - 2 1 ,< 10' X I x 10' - 0-625 m
To fmd the Frcsntl I.Ort: in .,.hich the tip of the obstruction lies, v.e nlu.SI C'Omp<llc n Ul4.l ~aridlti
I
6; D /,/2 (01 i.::) m.
2.1 2x0.62.5
n c- T= ,,13> = J.1s
TI}C1dore. lbc: up of obuructioo bloc:L completely J Fn:mcl rooc-i Md 75 pcrecnc of 1c.; -I Lone.
_ , J404f.'tll.U/ r..-

~ ~ eo,mt. System CMU-Sem.7-E&TC) 4-28 Mobile Radio Propagation : Large ScaJe Fadir!9
f,ar v ::s 0. the diffraction loss is.
G, (dB) = 20 log (0..S - 0.62 v) = 20 Jog (0..S) =6 dB

}.j b :::r O. the tip of the obstruction touches lbc line.of-sight path i.e. io the middle of the first Fresnel zone.
la•-25m
(d
V • b 3
2 (I x 10 + I x JO')
G) x I x 10' x Ix 10'
V • -2.1~ for v S- I,
G, (dB)= 0 i.e. diffrxtion loss is 0 dB.
As the ~solute ,~ue of hdght h is ~me :u lh:tl or (a). lhc ClCCSS p:ith length 6 :ind n will also be same. Although the
tip of obs1JUC1ion blocks I.he fll'Sl thm: Frc.-.ncl :z.onc:.s.. !he diffrnction lcmc.s nrc negligible :is the ob51Jllction is be.low the line-
of-sigflt
Ei.••'-'
For !he lnifr edge tromclr)' in Fig. P. ~.6.3. ~w dul :
~ 2:t [ h1 (J , +
(a) ♦ • }. = ). 1 d 1 d2
d:)] and
2 d 1 d;
(b) V: 0 ),(d 1 +d;)
(ti Soln.:
(1) AC'COl'dl.n,: lo tM gN>mtlry of Figure,
P, = -../0=tl,~
Shffll..ty, P, = ..,/0 =.t,~

h h
As d,. d, » h >> A. :. d.I d2 « I.
Using Taylor series approxim:ition we hn,-e,

2 2
h ] I h
P1 = d1 [ I •½(d~ =d1+2 d1
-A S.40/JNSIU/Ir~

~ Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 4-29 Mobile Radio Propagation : Large Scale Fa~_
It is given that,
Substituting the value of fl in I?,
'
_ 2n6 _ 21t [h (d1
- ).. - )..
1
+d1)]
2 \ d1 ~
Thus proved
v2n
(b) 2=,
l 2
V = l?•-
1t
Substituting value of$ we get, v =

21t[h
). 2
1
(di+ d2)~1 =h
d di Jn
1
1
...(1)
h
As tan~ tany = di «1
h
y = tany= di
a= ~+v=:1+;2 =h(dJl+t)
h = a· (d~'+'¾J
Substituting h in Equation (1) we get, .
2 dld2
V = a, ).. (dl +d2)
Thus proved.
Ex. 4.6.4-
A general design rule for microwave links is 55 %. clearance of the first Fresnel zone. For a 1 Km fink at 2.5 GHz, what is
the maximum first Fresnel zone radius ? What clearance is required for this system.
8 Fresnel zone cJetir1nce
Rf Soln.: A=.£r= -3xl0 9 -O.l2m ,,
2.5 X 10
For the first Fresnel zone, n = 1. The maximum

Fresnel zone radius occurs for d1 = di = 500 m.
The Fresnel zone radius is,
1 X 0.12 X 500 X 500 • hn

500 + 500 = -V 30
= S.477 m. Fig. P. 4.6.4
Thus, 55% first Fresnel zone clearance will need aUeast 5.477 x 55% = 3.01 mabove the obstruction to the LOS path as
shown in Fig. P. 4.6.4.
Teeh-Neo Publieatiom-lFhtre Authonimpire inl1()1'8/ion .....A SAOONSIIAHY~

>
{iJ Mobile eomm. stem (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 4-30 Mobile Radio Propagation : Lar Scale Fadln
~4..6.5
V:•
Jf P1' == 10 Gr= lO dB, GR= 3 ~ and L =.1 dB at 900 MHz, compute the received po~er for the lcni!'e ed~e geomc~
own in f1B· P. 4.6.S. Com~are °?s value with the theoretical free space received power 1f an obstruction did not CXJSt
~ is the palh loss due to diffractron for this case ?
Mountain can be
modeled as conducting
knife edge
400m
.,
60.m
Sm
Fig. P. 4.6.5: Knife edge geometry
0Soin..:
Given : PT = 10 W GT= IOdB=l0 GR = 3dB=2
8
C 3 X 10 1
L = I dB =1.2589 f = 900MHz '). = f= 9 X 108 3
d = 3Km+2.K..m=5..Km
The power received is,

2
p = PT G~. Gf ).. = IO
2
x lO x2Jxp/3)·
'
-4.4713 x 10-9W
R (47t) d L (47t) x (5 X 10 ) X 1.2589
= 10 log (
4.4713 X
I -x
10-9\-) =- 53.49 dBm
_l
10
Redrawing the knife edge geometry subtracting the height or srnallcs1~,ructu rc.
h obstaele - ~ 400-60
tan 'f} = 0.1133
d1 - 3 x 103
1
f} = tan- {0.1133) = 0.1128 rad.
h obstaele - h R 400-5
tany = - X }OJ= 0.1975
di 2
y = tan- I (0.1975)
y = 0.195 rad. 1•---3 Km----+•M-1•--2 Km--!

14
ex = f}+y=0.1128+0.195 Fig. P. 4.6.S(a)
Tecb-Neo Publications__ ~ Authon iospire irmo1'11tioD .-A SAOJJNSJ[,4Jf Yt!Dturt!
.........__
liJ Mobile Comm. tern MU-Sem.7-E&TC 4-31
3
a = 0.3078 rod. V = a 2x3x I0 x2x ICY
@)(3xJC>3+2xJ~
V = 26.12
Forv~2.4
0 2
G• (dB) = 20 log ( ·~ ~ =20 log ( ~;,~;) =-41.29 dB
Pnce1-i = PR(dBm)+Gd =-53.5-41.29 =-94.8dBm
.The loss due to diffraction
Ld = Prn:cspaa: - Preceived= 41.3 dB
~ 4.7 Scattering
\
' When a radio wave encounters a rough surface, the reflected energy is diffused or spread out in all directions ~
of the scattering effect The objects like trees, lamp posts etc. have a tendency to scatter in all directions.
It leads to received signal strength being greater than the predicted signal strength by the reflection and diffractioa
model.
1be flat surfaces have much larger roughness. They act as reflective surfaces. The roughness of the flat surfaces
induces propagation effects different from the specular reflection.
Surface roughness is tested by Rayleigh's criterion. The Rayleigh's criterion defines a critical height (hJ of surf~
roughness for-a given angle of incidence 8; and is expressed as,
b = -~- ... (4.7.t)

e 8 sin 8;
A surface is rough if the protuberance h_is greater than he and the surface is smooth if the protuberance h is_less than~
For the rough suifaces, the flat surface reflection coefficient is multiplied by the scattering loss factor "p" to a~cowi
the diminished reflected field.
•
Assuming surfac.e height "h" is a Gaussian distributed random variable with local mean, p is
•
P, = exp [- 8 ( 1tcrh :in 0~] ... (4.71)
where p1 = scattering loss factor 0; = angle of incidence

A = wavelength crh = standard deviation of the surface height
The Equation (4.7.2) was modified to give better results as,
... (4.7.3)
where 10 = Bessel function of first kind and zero order
J?>e reflected .fields for h > he can be computed for rough surfaces using a modified reflection coefficient as,
f rov,i, = P, f ... (4.7.4)
Tedi-Neo Pabfication.,,_ IF'here Author, impire innontion

~
~ Mot>ll8 eomm. S tem MU-Sem.7-E&TC 4·32
fhis phenomenon is significant only if receiver or transmitter Is located In highly cluttered environment. ft dorrunate•
; diffused IR propagations when the wavelength of signal 111 such that the roughne111 of wall results in e~temive
scattering.
In ,nobile communication foliage causes scuttering.
In the mobile environment where scattering is induced by large object~. the scattered signal strengths can be fouod,
aadar C~ Section (RCS) of a scattering object is defined a.~ the ratio of power density of the signal scattered in the
direCtion of the receiver to the power density of the radio wave incident upon the scattering object. It's unit ;, square
rneters.
RCS = Power density of signal scattered in receivers direction
Power density of the radio wave that is incident on the scattering object
finally, the received power has to be found out in mobile radio ~yst.cms. It gives all the details related to propagation of
the radio wave travelling in free space that is incident on a scatterer present at a distant location.
:J 4.8 Link Budget Design
_ Toe radio propagation models are developed using a combination of analytical and the empirical ~ - For practical
link budget design we can follow any one of the methods.
(i) The empirical method is where we have fitting curves. We need to collect the data and then apply on curve and
get related parameters of designing.
(ii) Analytical methods are those where we have all the datas and then we apply them on different equations. So. we
are able to consider the known and unknown propagation factors.
_ The empirical methods do not provide flexibility.
_ Over passage of time, classical propagation models arc developed inorder to predict large scale coverage for mobile
communication systems design.
Path loss models are used for link budget designing. The path loss models estimate the received signal level as a
function of distance.
a. 4.8.1 Log-distance Path Loss Model
- The propagation models fndicate that · the average received signal power decreases logarithmically with distance
irrespective of whether the radio channel is indoor or outdoor.
The average large-scale path loss for a Tx-Rx separation is expressed as a function of distance by using path loss
exponent n. The path loss is,
PL (d) cc (¾Y ...(4.8.1) or PL (dB) = PL (do)+ !On log(¾) ... (4.8.2)
where n path loss exponent d Tx - Rx separation distance

do close-in reference distance
- The bars in Equations (4.8.1) and (4.8.2) signify the average of all possible path loss values for a given value of d.
- The value of n depends on specific propagation environments as shown in Table 4.8. I.
Tem-Neo Publicatiom_ Where Author, in!pire iflJJOration _,4 S,4C11JNSH,4Jf y ~

~ Mobllo Comm. lorn MU•Som.7•E&TC Mobllo Rndlo Pr n ntlon : Lor o Boolo p
l'nblc 4.IU : 1•nth los.'I cx1HmcnlH ror dllJcrcnl onvlronrucm~H
Environment PatM.!.oa Exponent,.-

rrcc spncc 2
llrbnn 111-cu cdhtlnr ri11llo 2.7 - 3.5
' -·
Sh11d11wcd 11rhan cdlulur nttllo J- 5
In building line-of-sight 1.6- 1.8
Ohstmcted in building 4-6
Obstructed in fuctories 2-3
a 4.a.2 Log-normal Shadowing
ln the log-distnnce 11nth loss model, surrounding environmentnl clutter is not considered thut cnn be different nt two
different locutions that huve the same Tx • Rx scpnrntlon. It rcsulL'i in 11101L'iurc<l sig1111ls that urc different lhon the
average value predicted.
The pnth loss is,
PL (d) [dB) =
PL (d)[dB) = PL (d0) + IOn log (~;J + X0 ... (4.8.3)
and P, (d) [dBm] = P, [dBm] - PL (d) [dl3] (with untenna gains included) ...(4.8.4)
•I•
[
I x" = zero-mean Gaussian distributed random vnriuhlc with st.11nd11rd deviation CJ
I
The log normal distribution describes lhe rnndom slmdowlng effects thnl occur over a lnrge number of rnensurcmcnt
locations thnt hnve same Tx-Rx separation. but different levels of cluller on the propngntion path.
This process is called log-normnl shndowlng. Log normal shadowing indicates thnt the measured signal levels at
specific Tx-Rx separation have Gaussian distribution. The standnrd deviation of Gaussian distribution tJmt describes
shadowing is expressed in dl3s.
This model cnn be used in computer simulntion to provide the received power levels for random locntions in the
analysis und design of cornmunicntion system.
As PL (d) is a random variable that has normnl distribution in dB nbout the distance dependent mean. P, (d) and
Q-function or the error function (ert) cnn be used to determine the probnbility that the received signal level will exceed
a particular level.
111e Q-function is given as,

00
Q(z) = k-n z
J cxp(-{)dx= ½[t -crr(~)] ... (4.8.S)
Where Q (z) = I - Q (- z)
The probability thut the received signul level will exceed II vnluc y cnn be computed from tho cumulntivc densily
function (CDF) us,
P, [P, (d) > y] = Q (x-?>) .. .(4.8.6)
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[iJ Mobile Comm. S tem (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 4-34

The probability that the received signal level is below y is
P,[P,(d)<y] ~ Q(~-y) ...(4.8.7)
~ - 4.9 Maximum Distance Coverage Formula
_ Because of the random effects of shadowing. some parts within a coverage area will be below a specific desired
~ signal threshold.
_ for a circular coverage area with radios R from the base station, and having desired received signal threshold Y we will
find U (y) i.e. the percentage of area with a received signal that is equal or greater than y.
_ Let d = r be the radial distance from transmitter, if P, (P, (r) > y) is the probability that the random received signal at
6d = r exceeds the threshold Ywithin as incremental area dA then,
21tR
U (y) = 1t~2 JP, [P, (r) > y] dA =1t~2 ff P, [P, (r) > y] r dr d0 .
0 0
Using Equation (4·.s.6),
P,[P,(r)>yJ = Q(y-~)= l_lcrr(y-P,(r)l _ .(4.9.2)

~ a 2 2 a'1i, J
_ l l
0 - 2 - 2 erf
(y- [P,-
.
PL (dq) + 10n log (r / do)JI
CJ '-P )
To deteanine the path.Joss atr = R.
- r1r, r.!.., -
PL (r) = 10 n log\.~+ ton log \.RI+ PL (do) ... (4.9.3)
- Then Equation (4.9.2) can be expressed as,
_ l ! rr(y-[13-(R(g.)+10iqi~+101qi(~l0
P, [P, (r) > y] - 2 - 2 e a../2 )
y- P1 + PL (do)+ I On log (B and b = ton_loge then.

If a = _M M
. crv2 crv2 .
R
U (y) = ½-ji! Jrerf(a+ b lnf} dr ... (4.9.4)
0
Substitutingt =a+ b ln (½).in Equation (4.9.4), we get,

U(y) = ½(1 -erf(a) + exp e-biab)[1 -erf(1 ~ab)]) ... (4.9.S)
Tedi-Nee Publications-~ Aatl»n irlspire iru,,watioa .-A SAanNSHAH Yeature

~ Mobile Comm. Systom (MU-Som.7-E&TC) 4.35 Mobllo Radio Propogollon : Largo Scalo F~
If the signnl level is selected such thnt P, (R) =y (I.e. n =0)

then, U(y) = ½[1 +cxp(~)(1-crfa))] ... (4.9.6)
Equation (4.9.5) can be cvnluntcd fo r 11111ny values of a nnd n ns shown in Pig. '1 .9.1.
P1 IP,(r) > YI
1.0
0:9
0.9 0,85
0.8
0.75
0.8 0.7
:B
::, 0.65
0 .6
0 .7
0.55
0.5 .
0.6
..
0.50 3 4 5 6 7 8
2
o/n
Fig. 4.9.1 : U (y) as a function of probability of signal above threshold on the cell boundary
If n = 4, cr = 8 dB and if boundary has 75% boundary coverage then the area is equal to 90%.
:> 4.1O Empi rical Formula for Path Loss
ca. 4.10.1 Describe empfrical formula for path loss In mobile networks.
Hata model is used for empirical formulation of the path loss provided by Okumura model. It is valid from
150- 1500 MHz.
The median path loss in urban areas is

L (urban) (dB) = 69.55 + 26. 16 log fc - 13.82 log h10 - a (hre) + (44.9 - 6.55 log h,.,) log d ... (4.10.1)
where f, = frequency in (MHz) from 150 MHz to 1500 MHz
h10 = effective transmitter (base station) antenna height ranging from 30 m to 200 m.
hre = effective receiver (mobile) antenna height ranging from I m to 10 m.
d = Tx - Rx separation distance in Km.
a (h,,,) = correction factor for effective mobile antenna height that is a function of the size of the coverage area.
The mobile antenna correction factor for small city is,
a (h,.J = ( I.I log re - 0.7) hre - ( 1.56 log r0 - 0.8) dB ... (4. 10.2)
a_(h,.J for large city is,
2
a (h,e) = 8.29 (log 1.54 h,c) - L. I dB for fe ~ 300 MHz
2
a (h,J = 3.2 (log 11.75 h,.) - 4.97 dB for f, ~ 300 MHz ... (4.10.3)
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[i] Mobile Comm, S tern MU-Sem.7-E&TC 4-36

In suburban nren, tho pnth loss is,
L (dB)= L (urbun) - 2 tog G;Y- 5.4 ...(4.JOA)
for path toss in open rural ureas.
L (dB) = L (urban)-4.78 log r: + 18.33 log fc -40.94 ...(4.l0.5)
:> 4.11 Indoor Propagation Models
U(i·.t.11 rt1note.on ,: Indoor propagation model

The mobile to mobile radio communication can be
analyzed with respect to the indoor propagation inside
buildings. The indoor propagation is influenced by the
mechanisms : reflection, diffraction and scattering. (1) Partition losses : same floor In a bulldlng
It is important whether the doors in the indoor building (ii) Partition losses : between floors In a building
arc open or closed. This is because the radio signal level
will vary depending on the status or doors. (Ill) Log distance path loss model
The mounting of antennas has an impact on the large- (Iv) Ericsson multiple breakpoint model
scale propagation. If the antenna is mounted on ceiling
then the mobile strength will be stronger than the (v) Attenuation factor model
mounting antenna on desks with partitioned rooms. Fig. 4.11.1 : Indoor propagation models
Many indoor propagation models are available. They are :
- The indoor propagation has become important with the development of Personal Communication Systems (PCS). The
communication between mobile-to-mobile was focussed more on indoor propagation aspects. The indoor propagation
within the buildings is dependent on features like layout of building, the construction materials and the building type.
If the system is not properly designed then there might be greater gain loss occurrence in signal propagation. The
channels regarding the indoor propagations are divided into two groups called as "Line-Of-Sight" (LOS) and
"Obstructed Signal (OBS)".
B.. 4.11.1 Partition Losses: Same Floor In a Building
The buildings have many partitions a'nd obstacles that form the internal and external structure.
Generally houses use wooden frame partition with plaster board to fom1 the internal walls and have non reinforced
concrete or wooden between the floors. Whereas the office buildings use movable office partitions so that the space can
be easily reconfigured. The office buildings use metal reinforced concrete between the floors.
If the partitions are formed within the building as a part of the building and if reconfiguring the partitions is not
possible, then such a partition is called as hard partition.
If the partitions are reconfigurable and do not span to the ceiling then they are called as soft partitions e.g. movable
office partitions.
The partitions vary widely in their physical and electrical characteristics. Depending on the nature of partitions, the
mobile signal strength will vary.
Tedt-Nf:o ~ ~Atrtllors ~inmtffiotr -4 S.40/INS/l,fJ/ y ~

Ii] _,_ ea.m,_ s:r:,••l(MU•Sem.7-E&TC) 4-37 Moblll """"' P"ft9"doo; \:Ji:~,
Table 4.11 .1 ls Jh,m u cumrlcs for 101.~ due 10 t.llf'l'crcnt m111ttrinl~. ~
Table • . 11.1 : UR or rrw rnatrrtab u.tNt ln buUdlna and IOtLW.t due lo them
All mctnh
Type .,.. . .rtll .... .......
26
Aluminium sliding 20A
foll lnsulntlon 3.9
Concrete hloclc wall 13
Ui;lu tcJJile ln\'cnlory 3-5
Mctl'll hlrmkct - 12 sqf\ -1 -7
Mctl'll ~1ni111 5
lkn y textile inventory 8 · II
MclAI uwrn1ory 4.7
Mc-tnl invc-nlOI)' rnck~ • 8 sqf\ -1 • 9
Empty cnnll'Onnl invc-nlol)' bO.\c, 3·6
Cellini; Jur t I •R
2.5 111 ~ll'r:'lh'C m k w11h ,111.111 11\C'lul J ,rt (I< ½Cly p.1elc<l) 4 -6
4 111 11\Cl..'ll t,1 \ ,11.>nlt:r 10 • 12
.s Ill MUl";\l,'C I. d.. \\I 111 p: ("(' r pnxh,ct \ ( h'<ne Iy rue led) 2 ..,
.S 111 Mur:igc r.:1d.: \\ 11h l~c p.1("('r pn,xlucl< (tit hll)' Jl,lCl.rJ) 6
.S m ~to111gl." r.,c\ ,11th I ~ mrt.:11 [)Mt' (1tghtly p.1.d.<'d ) 20
T~ pic3.I Nil • m hioc 8 · 10
Scmi-.iu10111.:1tC'd ~mh lr linl." 5·7
0.6 m MtU:U-C rcinforr-c<l m ncrcLc p1llor 12 · 1-1
St:unlci., ~ ccl piping (or l"OOl: • oo l p~r, 15
Concn:tr " :ill 8 • I5
Coocrctc noor 10
Sheetrock (3/8 in) · 2 ~IC'ClS 2
DI)· plywood (3/.t in) • I sheet I •8
a 4.11.2 PartJUon losses : Between Floors In n Bulldlng
TilC p:utition losses bc:1wocn 1J1c floors or 11 building dcpc:nds on the co111plc1c design / plan of the construction of the
building.
TilC external proj«1Jon~ lhe numbc:r of wi ndows in the building and l11e presence of tinting (that attenuates the radlo
energy) etc. influence..~ the losses between 1J1c noors in u building. TI1crc may be great.er attenuation in radio energy,
Hence. lhc building construction plnn mu t be: carefully done ·o as 10 reduce the partition losses between the noors.
Tllble 4. 11.2 shows lhc ,,a1uc.s for Aoo.r Auc.ouatioo Factor (FAF) in three buildings at 9 15 MHz..
-A SIO/INSH,ll/ y.-

►
[i]
I - ·.:
t,Aobt1e Comm. em (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 4-38 Mobile Radio P e Scale Fadln
Table 4.l.U :FAF Jo bulLllngs
Bulldlng one . _
One floor 33:6 · -.·.
Two floors 44.0
Building two
One floor 13.2
Two floors 18.l
Three floors 24.0
Four floors 27.0
Five-floors 27.1
Bl.111dlng three
One floor 29.1 ,. ...
Two floors 36.6
Three floors 39.6.
- The floor_ attenuation factor reveals that as the number of floors increases the attenuation factor. (FAF) also increases
in decibels (dB). After about five or six floor sep~tions, very little additional path loss is obse~ed.
~ 4.11.3 Log-distance Path Loss Model
- This model emphasii.es that the indoor pathloss measurements must satisfy distance power law so that the path loss PL
in decibels is given as,
PL (dB) = PL (dJ + 10n log(~+ Xa
where PL pathloss in dB
n path loss exponent and depends on the surroundings and building type
X0 normal random variable having standard deviation of 'a' dB
- Some of the typical values of pathloss exponent n and standard deviation a at different frequencies in different
buildings are given in Table 4.11.3.
- Table 4.11.3 path loss exponent and standard deviation measured in different buildings.
"'~ -
Table4.11.3
••~}:" •· • , ....-;---,,-r,:• ._.
t~fti~».,un~ -ii~~,; ·;~t l~ f ,.'.,
)~~ ~
n ~ - •r
», . ~ .. ,,.,
Retail stores 2.2 8.7 914

Grocery store 1.8 5.2 914
Hard partitioned office building 3.0 7.0 1500
Soft partitioned office building 2.4 9.6 900
Soft partitioned office building 2.6 14.1 1900
Factory LOS
Textile factory 2.0 3.0 1300
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Mobllo Radio ProPaaatlon : Laroo Beale FatL.
I • Mobllo Comm. Svatom (MU-Som.7-E&TC) 4.39
~
~i, o(dD) 1, Freq&aencY MKz
l1 DuUdJna
Textile fnctorv
- N
2.1 7,0 4000
r>11ocr 1.8 6.0 1300
1.6 5.8 1300
Metal worklnR
Suburban home
Indoor Nlreet 3.0 7.0 900
Pnctory ODS
Textile factory 2.1 9.7 4000
Metal working 3.3 6.8 1300
a 4.11.4 Ericsson Multiple Breakpoint Model
Ericsson Multiple Breakpoint Model wa.s developed for

measurements in a multiple floor office building.
This model has four breakpoints. It considers an upper
and lower bounds on the path loss (PL) of the radio
signal. Path loss variations are observed for different
' . frequency (f) ranges. ----------------½---- ----
This model assumes that an attenuation of 30 dB for a '''
I
distance of I meter and frequency of 900 MHz. '' I I I
----------------~---- ~--·- ·-
Considering the antenna.s with unity gain, there is a '' ''
110L---L---...L.-.L...-~1"'-.....__ _..,.
deterministic limit on the range of path loss (PL) at a 1 3 10 20 40 100 meter(m)
specific distance by the Ericsson Multiple Breakpoint
model. Fig. 4.11.2 : Ericsson In-building path loss model
Fig. 4.11 .2 shows a plot of building path loss based on Ericsson model as a function of distance.
a 4.11.5 Attenuation Factor Model
Attenuation factor model includes the effect of building type and the variations caused by the obstacles. It is used for
indoor propagation models and campus networks.
It can be used to minimi:ze the standard deviation between the predicted measured path loss value to upto 4 decibels.
The auenuation factor model is given by,
PL (d) [dB] = PL (do) [dB]+ 10 n5 p log(£)+ FAF [dB] + L PAF [dB] ... (4.11.1)
Where, PL (d) path loss in decibels.
exponent value for same floor.
FAF floor attenuation factor for specified number of building floors.
PAF partition attenuation factor for particular construction considering a single ray between transmitter
and receiver.
The method of drawing a single ray between transmitter and receiver is called as primary ray tracing.
I ,
, ' 'I Tedi-Neo Publiatiom_,_ mere Author, iMpire innonti'1n -4SACHJNSll,4/11'~

p
{iJ Mobile Comm. em (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 4-40 _Mobile Radio P
Setective values of FAF and better estimate of n and cumulative path]osses witl lead to an accurate attenuation factor
Jl)OdeJ.1n Equation <4-11.1), FAF is replaced with a path]oss exponent vaJue and can be rewritten as,
PL (d) (dB] = PL (do) {dB]+ 10 nMP Jog ( !) + :E ~AF fdBJ ... (4.11.2)
Where Path Joss exponent based on measurements through multiple floors.

Table 4.11 ,4 shows typical values of n for a wide range of locations in many buildings.
Table4.U.4
4~~~«ir'i»iiilciinif':.' ...,..,,(dB ,,.
., ,,, , . . - ·- . _ . . ~....f11
..;, r..~~pfl~pc,11!,
1 """' - - -··-""~· ·"~"', """~
.-.;!!, ,~ :q~ . >:
Office building 1 same floor 238 3.27 1L2
Complete building 320 3.54 12.8
Office building 2
Sarne floor 37 3.25 5.2
Compute building 100 4.33 13.3
All buildings same floor 501 2.76 12.9
Building with one floor 73 4.19 5.1
Building with two floors 30 5.04 6.5
Building with three floors 30 5.22 6.7
All locations 634 3.14 16.3
Grocery store 89 1.81 5.2
Retail store 137 2.18 8.7
Scatter plots showing actuaJ measured path loss in two multi-floored office buildings are shown in Fig. 4.11.3.
130
• ■
Pathloss f
PL In dB I n=3
60
n=1
30
1m 10m 100m
Separlltlon distance o!T-R In m -

1. r:.,---- --;i
, ·symbols ...L--- --- - ----
:~
l:o+Same11oor'
t\ ,<><>t1··..,. :( J•.~ ,..' ' c~.i
- ---- - .... -, ■ -+ Eleva1or, l
ha
~.~
·:.:.:one
,...•________
,_,,
11oo,+1
+ T., ·1•-~•,.,~
.,,,..,,,--,, IVUJ'.,,...
..
,.,,,..,,
~
I WO
2. Notations :
f-+ .914 MHz
. a-+ 12.8 dB; n=3.5
Fig. 4.11.3
Tecb-Neo Publicatiom- Wh~ Alltf»ninspire intK,ntioD -A SAOBNSIJAll Yeat1zre

Ii] - °"""' °l:!"" \W-llem 7,u,9 +Al
The ln.b\Jlldlna ptl.h~u, follo•, lht fret tf'!(f Jo\! r l!IC.fM1 l~
-
fl'(.ftttti
-
•ith r~
"31""" I I.,. li<,,lo '=:a
,.,.._-.-e• n:f «Jl'l"Klttm-. if ill 1
matunoot huOdtng. the ••mn ff'f ~•i(,,n ,,._.,,. ~ , k.
"-Cd) (dDI "' M.(1\i}llfflJ, lllt.1C,J • f~J i t/\f?(<ftlJ-f Lf'APllfflJ

Where, tt l1 lhc attawaJino ('(lftualll fot t.bannt_l 111th wail dlJ p« n~t(.f.
fahlt 4.11 J r,u,1dt-, \"alut.1 ol a » 1 tunctloa ot frcquu,cy.

Tablt 4.11..5: AllmuaJlon factnf rnnd,I
Lield11 a•••••
(nilll)
Fr1,a UJfl(Hlt
Buikling I : 4 "'OfY 062 8.50

0.51 1700
0.47 4CXX)
Building 2 : 2 MOf)' 0.48 &50

0.35 1700
0.23 4CXX)
Ex. 4.11.1
Gi\'Cn an indoor path lo~s model or I.he form :
PL (d) dB • 40 + 20 log d + L FAF d ~ Im. Where d is measun:d in meters. find I.he rrcan ~ivnJ pown bct'Wff'!I ttw.
floors of a building in FAF is I 5 dB per floor. Assume I.he trnrumitter rndintes 20 dBm and unity giun antcnn.u ~ tncd •
both I.he tr:wmitter and receiver, und that I.he straight line p;ith between the trnnsmitter lllld rccei\·cr 11 I Sm throe~ ~
floors.
... @Soan.:
• ..r
Given: d• 15 m
Number of floors = 3
for 3 floors 1: FAF = 3 x 15 = 45 dB

Pr = 20dBm
FAF = l5dBperfloor
PL (d) {dB) = 40 + 20 log d + L FAF = 40 + 20 log (15) + 45
= .W+20log(l5)+45=85+24
PL (d) (dB) = 109 dB
~ 4.12 Outdoor Propagation Models
TI>e nature or propagation or a radio signal depends on the MtUCturt or lhc tcm.ln. The roobik rommu.nbtioo S)i!tal
cfficicntJy depends oo the structure o.f the imguw tmu.in contoun.
TI>e temtin profile nocds to carefully itudled And mcl)utcd in on!cr 10 find the p.l1h lo.u co~iu in ndii>
propagution.
-•-~UJIJYJllf/1,.._

►
_ri1 Mobile eomm. S _tem MU-Sem.7-E&TC 4-42 Moblle Radio P
- The various terrain structures arc :

(i) Mountains
Outdoor Pn,piiiilUGII
Models
(ii) Tall ~ldings
1. Longley-Rice
(iii) Hilly re_gions
{M Trees and other obstacles 1hat affect signal propagation. 2. Ourldn'B Model
_ aence, in -such -a heterogeneous type of terrain, calculating path
3. Okumura Model
loss component is difficult and there arc several models
suggested for the outdoor propagation environment. They are 4, Hata Model
called as outdoor propagation models. They compute the path
Joss .and signal .strength of radio transmission under mobile 5. PCS Extension to Hata Model
enviJollIIlCDt- a. Wideband PCS Mlcrocell Model
_ The different outdoor propagation models arc shown in
Fi_g. 4.12.l _
Fig. 4.12.1 : Outdoor propagation models
~ 4,12.1 Longley-Rice Model
_ Jtis also called as "ITS irregularterrain model".
_ This model can be applied for point-to-point communication systems in the frequency range between 40 MHz to 100
GHz for different types of terrain profile.
_ The transmission loss can be predicted using the geometry of path in different terrain profiles as troposphere refraction.
The-signal ·strength ~an be predicted within the radio horizon·with the help of two way ground reflection model.
- With the help -of Fresnel-Kirchoff-Knife -edge· models, it is -possible to determine the propagation over isolated
obstacles.
- To make troposcatter predictions over long distances and for predicting far field diffraction losses in double horizon
paths, forward scatter theory is used.
- A computer program for simulation of this model is available for predicting path loss and signal strength of radie
propagation with respect to terrain profile, specifically in the frequency range between 20 MHz and IO GHz. For these
calculations many parameters are needed. lbese parameters include :
{i) Transmission frequency {ii) Swface r~fractivity
{iii) Path length (iv) Antenna -height
(v) Polarization (vi) Ground-dielectric-constant
{vii) Effective radi1:1s-0f-earth {viii) GI'OIHld-cooductivity
(ix) Weather forecast

Applying these parameters as inputs, a program is developed and executed for finding the transmission loss and signal
strength of the irregular terrain considered for mobile communication.
.The Longley-Rice model works in two models. They are:
(i) Point to point mode prediction (ii) Area mode prediction
Tedt-Neo Pablicatiom_ Here Aat/Jon impire DUH1f7tioa -4 SACHJNSIL4II f'tllffllffl

~ Mobllo Comm. S otom MU•Som.7•E&TC 4.43
► (I) Point lo point mode 1>redktlon
When 11 dctnilcd lcrrnin pronlo is nvnllnhlc ii Is posslhlo 10 tlc10rmln0 lho pulh Npeclnc pnrnmclors 1111d lhc prC<Jlctlo
is cnllcd m1 point-to-point mmle ,,~ktlnn.
► (II) ANu mode prediction
If the lerrnln prolilc Is not clcnrly nvnllnble then the Longley Rice model needs to implement mctJiod!I lo predict !ti
pnth specific pnrnmetcrs nnd such nn indirect prcdiction is cnllctl ns nrcn mode Jlrcdktlon.
Thero nrc vnrious moclilicntions in this model. It is developed for the urbnn 11re11 lo meet mobile communic111lon vnf~
predictions if nttcnuntion is produced bccnusc of urbnn cluller ncnr the receiving nntcnnn then un extrn tcr111 1
introduced. This exlrn term is coiled it~ "Urhnn f'nctor (UF)".
'5. 4.12.1(A) Drawbacks of Longley-Rice Model
(i) If fault occurs no correction procedure is nvnilnblc.

(ii) Folinge losses cnn occur.
(iii) Mullipnth effects nre not considered in this model.
'5. 4.12.2 Durkln's Model
• . This model is considered 10 he II case study. In this model a computer simulnlor referred ns "Durkln's pntb los
' slmulntor" is used to predict the lnrgc scule pnlh loss.
This model culculnlcs the pnth loss component in rndio trnnsmission with respect to different terrain stnictun:s. Thcr
ure lwo parts in the execution of Durkin 's pulh loss simulutor.
The first purt of this simulation algorithm assumes that the propug:11ion modelled is in LOS and diffructions from th
obslnclcs nrc along the rndiol uncl the receiving untcnnn will receive its energy nlong the rndiul.
The first purt of Durkin's model ulso uccesscs II d11111b11se of the service urea. II rcconslmcts the gro1111cVtem1in prolil
informntion. It is done considering 1he rndinl line joining the 1rn11smi1tcr umJ the receiver. The reflections from th
surrounding regions und locnl sc111tcrers nre excluded for lhe mc11s11rcmcnts.
Tile second purl of lhc simulation algorithm calc11l11tcs the path loss spccificully along the radial.
After ii is done, 1J1e simul111ed receiver location can he Rows
iteratively moved 10 different locations in the service aren 10

L-.t • • ■ ■
determine the signal s1rc11g1h. 2
• ■ ■ ■
The d111ub11sc of the topogrnphy is considcrccl lo

be n two dimensional urray us shown in
3 ■ •
2
■
3
■
4 - Columns
Fig. 4.12.2. Fig. 4.12.2 : Two dlmcnslmml 11rn1y of the clcv11tlon dntu
Each clement in the urmy corresponds to II servi ce area in the region whereas the actunl content of the urmy elcmc,
contnins elevution informntion lhnt is nbovc mean sen level. These models arc called "Olgltnl Elcvntlon Modt
(DEM)".

~ Mobile Comm. System (MU-sem.7-E&TC)
- It is possible to use interpolation methods to ftnd
approximate heights (H) that are observed from the
l3dia1 point of view.
4-44 Mobile Radio Propagation : Large Scale Fading
rn
Tx
• •. c /dJ!I •
~
■
■ .,.. ■ ■
fig. 4.12.3 shows the tropospheric grid with arbitacy ,,
/b
~tter and receiver locations. the radial between
the tranSmitter and receiver and points to use of
■a, /■
J
·• ■ ■
diagOml1 linear interpolation. Iii · ■• ■■
Rx(R)
Fig. 4.12.3 : Terrain prolile recomtructlon interpolated mapping diagram
_ Fig. 4.12.4 shows a typical reconstructed radial terrain profile.
Rx Tx
d3 =Re, d4 =Rd
Fig. 4.12.4 : Terrain profile re<:onstructed between Transmitter (Tx) and
Receiver (Rx) measured from interpolated mapping diagram
-------d--------.i
- Toe values are not found by a single interpolation
routine, but a combination of three for increased
accuracy. Hence at each point of the reconstructed --------------------------------· ----------------
_,.,.------------
profile consists of an a~rage of heights obtained from --------
the diagonal vertical (row) and horizontal (column)
interpolation methods..
- A matrix of distances from the receiver and

corresponding heights along the radial is generated
from the interpolation routines.
·-- -----'----L--.......;L..-_.......;L..._.......;L...----1
- Then this method uses knife-edge diffraction methods Rx d1 d2 di dn ix
to find the path loss. Fig. 4.12.5-: Line of Sight (LOS) dedslon making process
- In the Durkin's model measurements an important consideration is the line of sight (LOS) path that is expected to be
available between the radio transmitter and receiver (I'x - Rx) setup.
- For checking it the computer program that is developed must calculate the difference "6/9 between the height of line
joining the transmitter and receiver antennas for each and every point along the radial line as shown in Fig. 4.12.5.
- Depending on the value of parameter 6J (i = t 2., ... n) two decisions are made.
(1) If the value of ..6j (i = 1, 2, ... n)" is positive along the profile, then we coriclude that a LOS path does not exist
between the transmitter and the receivu.
(2) If the value of "6j (j = 1, 2, ...n)" is- neg.alive along the profile then we conclude that a LOS path exists between
the transmitter and the receiver.
'fem-Neo Pab1itatiom..__ ~ Authon iDspin: im,o,atiua _,4 5ACIJlNSIIAJI ~
►
[};] Mobllo Comm. S tom (MU-Som.7-E&TC 4-45 Mobllo Radio P
Uri<.ler co ndition 2 a-.suming pnth to have clear LOS. the algorithm checks the "Fresnel zone clearance" by calcu1
7
the Fresnel diff 1· 111111
rnc ton rammctcr v for j ground clements.
If vJ < - 0.8 for nil j = I, 2, 3 ... 11 then the free Hpncc propugntion conditions arc dominant. TI1en lhc received PoWcr.
calculated u ing frec space lmnsm1ss1on . . fonnula. 1'
lfvJ <- O.S nnd then two conclusions nrc done :

(i) Non-Linc of Sight (N-LOS) (ii) Linc of Sight (LOS) bul improper Fresnel 1.0ne clearance.
Por both the co~diLions free spncc power nml received power ls culculntcd. The nlgorilhm sclccL'i the ~mailer rower
11
the corrcct received power for the terrain proli,le.
For LOS profile with improper Fresnel w nc clcuruncc, ndditionul loss because of in:uJcquurc Fresnel zone clcar.tncc ii
to be computed. TI1is loss is nddcd to rhe received power.
For NLOS, the ystems grndcs the prohlem into four possihilitic..,. They nre :
(i) Single diffrnc:tion edge (ii) Two diffmction edges

(iii) Three difTrnction edges (iv) Multiple cliffmction edge~
A diffrnction edge is detected hy cnlcubting the :rni;b hctween 1he line Joining the trnn,mitter nnd receiver antenna,
ru1d the line.~ joining the receiver :mtcnn:1 to c:ich point on the rccon,tructed tcrrnin profile.
Tiic ma., imum of these angles is found and labelled hy profile point (ii,. h,).
Tiicn the reverse process of c-:ikulnting the angle, hct\\ cen the line Joining 1hc 1r:111,mitter an<l receiver antennas and lhc
lines joining tl1e tr.in miller antenna to each point 0 11 the rccon.-.1ructe<l 1err:1111 profi le. ·nie m:u imum of lhese angles art
calcul:ucd for c:ich point on the terr.tin nnd laliclcd hy profi le poin1 :i_, (cl,. h ).
1
Then if d 1= dJ then t.hc profile can be modeled :l!. a slnitle dUTntcllon l'<ll!c.
TI1c Fresnel p:ir.unetcr '"v·· c:in he dctem1ined fro m the length

of the ob~L'.l.cle above the li ne joining lhc lr:l0\1t1i11er and
n::cch-cr :intennus. TI1c addi1ion:il lo s c:tLL-.c~ by oh~t:icle "
ndded 10 free p.ice lo. s or plru1c earth lo~s.
If the condition for inglc diffmction edge i" not ,nti~fied then
a lest for two diffraction edge-; i executed. In the test the
computer looks fo r two edges in sighl of each other as shown
in Fig. -t. 12.6. fl,:!. -t.12.6 : Two dlfTrnctlon edges
The first atrenuntion is los-. al the second diffraction edge caused by first diffmc1io11 edge wi th the tmnsmiuer as the
rourcc and the second atrenuntion is the loss at the receiver cuused by second diffmc1ion edge with fi rst diffraction edge
ns source.
Thc sum of the t¼-O ntrenuations gives the udditionnl loss thnt is cuuscd by obstacles und is added 10 free space loos or
plane earth loss.
For three diffmcrion edges, the outer diffmction edge must

conlilin a single diffraction edge in between. It is dc1ec1cd by
calculati ng the line between the two outer diffrnction edges.
The process can be continued till mulliplc edges arc offered.

Fig. 4.12.7: Three diffraction edges
Ted,.Nc:c, PuhlicatioDL-- JTkre AatbtJf'8 ia_v,irr inno,'ation .....A SAGUNS/Wl Yenture

►
[iJ p.tobll8 eomm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC)

4-46 Mobile Radio Propagation : Large Scale Fading
i,#- .
~ 4_12.2(A) Advantages of Durkln's Model·
It can read digital elevation map.

(i)
(ii)
It can pcrfonn a site·spccific propagation computation on the elevation data.
(iii)
The path loss component (PL) and signal strength (dB} can be easily measured.
"- 4.12.2(B) Disadvantages of Durkln's Model
(1) It cannot predict propagation effects because of foliage, buildings, and other man-made structures.
(2)
lt does not consider multipath propagation.
"- 4.12.3 Okumura Model
Signal prediction in urban areas is the important factor in the propagation of signals in mobile communication. For this
several models are developed.
Okumura model is widely used model for signal prediction in the urban areas. It is applicable of frequency ranges
between 150 MHz to 1920 MHz and distances of 1 Km to 100 Km.
_ The Okumura model can be used for base station antenna heights ranging from 30 m to J000 m.
_ Okumura developed a set of curves that give median attenuation relative to free space (Auiu) in an urban area over
quasi-smooth terrain with base station effective antenna height (!\e) 200m and mobile antennaheight(b,J 3.m.
_ The curves were developed from extensive measurements using vertical omnidirectional antennas at the base station
and mobile.
- • The curves are plotted against frequency in the range 100 MHz to 1920 MHz as a function of distance from the base
station in the range l Km to I00 Km.
- The pathloss is calculated as,

L50 (dB) = Li,+ Amu (f, d)- Q (h1J- G(~-GA,u ...(4.12.1)
Where, Lp free space propagation loss
L50 : . 50th percentile (median) value of propagation path loss
A.nu median attenuation relative to free space
base station antenna height gain factor
mobile antenna height gain factor.

gain because of type of environment.
The antenna height gains depend on antenna height and are independent ofantenna r~diation patterns.
The plots of Auiu (f, d) and GAtea for different frequencies is shown in Fig. 4.12.8 and Fig. 4.12.9.
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30
ai' 25
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C)
<
20
0
0
.!!
C
0
;:,
~
8
300 500 700 1000 2000 3000
Frequency f(MHz) Frequency f(MHz)
Fig. 4.12.8 : Median attenuation relative to free space Fig. 4.12.9 : GAna corred ion factor for
(A_ (f, d)), ~ urning quasi-smooth terrain area diJierent types of terrain
The different terrain parameters for e.g. isolated height of the ridge, the average slope of the terrain, the terrain
undulation height all require to be measured carefully.
We can observe from the Okumura model that G(h,J varies at a rate of 10 dB/decade and G(hJ varies at a rate of
20 dB/decade and fur heights tfrat are less than 3m.
I'
G(~.) = 20 log (2~) l 00 m > hie> 30 m
GO\e) = 10 log t;) hre~ 3 m ...(4.12.2)
G(h,.) = 20 log t;) 10 > h, > 3 m 0 m
B.. 4.12.3(A) Advantages of Okumura Model
(1) It is a.simple method.

(2) It provides accuracy in path loss prediction for cellular and mobile radio systems in cluttered environment
(3) It has become standard for system planning in land mobile radio systems.
19.. 4.12.3(8) Disadvantages of Okumura Model
(i) It .show.s .slow response to rapid .changes in terrain.
I , (ii) It is a good approach for urban areas and not good for rural areas.
I Ex. 4.12.1
11
Find median path loss using Okumura's modei ford= 50 Km '1ie =100 m,~ = 10 m. If EIRP from base station is IKW at
·\ :' 900MHz, .findreceive.d power. TalceA.nu(900MHz(50Km)) =43 dB and GAREA =9 dB.
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►
[iJ Mobile eomm. S em (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 4-48
ftl' soln,:
'fhe free space path loss,
4- = 10 log [ (4~: dz]

Lp = 125.S dB
A,.., (900 MHz (50 Km)) = 43 dB
· hie= 10m GAR.EA = 9dB ~ = tOOm

WeknOW that
G(IIJ = 20 log( 2~) = 20 l~g (!~) =-6d~

G (b,.) := 20 log ( ~) =20 log (13~ = 10.46 dB
for Okumura model the total path loss is,
LSt(dB) = ½+ A,,.. (f, d)-G(~-G(h..)-GAREA = 125.S +43-(-6)-10.46-9 = lSS.04dB
The median received power is

Pr (d) = EIRP (dBm) - L.so (dB)+ Gr (dB)
EIRP = I KW=20log(l x t03)=60dBm

·:· P,(d)= 60dBm-t55.04dB+0dB=-95.04dBm
a 4.12.4 Hata Model

Hata model is used for empirical formulation. of the path loss provided by Okumura model. It is valid from
150 - 1500 MHz.
- The median path loss in urban areas is
L (urban) (dB) = 69.55 + 26.16 log fc - 13.82 log h1e - a (hrc) + (44.9- 6.55 log h.J log d .. . (4.12.3)
where re = frequency in (MHz) from 150 MHz to 1500 MHz

hle = effective transmitter (base station) antenna height ranging from 30 m to 200 m.
effective receiver (mobile) antenna height ranging from t m to 10 m.
h.-e =
d = Tx - Rx separation distance in km.
a (h.J = correction factor for effective mobile- antenna height that is a function of the size of the coverage area.
The mobile antenna correction factor for sma11 city is,
a ~ = (t.l log fc - 0.7) h.-e - (1.56 log f, - 0.8) dB ... (4.12.4)
a (h,J for large city is,
a (h,J = 8.29 (log 1.54 h.-el - 1.1 dB for fc ~ 300 MHz

2
a (h,J = 3.2 (log 11.75 h.-e) - 4.97 dB for fc ~ 300 MHz ... (4. 12.5)
Teclt-Neo Ptihlicatiom- ~ AttUMn impin:-innontio11 -A SACIIIN5llAH f ' ~

[iJ Mobile Comm. 5yBlam (MlJ-Som.7-E&TC) Mobile Radio Prop&oat1on : Large Scale ~
In suburban are.a. the pa1h loss is.
L (dB)= L (urban)- 2 log (tY- 5.4
For path loss in open rural areas.

L(dB) = L (urban)-4.78 log r2 + 18.33 log f, -40.94
C
.•.(4. 12.1)
Note : (i) lo Hata model there are no specific corrections like Okumura model.
(u) The predictions done by Hata model are like Okumura model upto I Km distance considcrati~OS::
(iii) Hata model is suitable for large cell mobile systems.
(iv) Hala model is not suitable for pcrsonnl communie3t:ion systems (PCS).
a. 4.12.5 PCS Extension to Hata Model

It is an extended model of the Ham model. It enables the prediction of median path loss (L) parameter to frequency of
2 GHz range.
1nc path loss (L) according 10 ~res-extension 10 Hn1n model" is

½Q(urban) = 46.3 + 33.9 log f, - 13.82 log h,. - 11('1,_.) + ( 44.9 - 6.6 log h,,.) log d + CM •.. (4.12.8)
;l Where Cw= 0 dB for medium sized ci1y and suburb.ID :ire.is 3 dB for metropolitan centers.
½o mcdi.an p:llh loss in decibels

f, frequency in GHz (1.5 Gllz-2 GHz)
a(h,J correction fac1or
h,. antenro heigh! al b:i.sc sution be1wc.cn 30 m 10 200 m
~ antenna height al mobile between I m to IO m.

d separation distance between tr.1nSmit1er antenna and receiver antenna bet we.en I Km to 20 Km.
a. 4.12.6 Wideband PCS Mlcrocell Model
In 1991 a 20 MHz pulsed transmitter at 1900 MHz was used to measure path loss, outage and delay spread in
microccllular systems.
In roobile communication systems parameters related to pathloss, coverage area and multipath can be found keeping lhe
line of sight (LOS) and obstructed environment (OBS) in mind.
Using base station antenna heights of 3.7 m, 8.5 m and 13.3 m and a mobile rccciYer with antcnro height of 1.7 m
above ground the statistjcs for path loss, coverage area and multipath can be developed.
The rwo ray ground reflection model is a beuer model to estimate the pathloss in line of sight microcclls.
1nc log wstance pathloss model is good for obslructed environment (OBS).
For nat earth ground renection model, the ws1ance al which the first Fresnel zone just becomes obslructed by ground
is.
. .. (4.12.9)
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[iJ
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t.4(>bile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC)
di . 4-50 Mobile Radio Pr,ega.,oo ~ Utfr g,M Fa&fg
For LOS con tions, a double regression
1....-..nr~ is convenient for ....... ou path loss model that usei a regrQiion breakpofot at t1,e (,r.~ Pres.rd 'lhf"II!}
c---- .. _,_, rements Omn·d· .
1 1rcct1onaJ , ,
· ant.en~ are ~ for predic:tinz p-'4th too~, f'"117 k;J.§ n t,'ltfl
as,
10 n1 log (d) + p
1 for I < d < d,
PL(d) - (.d) ,,,(4,JZ,J(fJ
- lOf½Jog\.ct, +l0n1logct,+P1 ford>d,
Wbef'C, p 1 is equal to PL (do) (P1 = 38.0 dB)
d is distance in meters
"••Dz: path loss exponents that are function of Iransm1tter

. he"rght.
For the OBS condition the path loss is,
PL (d)[ dB] = JOn Jog ( d) + p ,,,(4,J2,J . ,

1
n: OBS path loss exponent
d : distance in meters
P1: path loss PL (do) at do= Im
- For different antenna heights, the LOS and OBS values of n1 , "2 and standard deviation (OJ of log normal u~inz
component are given in Table 4.12.1 at 1900 MHz.
Table 4.12.l: Parameters or wideband mlcroc~II model at 1900 MHz
Transmitter antenna height Relght in meten(m)

ws OBS -
n, Dz CJ (dB) D CJ (dB)
High 13.3 2.07 4 . 16 8.77 2.69 7.94
Medium 8.5 2. 17 3.36 7 .88 2.56 7.67
Low 3.7 2. 18 3.29 8.76 2.58 9.31
- The log normal shadowing component lies between 7 dB to JO dB irrespective of the antenna hdght. 1be LOS
environment has less pathloss than the two ray ground reflection model.
~ 4.12.7 Walfisch and Bertoni Model (WBM)
- Walfisch and Bertoni model accounts for tall buildings and roof top heights that impact on the variations in signal
strength. It is done by using diffraction methods to produce the strength of the radio signal at street levels.
- It represents the pathloss as a product of three factors. They are :

(i) Free space pathloss (PO) between isotropic antennas.
(ii) Reduction in roof top signal level (Q), because of many buildings that over shadow the receiver at street .signal
level.
(iii) Signal Joss from roof top to street level (P1).
Pathloss in decibels is PL(dB) = Lo+ ½ts+ Lms

-A SAaHNSll.AR Yet1ture
Tttb-.Nec, Publications- Where Authon inspire UJD<MINll1

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~ -t.13 University OuctstJons and Answers
,. Ooc..1015
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Mobile Radio Propagation :
Small Scale Fading
small Scale Fading and Multlpath .................................................................................................................................5-1

5.1 • 5.1.1 Write short note on : Small scale fading. .. ............................................ 5-1
00
small-Scale Multipath Propagation ...............................................................................................................................5-1
5.2 ua. 5.2.1 Write short note on: Small scale fading. . .............................................. 5-1
factoce Affecting Small-Scale Fading················-·-·-·····-·····--·-····--·-·-·-··-·-···- · - · - - · - - - - -5-2
UQ. 5.3.1 List and discuss factors influencing small scale fading. . ...........................5-2
ua. 5.3.2 What are the factors influencing in small scale ladin ?
C•ltAIMdf&i,,tMN•l@icittNt41i'1ttdD•ltMM&Mi:j.jef1tfuifW............................s-2
ua. 5.3.3 E lain the factors influencln small scale fadin .
• . •· ml&~ • . ......................................................................5-2
ua. 5.3.4 Write short note on : Small scale fading. . ..............................................5-2
Doppler Shift ................................................................................................................................................................. 5-3
5.4
LO. 5.4.1 Describe the concept of Doppler effect with relevant mathematical expressions ................................. 3 s-
UEx. 5.4.2 ···························- ···--·······-·-···-·-···········---···· ,_ _ _ ..5-4
UEx. 5.4.3 ·····································································································································5-4
UEx. 5.4.4 .......................................................................................................................5-5
Measurement Parameters of Multipath Channels .........................................................................................................5-6
5.5
5.5.1 Time Dispersion Parameters ................................................................................................................5-6
5.5.2 Coherence Bandwidth (Be) ...................................................................................................................5-8
UO. 5.5.1 What is coherence bandwidth? ............................................................... 5-8
5.5.3 Doppler Spread and Coherence Time .........................·-············-····-·-·-··-··········--···---·---·5-9
5.6 Types of Small Scale Fading ......................................................................................................................................5-13
56
ua. · ·1 g~;;/Z ~;~~~~~wwi■tii,i,,,~:;. ~:~.~~ 1
.~.~.~~~~~~.~~~·······:•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 5-13
5.6.1 Small-Scale Fading Effects Due to Multipath Time Delay Spread ...................................................... 5-14
5
UQ. ·6.
2
-~&¥i&iMfflb~~~.~~.~~..'i:.~~~.~:~.~.~ 1 1
.~.~.~.~~~~~: .................................................. 5-1 4
5.6.1"(A) Flat Fading..........................................................................................................................................5-14
5.6.1 (8) Frequency Selective Fading ............................................................................................................... 5-15
5.6.2 Small Scale Fading Effects due to Doppler Spread ... ·-·····-···-···--·-··········-·--- ··--·-----5-16
UQ. s.s.a
UQ. 5.6.4
C.t&iga:,1:&rni-~tGlmeG,..11mna.~.'~~.~~~.~'.~~.~.~~'.~~:. ....... . . . . . . .... . . . .
Explain fading effects due to Doppler spread. ....................................... 5-16
5-16
UQ. 5.6.5 Classify small scale fading based on Doppler Spread. ............................5-16
5.6.2(A) Fast Fading.........................................................................................................................................5-16
5.6.2(8) Slow Fading ........................................................................................................................................5-17
6.7 Rayleigh and Ricean Distributions .......................... ....................................................................................................5-17
UQ. 5.7.1 Write short note on : Rayleigh and Ricean distribution .......................... 5-17
5.7.1 Rayleigh Fading Distribution ...............................................................................................................5-17
5.7.2 Ricean Fading Distribution ........................................................... ......................................................5-19
5.7.3 Difference between Rayleigh and Rlcean Dlstributlon ........................................................................s-2 o
UQ. 5.7.2 Differentiate between Rayleigh and Ricean distribution. C•iijtlll•t§Mf4JMtid --..5-20
6.8 University Questions ·····•·······.. ··········........................................................................................................................... 5-21
• Chapter Ends · ..................................................................................................................................5-22
························· .
►
~ Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 5-1 Mobile Radio Propagation : Small Scale Fad·
~
:> 5.1 Small Scale Fading and Multipath ~
A tenn ''Fadin~" 1s u~ to explain the quick changes or fluctuations in the amplitude and phase of the radio si81la!
over a short penod of time or travelling area neglecting large scale path Joss effects.
~e phen~menon of "fading" works with the obstructions in path from transmitter to receiver, after receiving the
different kinds of signals at different intervals of time. These signals are called multipath signals.
The multipath signals combine at the receiver antenna to provide a resultant signal that will vary in amplitude and
phase depending upon the distributions of intensity, relative propagation time of waves and the bandwidth of the
~mitted signal. The result of the multiple versions of the broadcast signal on different times at receiver and
mterference amongst them causes fading.
:> 5.2 Small-Scale Multipath Propagation

• I
Small scale fading effects are- generated because of multipath in the radio channel.
The three small ~ale fading effects generated by multipath (lfC :
. .
; (l). _;,• Time dispersion as a result of multipath propagation delays. · · ·""
' ,~ i . \.·. ,...,_ :· . ~ ·: . ; ..1 ....? ••
;:(ll):-:: Rapfd'yariations or fluctuations in the signal strength over a small travel distance or time interval. . ·... \ . , ~
•1 .,. ·; ,. . • . . • • ~-v '.. .:
" ~'- .. . y
:(Ill) >"qii_4ifferent multipath signals there can be random frequency modulation because of varying DoppTers lii.ftt
tr. .:,.... •·.~ ,,, . • . • '\,..,.. J. ·"" !
In ~rban areas, fading can be dominant due to small height of mobile antennas as compared to height of surrounding
structures.
This is because of no direct line of sight path to the base station. Even when line of sight exists, multipath occurs
because of reflections from the ground and surrounding structure.
The received signal at the mobile station may comprise of a number of plane waves with different amplitudes, phases
and angle of arrivals. Suen a phenome,non causes received signal to fade. Th~·cffec"t is more severe iri case ~f mobile
receiver but is also present even if receiver is stationary. •
If the objects in the radio channel are static, and motion- is considered to be only because of the mobile then fading is a
spatial phenomenon. The receiver undergoes various variations in fading because of constructive and destructive effects
of multipath waves at different points in the radio channel.
If the received signal is in deep fade: then the receiver can stop at_som~ location.
Fig. 5.2.1 shows rapid variations in the received signal level because of small scale fading as the receiver is moved over
a distance of few meters. The signal fades rapidly as the receiver moves.
Each multipath signal experiences an apparent shift in frequency because of rel~tive motion between the mobile and the
base station. Such a shift in the received signal strength because of motion is Doppler shift.
' , . . , / ..
· The doppler shift is directly proportional to the velocity and direction of motion of the mobile with respect to the
direction of arrival of the received multipath wave.
Tedi-Neo PublialioM- .•.-Wherr: Aul.hon inspire innol'lllioo ·-·A SAC/1/NSI/AH Penture

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Fig. S.2.1 : Small-scale radlng
~ 5.3 Factors Affecting Small-Scale Fading
ua."s.3.1
~·. .
~st
.
af!d.
.
discuss factors influencing small scale fading. MU - 0. 1(b). Ma 11. 5 Marks
uo.·s.3.2( Wha~ are the factors·influencing in small scale fading ?
• • !<- :'\ .. •
. ' MU- a. 1(c), May 12, 5 Marks, a. 1(c). Ma 14, 5 Marks. a. 1(d), Ma 18. 5 Marks
UC: 5.3.3
.
. ~lain the factors influencing small scale fading.
:..
A• '
..,
MU - a. 1(b), Dec. 12. 5 Marks, a. 1(b). Ma 16. 5 Marks
UQ. 5.3.4 · Write short note on : Small scale fading. MU - a. 7 a . Dec. 14. 10 r.1arks
Small scale fading is influenced by a number of factors occurring in radio channel. These include the following :
I I
(I) Multipath Propagation : The presence of reflecting objects and scatterers in the channel constantly ~tcs J.
constantly changing environment that dissipates the signal energy in amplitude, phase and time. Such random ph3.sc
and amplitudes of different multipath components can cause fluctuations in the signal strength. It induces signal
distortion, small scale fading or both. Multipath propagation increases the time required for the baseband sign:tl to
reach the receiver. It can result in smearing because of intersymbol interference.
(U) Speed of the mobile: Because of the relative motion between the base station and the mobile there occurs a random
frequency modulation because of varying doppler shift on each multipath component. Doppkr shift is directly
proportional to the velocity and direction of motion of mobile with respect to direction of arri\'al of rco:h-cd
multipath wave. The Doppler shift will be positive or negative depending on whether the mobile retth-er is mcl\;ng
towards or away from the base station.
(Ill) Speed or the surrounding objects : If the objects in the radio channel nre static nnd motion is considered to be
because of mobile then fading is a spatial phenomenon. Even when tho mobile receiver is stationary tk l"C"C"tivcd
signal can fade because of the surrounding objects in the radio channel.
This effect dominates the small scale fading, if the surrounding objects move at u greater speed th:tn the speed of the
mobile. Otherwise, the motion of surrounding objects can be ignored. Only the mobile speed needs to be considered.
_,4 S.40/INJRU( Yret1re
Tedi.Nee, Publiealiona-- Where Authon in.pire inno,.•tion

~ Uoble Conm. SX-,, (MlJ-Sem.7-E&TC) 5-3 Mobile RadiO Propagadcn: Smal Scoio ~
(b) Traom,fmoa bandwidth of the dwmel : If the transmitted radio signal bandwidth is greater than the bandwidth Of
the multipath channd, then the m:civcd sign.al will be distorted. The received sigm.l will not fade much~•~
area. The bandwidth of the channel can be quantified by cobcrcncc bandwidth.
(•) Cobumce bandwidth is figure of merit of system and is a measure of the maximum frequency difference for~
signals are slightly COO'Clatcd in amplitude. If the transmitted signal has narrow bandwidth in comparison to lilt
channel, the amplitude of the signal will vary rapidly but the signal will not distort in time.
:> 5.4 Doppler Shift
I1,,;,;IA=.;;SA.;;;.;;;.;t:.....:Desatbe~=:.:tbe:.:::ca=.~:::IC:epl:t:.:of::.!::::Doffiler~~eff:::,:ec:t~with:::·:.!.ral:.::.evant!!:.!!:.!!ma!h=.:·.:::ematical:==.:e=xpr=8SSIOOS.=·==::;._-...;.....==;,;;._- - J
Cnosidcr a mobile th.u is moving 31 a constant velocity v, along a path segment having distanced between points A
and B while it rccci\'cs signals from a remote source S ns hown in Fig. S.4. I.
lbc di!Tcrencc in p:sth length tmvcled by the wn,·e from source S to mobile at points A and B is t:J = d cos8 =v Al
cos8.
fl!. = time oa:.dcd for mobile Lo rcc.11 from A to 13.

The phase cfungc in received s.igMI bcc.11.1~ of diffCl'CllCA: in p:sth length is.
.....
uv = T2MI =->-.
2nv6t
- co o ... (5.4.1)
:. lbc npp:srcnt ciunge in frequency or Doppler ~ift is given by fd ¼here
fd = ...!.. M -~ co
2.:t 61 - ).
o
. .. (SA .2)
E.qll31ioo (SA.2) rel.11es Doppler shift to the

mobile velocity and spatial angle between the
direction of motion of the mobile and dinx:tion
of arrival of the wave.
The Doppler shift is positive if the mobile is
moving towards the direction of arrival of the A....,,.---d---....i~B ►
signal and dopplcr shift is negative if the mobile

is moving away from the direction of the arrival t£2~-v
of the signal.
Fig. 5.4.1 : Doppler effect
I Ex. 5..4.1
A n ~ is heading towards a control tower with 500 kmph, at an elevation of 20°. Communication between aircraft and
COO[ro rower occurs at 900 MHz. find out the expected Doppler shift
ft1 Soln.:
1
GivtA!
500x 10
V = 500 bnph = 6() X 6() = 138.&8 m/s._. 8=20°. f = 900 MHz
C 3 X Jo' J
). = ( - 900 x l06 = 3 m
~Mlic■•••
-4 SM:/llNSIUII " - '

p
[iJ ~Comm.System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) Mobile Radio Propagation : Small Scale Fading

- The Doppkr shift expected is.
f, : ~ : 138.88 X COS 20° 130.004 390 Hz.

).. 1 = 1 =
1 1
I( the plane banks suddenly and heads for other direction, then the Doppler shift will be - 390 Hz.
.... IA,2 r.~u • Dec 10. Ma· 11 . Dec. ~3.10 Marks
o,,,idrl a JDMJ"iaa tlw Ddiares a sinusoidal carrier frequency of 1850 MHz.. For a vehicle moving .60 mpb. ~ ~
.--carrier frequency if the mobile is moving (a) directly towards tbc tnmsmittcr (b) directly away from chc i:ransmi~
(c) ii a 6ection that is pcrpcndjcuJar to the direction of arrivnJ or the transmitted signal.
@soan.:
f, (c:ania frequency) = 1850 MIit.
1
), C
c 3 x I0
f; = IR50x 10' = 0 · 162 m.
Ve.hide ~peed v = 60 mph = 60 x 1.609 == %..56 k.mph = 96.56x 10'

I I
60 60
., = 26.82 mis
(a) To find n:.ccive-J cruric.r frequc_nC); \Ii he~ mobile is moving directly 1ow:irds 1rarumi11er. The Doppler shift is positive
and the n:ccivcd frequency i •
0 = 0°
0° = 1850 X 10 + ~~i~ = 1850 X 10&+ 165.55: 1850.000166 MHz

6
(b) To fi nd recched c:uricr frequency \lihcn mobilc is moving directly awny from the transmitter. The Doppler shift will
be ncg&he. The n:cci , ed frcqucncy i • /
0 = 0°
r = f, - ~d =f,~I cos o =1sso x 10o - 026.82

V O
_162 =1849.999834 MHz
(c) To find the received ClJJTier frequency in II direction pcrpcndicuhtr 10 the direction of arrival of the transmitted signal
I
0 = 90°
•·• co 90° = 0 There will be no Dop~r shin.

Hence the received ignal frequency is same as ll1e transmitted frequency of 1850 MHz.
UEI.LU f.llU • Mn 18. 10 Marks
1
A bate Mallon tw a 900 MHz transmitter and n vehicle is moving at the speed of 50 kmpb. Compute the received carrier
frcqucoq iflhc vehicle is moving : - - -, -
(i) Directly towards the BS, (ii) Directly away from the BS,
Ob) In a direction that is fH to the direction of arrival of the transmitted signal?_
01o1n. :
1
C 3x 10
~ (c.anicr frr.qucncy) = 900MHz l. = r;- 900 x 10•-033m
50x to'
Vehicle5pcedv = 50 bnph = 60 X 60 V = 13.88 mis
--4 S,fQ//J(5IUII ~

[i] Mobil, Comm. 9p1om (MU-Som.HATCJ 11-6 M- f1odk> PTZ'""" : llmd llcoJo F':t:i
(I) l\, flnd the t\'\'Ch'NI rnn·k r frt<iurncy when vehicle 1, moving dlrcctly to Wlllll• lhe beMl AfAtlon.
The °"rJ,lrr ~hll\ Is ~llh-c. Titc ttttln~d frflfU('flCY I,,
0 tt 0
l " 1J,8K 900, OOO(Mll Mlf.i.
r • r, .. ,. l!l , , i · A C'Q\ O" ,! 'JOO )( IO .. O.JJ l!I
(ii) To find rccclvoo can-kr fll'qucncy when ,·rltlclc h rn11vln1t ,llrcctly Away from lllc ba...t.e 8181 lon.
The Doppler "hll\ will l>c nrg111lvc. Tiic rrcdvcJ frt",111eocy I,
0 • O
r C '
C
_ ,
d
11(- Yrosoo,,, 900 x 106_ 103.)flJK a899•9999579~Ub.
t .), ,
(iii) T~ find the rcccivcd cnrrier fn-qucncy inn direction 60° 10 the direction of arrival of the ltnO\miual ,igt1.1I.
· · o= 600 :. cos o = 0.5 Doppler ~hift is posilive
6 13.88 f I'
f = f, + f4 = 900 X 10 + 0.3) X 0.5 = 900 • 000021 rt -il
~~ .
In a ccllufar system. if carrier frequency fc = 900 MHz and mobile velocity is 70 km/hr. Compute the re-caved Clffll!r
'
frequency if the mobile is moving
(i) directly towards the transmitter
(ii) directly away from the transmitter
,,,, (ill) In a rurcction which ls perpendicular to the direction of arrival of the trnnsmiUcd signal.
@ Soln.:
Given: fc (carrier frequency) = 900 MHz.
8
C 3 X 10
A = ,: =900 x 10& = 0.33 m.
)
1
Vehicle speed v = 70 km/hr= : \ ~ V = J9.44m/s
(a) To find received carrier frequency when mobile is moving directly towards transmitter. The Doppler shift is pouth--c
and the received frequency is,
8 = 0°
V 6 )9.44 6
f = f, + fd =f, + I cos O = 900 x IO + 0.333 = 900x IO + 58.392 = 900.00005839 Mlh
O
(b) To find received carrier frequency when mobile is moving directly away from the transmitter. The Doppkr shift -.ill
be negative. The received frequency is,
8 = 0°
(c) To find rhe received carrier frequency in a direction perpendicular to the direction of 1mi,•al of lbe tnul.Smittcd sigiw
0 = 90° :. cos 90° = 0 Then: will be no Doppler shln.
Hence the received signal frequency is same us 1he 1ransmi11c:d frequency of900 MIiz.

riJ. ~ eo,m,. System (MU•Sern.7-E&TC) 5-6 Mobile Radio propagation: SrnaD Scale Fad$J
~ Measurement Parameters of Multlpath ·Channels

E---
n,e J11Ulripatb channel parameters are extracted from the power delay profile of a multipath channel.
tioa..
~ ,se some methods to measure the power delay profile. 11 is expressed as plots of relative m:eivcd power as a
- fu.octton of excess delay with respect to expired lo fixed delay reference.
n,e small scale power delay profiles are found by calculating the average delay profile measurements over a local area.
!lr. .[)epet1ding on the type of multipath channels and the time resolution of the probing pulse, the researchers sample
spatial separations of¾· This sampling will prevent large scale averaging bias observed in the small scale SlatiSlics.
1,-fanY instantaneous samples thul arc close to each other are measured and plotted as shown in Fig. 5.5. I. The graph is
for a 900 MHz cellular system ouldoor channel measurement.
n,e irnportanl paramclers of multipath channels are :

~ (i) Tirne dispersion
(ii) Coherrncc bandwidrJ1
(iii) Doppler spread and coherence Ii me.
r -00
E
~ -95
E
ler shin is positi,-c
0 100
Excess delay time period In microseconds -
J9MHz
Fig. SS.I : Outdoor power delay profife
)oppler shift will

a s.s.1 Time Dispersion Parameters
- The lime dispersion para mc1ers are useful in quanlifying the differenl multipalh channels so that several multipath
channels can be comp:ircd.
- The mul1ipath paramc:1ers~ be determined from lhe,:,'wer delay are :
mitred signal (i) Mean excess delay (ii) Rms delay spread (111) Excess delay spread
- The time dispersive properties arc taken into consideration wilh respect to the wideband multipath channels. They are
quantified by their mean e.xcess delay T and nilS delay <1.r
1•Nt. l'uhlialio-- lf'«re Autlx,n impire .i.aDoratioa -A SACUJNS/U/1 l'eatr=

[§;] l.lloblo Comm, 8r'"m (MU,Bem,7-E&TCJ 5-7 Mobile Radio Propagation : Small ~ ~
·nie mean e ~ defay 't is c.xprulled a11,
L ~ 'ti L P(tJ ti
T a _k- - .. .;..;.le_ __
•· .(s.s.1)
La: LP('tJ
k k
·nie rffllj delay lipread is rhe ,;quarc root of the 8CCOnd central moment of the power delay profile.
(1T = ✓1:2 -('t)2 •••(S.S-2)
L a:-r: LP('tJ't:
-2 k k
't =
ra:
k
=
LP(!J
k
...(S.SJ)
'flltl'. e dcl1.1y11 are meaimred relative to the fin,1 detectable signaJ arriving at the receiver at 'to = 0. The typical values of
the rm11 delay lipread are of the order of microseconds in outdoor mobile radio channels and nanoseconds in ind00r
radio channels.
Table 5.5.1 gives typical values of rm,; delay spread measured.

Table 5.5.J : Measured valu~ of RMS delay spread
Environment ' Frequency / •, . .' RMS Delay ~preadJaj'f :7,

Urban 910MHz 1300 ns average
600 ns standard deviation
3500 ns maximum
Urb11n 892 MHz 10-25 µs
Suburban 910MHz 200-310 ns
Suburban 9IOMHz 1960-2110 ns
Indoor 850MHz 270ns
Indoor 1500MHz I0-50 ns
Jndoor 1900MHz 70 - 94 ns average
1470 ns maximum
TI1e rm~ del;1y Hpread (a1 ) and mean excess delay T arc defined with respect to the single power delay profile that is a
ipatial average of close consecutive impulse response observed with respect to a local area.
Me:u1urcment.~ arc done at local areas to find out the statistical range of multipath channel parameters for a mobile
communicu1io11 Hylitem over large area.
Maximum exec/is delay (X dD) of a power delay profile is the time delay duri'ng which the multipath energy fa11s to X
dO below the maximum. Jt is defined ali 'tx - 't0•
firHl 11rriving signal
maximum delay at which multipath component is with in X dB of the maximum
't'x iR called as excess delay spread of power delay profile.
'fr.rl1-Nno ,..,f,llr.11tlon#.....,..... lfl,rr,, Authon, in.pin: i1111()r11lion ·-" SACmNSI/All r ~

~ Mobile Comm. S tem (MU-Sem.7-E&Tc
5-8 Mobile Radio Pro a atlon : Small Scale Fadln
'fhe JJ)3Ximum excess delay defines the te
It is essential that the thrc h mPoral extent of the multipath signal that is above a particular threshold
OI
value. L s d value must relate the multipath noise floor to the maximum received multipath
co01ponen
Fig 5.5,2 shows maximum excess delay fo .
· r mu1lipath components within 10 dB of the maximum.
0
r-- RMS delay spread = 46.40 na
------- Maximum Exoees delay < 1o dB = 84 na
Threshold level = -20 dB

-30.__ _ _ _....;.___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Excess delay (ns) -
Fig. 5.5.2 : Excess delay for multipath power delay profile
-2
- Practically 'r , t and crt are dependant on the noise threshold. The noise threshold differentiates between thermal
noise and multipath components. Noise is processed as multipath if noise threshold is low. The resultant values of
t , it2 and crt are high.
Fourier transform is used to relate the power delay profile and the amplitude frequency of the mobile radio channel.
In addition to the delay spread parameters in time domain, the coherence bandwidth is used to characterize the mobile
radio channel in frequency domain.
The parameters rms delay spread, and coherence bandwidth are inversely proportional to each other.
a 5.5.2 Coherence Bandwidth (Be)
;MU.!':,\Q.::1'(a), May 17. 5 Marks
The delay spread parameters characteriu the mobile radio channel in time domain and coherence bandwidth
characterius the channel in frequency domain.
The coherence bandwidth Be is inversely proportional to therms delay spread.
- The coherence bandwidth is a statistical measure of different frequencies over which the radio channel is observed flat.
In the flat region the radio channel pas~s all the s~ctral components _with_equal_gain and linear phase.
Coherence bandwidth is· the range of frequencies ~ver which two frequency components have strong potential for
amplitude correlation.
If the frequency correlation function is above 0.9, then the coherence bandwidth is
1 ... (5.5,4)
· Be "" 50 crT'
Where crT : average rms delay spread.
Tedi-Neo Publications",__ Where Authon iospirt innot'lltioD
........
r
I
l'
~ Mobile Comm. tern MU-Sem.7-E&TC 5.9 Mobllo Radio Pro a atlon : Small Scalo .,.
rG<fl
If lhc frequency corrclntion function is nbove 0.5, then 1he coherence bundwidth is npproximutely.
I
B~ "" -,,- .. ,(5.S,5)
., OT
Hence, the rcl11tionship bc1ween the rms delny sprcud uncl coherence bandwidlh is II function of the chnnncl irnput
response. The equations (5.5.4) and (5.5.5) arc called "Ilnll Pnrk Esthnntcs". The coherence bnndwidth thus dcJ>cn:
on the frcquency correlntion function.
Coherence bandwidth is unimportant measurement pammctcr in 1rc11ting noise-limited syStcrns.
a 5.5.3 Doppler Spread and Coherence Time
Delay spread nnd coherence bandwidth arc the multipath parameters that arc based on ti me dispersion of the channel i
local urea. But the time varying nature of the channel that is becnuse of relative motion between the mobile nnd the b~
station or by movement of objects in the channel is described by the small scale multipath parnmetcrs Doppler spr~
and Coherence Time.
Both these parameters describe the time varying nature of the channel in a small-scale region.
Doppler spread is defined as t11e range of frequencies over which the Doppler spectrum the receiver end has a non.
zero value. It is denoted by B0 .
The Doppler spread is a measure of the speclrol broadening caused by the lime rate of change of the mobile radio
channel.
If a pure sinusoidal tone of frequency f, is transmitted, then the received signal spe_ctrum is called as the Doppler
spectrum. It has components in the range fc - fd to fc + rd where rd is the Doppler shift frequency
fd is a function of tlie relative velocity of the mobile. The amount of spectral broadening is dependant of the value off
d·
e is U1e angle between the direction of motion of the mobile and direction of arrival of the scattered waves.
If tlle bandwidtli of the baseband signal is higher than the Doppler spread B0 then the effects of Doppler spread are
negligible at tl1e receiver. Such a channel is called as slow fading channel.
Coherence time Tc is inversely proportional to the Doppler spread.
. .. (5.5.6)
where T0 : coherence
fm : maximum Doppler shift.
Coherence time is a statistical measure of the time duration over which the channel impulse response is invariant.
Coherence time is also defined as the time duration over which 1,vo received signals have a strong potential for
amplitude correlation.
If the coherence time of lhe channel is lesser U1an the reciprocal bandwidth of the baseband signal then the probability
of occurrence of noise at the receiver is high.
If the time correlation function is greater than 0.5 then the coherence time is,
9
Tc ::: 16 nn,
f ... (5.5.7)
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~
bile eomm. S em (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 5-10 Mobile Radio Propagation : Small Scale Fading
fm : maximum Doppler shift
_ In digital communication syStems coherence time is defined as the geometric mean of Equations (5.5.6) and (5 .S.7).
Tr ==
~
~n?
16
-- Q;fil
f
...(5.5.8)
m m
Jt implies that two signals arriving with a time separation greater than T are affected differently by the channel. H the
- 1 C
symbol rate is greater th an~= 454 bps, the mobile radio channel will not cause distortion because of motion.
EX· 5.5.1
eompute the RMS delay spread for the following power delay profile.
(a)
(b)
P(t)
If BPSK modulation is used, what is the maximum bit rate that

can be sent through the channel without needing an equalizer ?
11.
0 1 µs
Fig. P. 5.5.1
@so1n.:
-2 .
(a) To find mean excess delay, 't and nns delay spread.
L P('tk) 'tk
k
Mean excess delay f =
From Fig. P. 5.5.1, "' o>co)++ o) >o> -- l2 -- o·5 µs.

L : )
12 = k
L P('tk) 't: 2
(1)(0) +(1)(1)
2
_l
L P('tk) 1+ 1 - 2
k
2
0.5 µs
The nns delay spread
(b) To find the maximum bit rate.
~ :5 0.1 :. T, 2: .!!I.
0.1
Ts
T, ·:2: ~
0.1
T, ~ 5µs
1
= T =0.2 x 10 = 200 ksps.
6
:. R. s
Rb = 200 kbps is the bit rate that can be sent through the channel without needing an equalizer.
Tecb-Neo Publications__ When: Authon inspim irmoratioD ...-A SAGONSHAH Yent~

~ Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E.&TC) 5-11 Mobile Radio Propagation : Small Scale ~ l_
Ex. 5.5.2
Calc:ulate the mean excess delay, rms delay spread, maximum excess delay (10 dB) for the multipath profile given in lbt •
Fig. P. S.5.2. Estimate the SO% coherence bandwidth of the channel.
P~i) \
0 dB •••••••••••• ••••••••••
-10 dB ••••• ••••• •••••• • ••
-20 dB • •••• ••••• • ••• ••• •••
..L..-- L-_.1...-- -1-- -:--:-+ Exc:e88 delay

0 2 5 i(JJ.s)
Fig. P. S.5.2
@Soln.:
► Step I: To find maximum excess delay (10 dB).
By definition of maximum excess delay (IO dB) we can see
't10db = S µs.
► Step II :To find 1r and -2

't
L P('tJ 'tk
P('tJ-r■ 1.z =
1r = .;,;._
le _ _ 0
antilog (- 1~ ) =0.1
LP(tJ
le
P('tJ-r., = °
antilog ( 10) = 1 P('tJ-r ■ o = antilog (-1 t~ = 0.01
o l <S) + ,0.1 l ,1 l + m.12 ,22+ ,0.01 l co2

:. t = 0.01 +0.1 +0.1 + 1
= 4.38 µs.
L P(t J t! 2 2 2
k = (I) (5) + (0.1) (1 ) + (0.1) (2) + (0.01) (0)
~ =
1
0.01 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 1 =21.07µ.s
LP('tJ
le
► Step III : To find rm'I delay spread.
'17 = ✓ ;f - (~/ =✓21.07 - (4.38)2 a7 = 1.37 J.LS.

► Sup IV : To find 50% coherence bandwidth of channel.
The coherenc.e bandwldlh is,

J 1
Be "' 5 "r • 5 x J.37 • 145.98 KHz. n. • 146 KHz.
Tuh-Neo Pul,lieauo111...- .. lfhcm Authon in1pirc innor1tion

H
,_ _,4 SA.OUNSIWI Ytlflll'

£$-6,6,3: DefSrm/no coheronco BW (90%) &Tld
eoherence 9N (Wlo) for an rms delay spread of 8A7 ns.
(i1 Bo4n,:
17ie coherence bandwidth for !>CY?& 111,
B,. - , .
I I
• 50 OT 50 X 8A7 X J({)J B, • 2.3612 MHz.
17ie coherence B W (50%) i11
B, .. -I-.. -;:-~-:....
I __
5 aT 5 X 8A7 X Jif" B, • 23..612 MHz.
fx-5.IA
,_.,_,.,,,;,ne the proper spatial Hll.mpling inteTv· J • -
~--·- . a required to make small scale propagation measurement which assume that
conw;utive ump/c,i are highly correlated in t'ime. How many samples will be required over 10 m travel distance • ·
if
(., -_ 1900 MHz wid •
v = •
50 mis. How
•
Jong would 1·1 · k ·
ta e to make these measurements, assuming they could be done m
real
tirrt: from a moving vehicle ? What is the Doppler spread Bv for the channel.?
ft15o1n,:
Given : f, = 1900 MHz, v = 50 mis.
T = _ 9_ = ....21:_ = --2..£._ - 9 X 3 X )08

• /61t fm 16 7tV J61tvf, - 16 X 3.)42 X 50 X 1900 X )06 = 565 µs
If time samples at less than halfT, are taken, at spatial sampling interval of
v T, 50 x 565 x l0-6
t1X = 2 = 2 =0.01412m
Al !Om travel distance, the number of sample is,

JO IO
N = tix =0.01412 = 708 samples.
IOm
Time taken to do these measurements= 50 mis = 0.2s.
vf 50 X ]90() X 106
Doppler spread B 0 = fm = C 3 X 10
B 0 = 316.667 Hz.
Ex. 5.5.5
If a baseband binary message with a bit rate Rb = 100 kbps is modulated by an RF carrier using BPSK. answer the _
fol/owing :
(a) Find the range of values required for therms delay spread of the channel such that the received signal is a flat fading
signal.
(b) If the modulation carrier frequency is 5.8 GHz, what is the coherence time of the channel, assuming a vehicle speed
of30 miles per hour?
(c) For your answer in (b) is the channel " fast" or "slow" fading ?
(d) Given your answer in (b), how many bits are sent while the channel appears " static" ?
Tttb-Neo Publicatiom_ _ lF/,err: Autlioninspin: i/J/10.-atioo -A SACHINSllAB J'eoture

[i] - Camm. 5el""1 (MU-Sem.7-E&TCJ 5-13 Mobile Radio Prcpagadon: SrnaD Sc41t ~
ftJSoln.:
Cl,m: R. • JOO kbps.
(a) To find ran~ of nlucs for rms delay spread such that received signal is flat fading signal.
1
-----
~
a1 S 10
T• ::r 100 kbps = l0., s. 0 S S.
1
lf Or s 10 T, it results in flat fading
:.T,2: 10a1
•• Or S
L
10
(b) f = 5.8 GHz v = 30 mph.

V V
r• .. I = c1f
30 X 5280 X 12 X 2.5-l IJ rrJs
" = 3omph• 3600 X 100 •
•' r, c 3 X 101 I S.8 X IOO
.. 250 Hi• r.
rI •250I or~ s • 4 x 10 ~
(c)
Cobttmtt tJnx •
f4 • 250 Hz
- s
Ol411nel undeq;oes slow,fadlni:.

/h(d) Number of bits sent =R,,·T, =I00 x Io' x .i x 10·' = .soo
L.~ 5.6 Types of Small Scale Fading
UQ. 5.8.1 Oaaffy small scale fading based on Multipath Time Delay Spread and Doppler Spread.
f,'IU•0. 5 B .Dec. 17. 10Marks
The quality of the signal tmn milted llu-ough a mobile rndio channel will be nfkcted by l11e fading. The amount of
fading "ill ,·ary depending on the channel characteristics and the nature or the tr.1nsmi1ted sign:il .
The relation between the transmitted ~ignal parameters like bandwidth, symbol period and the radio channel parameters
like rms delay spread. Doppler spread will nffect the tmnsmi1ted signals. The different transmitted signals will undergo
different types of fading.
The time dispersion and frequency dispersion methods in a mobile rJdio channel con titute to four types or fading.
I
M_,t1ltipath delay spread constitutes to Lime dbpc:csioo arid frequency selective fading while D o ~ t u t e s
to frequency dispersion :md time selective fadin~Both these mechanisms arc independent of each other.
r
Fig. 5.6.1 shows the different types of small scale fading.
Ttdt-NN Puhlicatio111.- JiNr Aatbon iiL,-rr im»,~tion

[§J Mobile comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC)
5-14 Mobile Radio Propagation : Small Scale Fading
s .
man Scale Fading
! l
Based on Mul~path l
,'·r
time delay spread
, 7· r
Based on Doppler
· spread , '
! l :i '
A~Fr:!9uency Selective F11 di
-'_ ~ . . . • __ • • . ng,
!
FastFadlng
l
Slow Fading
a) BWof ~g~al .< a) BW of signal> banawrc . · · · •
· BW of chan.nel of channel , 10th 1) High Doppler Spread 1) Lo; Doppler spread
b) Delay spread < · b) Delay spread > symbol 2) Co~erence time< symbol 2) Coherence time > symbol
Symbol~ spread-.,_ penod period .
..- ~Vi...-Ot( (-' eh I oc,J 3) Channel variations faster 3) Channel variations slower
than baseband signal than ~aseband signal
variations variations
Fig. S.6.1 : Types of small scale fading ,,,.
~ 5.6.1 Small-Scale Fading Effects Due to Mult!path Time Delay Spread
ua~S:6.2 ~~Classify sm·an scale fading based on Multipaih Tlrri'e Delay Spfead:;·: .~·:~. '., <~ •&llti•&i@S•Nifl.iMflA
The time dispersion generated because of multipath makes the transmitted signal undergo flat or frequency selective
fading. Let us study them.
'lS. 5.6.1(A) Flat Fading
_ If the channel has a linear phase response over a bandwidth that is greater than the bandwidth of the. transmitted signal a
constant.gain , then the received signal in the mobile -radio channel will observe flat fading.
I • , •
_ At the receiver end the spectral characteristics of the channel are preserved in flat fading. However, the signal strength
of the received signal varies with time. The gain of the channel will also vary because of multipath as shown in
Fig. 5.6.2. The amplitude of the received signal also changes.
s(t) ~ r ( t )
t << 'ts
S(f) H(f) R(f)
_,j)\__, _,Jh_, _,A,i

~ ~ C
I
Fig. 5.6.2 : Flat fading channel characteristics

- With passage of time the received signal r(t) varies in gain. How;_ver, the Jpeclru!Jl of the signal transmitted is
preserved. In flat fading 'channel: the reciprocal bandwidth of the transmitted signal is larger than the multipath time
delay spread ofthe channel. hb (t, 't) can be approximated as having no ¢xcess delay.
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-,
[i] Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC 5-15 Mobile Radio Pro agation : Small Scale Fe
'f!1e flat fading channels are also called as amplitude varying channels or narrowband channels as the bandwidth
the applied signal is narrow when compared to the channel flat fading bandwidth. Of
The flat fading channels cause deep fades.
Under the design consideration of radio links the distribution of gain of the flat fading channel is important. The l'llost
common amplitude distribution is Rayleigh distribution.
The Rayleigh flat fading channel model assumes that the channel induces an amplitude that varies in time according lo
the Rayleigh distribution.
A signal undergoes flat fading if
B, << BC ... (5.6,1)

and T1 >> crt . ,, ... (5.6.2)
T,: reciprocal bandwidth. B,: bandwidth
crt : rms delay spread Be: coherence bandwidth
I c:r Disadvantages
•I
(i) The flat fading channels cause deep fades.
(ii) To receive the signal with low bit error rates more transmitter power is needed.
a 5.6.1 (B) Frequency Selective Fading
Frequency selective fading occurs in the received signal if the channel has linear phase response and constant gain
bandwidth that is smaller than the bandwidth of the signal being transmitted. Fig. 5.6.3 shows the characteristics of a
frequency selective fading channel.
In frequency selective fading the impulse response of the channel has multipath delay spread greater than the reciprocal
bandwidth of the transmitted message waveform. Because of it the received signal will comprise multiple versions of
the transmitted signal that is attenuated and delayed in time. It results in distortion in the received signal.
Frequency selective fading is a result of time
Channel ,
dispersion of the transmitted symbols within the
Transmitted - ~ Received
channel. The channel will cause intersymbol signal s(t) ~ signal r(t)
Interference (ISi).
It is difficult to model a frequency selective r(t)
fading channel than a flat fading channel

because,
(i) Each multipath signal must be modeled.
(ii) The channel should be considered as a
linear filter.
For analyzing frequency selective small scale
fading statistical impulse response models like
the two-ray Rayleigh fading model is used. Fig. 5.6.3 : Frequency selective fading channel characteristics
The spectrum S(t) of the transmitted signal has a bandwidth greater than the coherence bandwidth Be of the channel.
The gain is different for different frequency components but the channel is frequency selective.
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[§) Mobile eomm. S tern (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 5-16 Mobile Radio Pro a atlon: Small Scale Fadln
'Jbe frequency selective fading is caused by multipath delays that exceed the symbol period of the transmitted symbol.
'Jbe frequency selective fading channels are called as wideband channels because the bandwidth of spectrum s(t) is
wider than the bandwidth of channel impulse response h(t. '!).
'Jbe gain of the channel varies with variation in time. The phase across the spectrum also varies resulting in djstortion
in the received signal r(t).
A signal will undergo f~quency selective fading if

...(5.6.3)
.. .(5.6.4)
T,: reciprocal bandwidth cr't : rms delay spread

B, : bandwidth Be : coherence bandwidth
If r, 2: 10 Or then the channel undergoes flat fading and if T, < 10 Or then the channel undergoes frequency selective
fading.
'2j. 5.6.2 Small Scale Fading Effects due to Doppler Spread
MU. a. 1(d). Dec. 15, 5 Marks..,..,., I
MU - a. 5(8), Dec. ·11.s Marks
The frequency dispersion generated because of multipalh makes lhe tnrnsmitted signal undergo fast or slow fading.
I
T, I
I
I
I I
I I
I
I Frequency selective : Frequency selective
I
fast fading : slow fading
Flat slow fading : Flat fast fading I
I
--------------♦---- ------ ----
--------------~--------------
or :
Be :
I
I I
Flat fast fading I Flat slow fading
Frequency selective : Frequency selective I
slow fading : fast fading I
I
I I
I
Tc ..._--~----'-'--------•Bs
' - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + Ts Bo
Transmitted symbol period Transmitted baseband signal bandwidth
Fig. S.6.4(a) : Types of fading experienced by a signal Fig. S.6.4(b): Types offading experienced by a signal as
as a function of symbol period a function of baseband signal bandwidth
'& 5.6.2(A) Fast Fading
A channel can be grouped as a fast fading channel or a slow fading channel depending on how quickly the transmitted
baseband signal changes compared to the rate of change of channel.
In a fast fading channel the impulse response of the channel changes quickly within the symbol duration. It indicates
that the coherence time of the chai:,.nel is smaller than the symbol time period of the transmitted signal. It leads to
frequency dispersion or time selective fading because of the Doppler spreading. The received signal will be distorted.
Tech-Nee, Publicatiom_ _ Jf'here Authors~ inooration .....A SAGDNSIU.JI Yenture

~ Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 5-17 MobUe Radio Propagation : Sman ~ ~
A signal underaoe, fut fading if
T. > T, ...(5,6.5) '
and 8, < B0 • • .(5.6,6)
When • radio channel Is apocified as slow or fut fading chnnnel it does not specify whether the channel is Oat fading Or
frequency selective.
For• flat fading channel the impulse respom,c is npproxirrulled to a delta function (without any time delay). Hence. Ilic
amplitude of the delta function vllries fa.~ter thnn the rate of transmitted bn.-.cband sigruil.
lbc amplitudes. phases and time delnys i.e. one of the multipath components for a frequency selective fast fading
channel ls faster than the rate of change of transmitted signal.
Fast fading is observed , pMticularly for very low data rates.
a 5.6.2(8) Stow Fading
for • slow fading channd the impulse respom,c of the channel V:lfie.s 111 11 rnle slower than the transmitted ba.sebanct
,igfl41 s(t).
lbc s.low fading chllnllel is assumed to be Matic.
In frequency dormin the Doppler spread of the cll:innd is \'try le\, th:an the b:ind..., idth of b;ucband .signal. Hence, 1
signA) undergoes ~low fading if,
... (5.6.7) and ... (5.6.8)
The \'tlocity of the mobile and baseband signalling determine.-. .,.. hethcr the sign:il undergoes slow fading or fast fading.
Fig. 5.6.4(a) n.nd {b) r.hows the different types of fading.
:, 5.7 Raylelgh and Rlcean Distributions
lua. 5.7.1 Write short note on : Raylolgh and Ricean distribution •M•d •IZr.18-1§-IOi-i&tffll)
a s.1.1 Rayleigh Fading Distribution
In mobile radio channels Rayleigh distribution is used 10 describe . swtislical ti me varying nature of the received
envelope of a flat fading signal.
/ .
The envelope of the sum of two quadrature Gaussian noise signal obeys Rayleigh distribution. Fig. 5.7.1 shows a
Rayleigh distributed signal envelope as a function of time.
I
The Rayleigh distribution has a probability den~ity function (pdl) gi\'cn by,
p(r) = { ;;'cxph~) os,s~ ... (5.7.1)

O r<O
CJ : rms value of received voltage signal before envelope detection

1
CJ : time average power of received signal before envelope detection.
Ttdt-Nt. PIILl.iaitiom- ~ AuJl»r, ia.y,t'n: UJDt11-ation -A SAGUNS/l4ll J'eat,Of

~ I'
~~-eo,r,n.---Systam•W:.;:(M;IJ..;Set;m~=L7
1
~=-E&::TC):::::::5-: ~::::::~::::~:::=~:!.~!!:~
Mobile Radio ":'f"p•lion :Small Scala Fading
10
. -=,~
TYPbf
~atlhlaintw
'Paed•120bntlf
.
0
-a
l
I -1s -10
-J
I
-20
-25
J -30
-35
-tO
0
100 1!!0 200
Els~lime(ma)
Fig. 5•7•1 : Raylt'l1th rad Ina c-m•clo~ at 900 Milz
- The prob:ibility
. tlut
. I.he en,-clopc of the rccca,
· ·cd ~•gnal
· • not exceed a p.111iculJt value R is given by cumulauve
"•II ·
distribuuon functi on (CDF).
R
p (R} = P, (r SR) =0f p (r) dr = I - exp (-2or)
R_~ ...(5.7.2)
- Thc ITl'!4ll ,·aJue of r_ i

00
r...,,.. = E[r)= f rp(r)dr=o ~ = t.25330 ... (5.7.3)

0
2
- The V!Ui.1ncc of R:lyleigh distribution o I i .
00
l
o, = E[r ]-E [r)= l l f r p(r)dr- 2
l
l
07t .. .(5.7.4)
0
a: = a(2-¥) = 0.42920
2 1
... (5.7.5)
It represents the ac power in the signaJ en\'elope.

- The en\'elope nns value is the square root of the mean square or ..[2. o ( a is the standard deviation of the original
complex Gaussian signal) before the envelope detection.
- The median value r is.
r,nodua
1 ... (5.7.6)
2 = J p (r) dr
0
... (5.7.7)
r rntdlan = 1.177 o
-l ~";-:~-
"'°· p..
- - -~
1. 1 •
--
•
- -----=-----------------;-;-;:;:;;;::;:;::;::;;:;---
,4u,-,,
IWIIClbons__ IJJDDt..
.L __ • • 1c-1rrrr111N1u711.'Dl'"-
lll5f11Te
• , :..
uvD __,, =Lllltr J IL'Ul n, - ~

r Thus, in Rayleigh fading signal the mean and median
differ by 0.55 dB.
Practically median values are used as fading data is
measured in the field and a specific distribution cannot be
assumed. If median values are used instead of mean
·I values, we can easily compare the different fading
I distributions.
Fig. 5.7.2 shows the Rayleigh pdf and Fig. 5.7.3 shows the o a 2a 3a 4a 5a
Rayleigh cumulative distribution function (CDF), Received signal envelope voltage r (volts)
Fig. 5.7.2: Rayleigh probability density function (pdt)
,,.
I
I
% Probablllty
Signal Level
<Abscissa
2
0.5
-~-· .. ,.
: ·;
'
. l:
.l I
J 11 -20 -10
/1 0 10
.I
j II Signal Level (dB about median)
Fig. 5.7.3: Rayleigh and Ricean cumulative distribution function for small-scale fading measurements
lS.. 5.7.2 Rfcean Fading Distribution
Ricean fading distribution is observed in cases where a nonfading signal component is present in line-of-sight
propagation path.
The random multipath components arriving at different angles are superimposed on a stationary dominant signal. It bas
the effect of a adding a de component to the random multipath.
The effect of dominant signal arriving with weaker multipath signal results is Ricean distribution .
Tech-Neo Publications,-........ When: Au/hors inspire_innorolion .....ASACIIINSI/All Yeatute

>
[iJ Mobile eomm. System (MU-Sem.~•E&TC) 5_20 Mobile Radio Propagation: Small Scale Fading
;..... 'fhe dominant signal becomes weaker so the composite signal re~embles a noise signal that has an envelope that is
- Rayleigh. Thus, Ricean distribution degenerates Rayleigh distribution when the dominant component fades away.
'fhe rucean distribution is given by,
-r2 +Al
7)
2
p (cr) = ;; e 2ci 10(
= 0
for A2?:0, r2?:0
for r < 0
} ... (5.7.8)
Where A peak amplitude of dominant signal
modified Bessel function of first kind and zero order.
The Ricean distribution is expressed in terms of a parameter K. K is defined as the ratio between the deterministic
signal power and the variance of the multipath.
2
A K=-<>0dB
K = W
K(dB) = lOlog(f )dB ... (5.7.9) p(r)
K is called as the Ricean factor. It specifies the Ricean distribution.

As A ➔ 0, K ➔ 00 dB we observe that the dominant
path decreases in amplitude. The Ricean distribution
degenerates to Rayleigh distribution. Fig. 5.7.4 shows
the Ricean probability density function and Fig. 5.7.3 Received signal envelope voltage r (volts)
shows Ricean CDF. Fig. 5.7.4: Ricean pdf
a s.7.3 Difference between Rayleigh and Rlcean Distribution
1. In mobile radio channels Rayleigh distribution is used toRicean fading distribution is observed in .cases
describe statistical time varying nature of the received where a nonfading signal component is present in
envelope of a flat fading signal. line-of-sight propagation path.
2. The Rayleigh distribution has a probability density function The Ricean distribution is given by,
(pdf) given by, 2 -r2 + Al
( 2crr2)
r p (cr) = ~e 2cr 10 ( ~ )
-,:ex --::--! 0:5r:5oo
p (r) = { ~ P for A ~ 0, r ~ 0 = 0 forr<O
r<O
where A : peak amplitude of dominant signal
o : rms value of received voltage signal before envelope ( )
detection 10 ~ : modified Bessel function of first kind and
2
·0 time average power of received signal before envelope zero order.
:
detection.
3. Reyleigh fading is special case of Ricean fad.ing where the In Ricean fading the LOS aspect is present in the
LOS element is not available. signal.
Tedi-Neo Publirations___ Where Authors inspire innoratioo -A SACllJHSJ/AJJ l'eotun:

~ Moblle Comm. tem MU-Som.7-E&TC 5-21 Mobile Radio P
II. . Dec. 2010
0 , 6(a) Consider a transmitter which radiates a sinusoidal carrier frequency of 1850 MHz. For 8 vehicle ~
60 mph, compute the received carrier frequency If the mobile Is moving (I) directly toward the t r ~
(II) directly away from the transmitter and (Ill) in a direction which Is perpendicular to the dlr8Ctiori Cf
arrival of the transmitted signal. (Ans.: Refer Ex. 5.4.2) (10 Mtrta,
11
• May2011
0. 1(b) List and discuss factors influencing small scale fading. (Ans. : Refer section 5, 3)
0. 4(a) Consider a transmitter which radiates a sinusoidal carrier _tre~uenc~ of 1850 MHz. For a vehicle ~
60 mph, compute the received carrier frequency if the mobile 1s moving :
(I) Directly toward the transmitter
(ii) Directly away from the transmitter and
(iii) In a direction which is perpendicular to the direction of arrival of the transmitted signal.
(Ans. : Refer Ex. 5.4.2) (10 Marta)
1
• Dec. 2011
0. 7(c) Write short note on : Rayleigh and Ricean distribution (Ans. : Refer section 5.7) (5 Markt)
11
• May2012
a. 1(c) What are the factors influencing in small scale fading? (Ans. : Refer section 5.3) (5 Marb)
11
• Dec. 2012
0. 1(b) Explain the factors influencing small scale fading. (Ans. : Refer section 5.3) (5 Marb)
11
• May 2013
0. 7(c) Write short note on: Effect of Doppler spread on fast fading and slow fading.
(Ans. : Refer section 5.6.2) (6 Marb)
11
• Dec. 2013
0. 4(b) A transmitter which radiates a carrier frequency of 1850 MHz for a vehicle moving 60 mph, calculate the
received carrier frequency if the mobile is moving :
(a) Directly toward the transmitter.
(b) Directly away from the transmitter.
(c) In the direction which is perpendicular to the direction of arrival of the transmitted signal.
(Ans. : Refer Ex. 5.4.2) (10 Marki)
11
• May 2014
Q. 1(c) What are the factors Influencing small scale fading. (Ans. : Refer section 5.3) (5 Marki)
Ttth-Neo Puhlir.atioRJ_,__ 11'/Jcre Aut/Jon in.pire innoration .-A S.40/JNSJWI J'eatil'

►
[iJ Mobile Comm. S stem MU-Som.7-E&Tc
5·22 Mobllo Radio Pr o lion : Smal 8eelt F
u• oec- 2014
Q, 7(8) Write short note on : Small scale fading. (Ans. : Rotor soctlons 5. t, 5.2 and 5.3) (10Marb)
ullt MaY 2015
Q. 7(b) Write short note on : Effect of Doppler spread on fast fading and slow fa ding.
(Ans.: Refer section 5.6.2) (5 Marka)
ullt Dec. 201s
Q. 1(d) Explain fading effects due to Doppler spread .(Ans.: Refer section 5.6.2) (5 Marka)
1111t May 2016
a. 1(b) Explain factors affecting small scale fading. (Ans. : Refer section 5.3) (5 Marka)
nllt Dec. 2016
a. 6(c) In a cellular system, if carrier frequency fc = 900 MHz and mobile velocity is 70 km/hr. Compute the
received carrier frequency if the mobile Is moving
(i) directly towards the transmitter
(ii) directly away from the transmitter
(iii) In a direction which is perpendicular to the direction of arrival of the transmitted signal.
(Ans. : Refer Ex. 5.4.4) (10 Marks)
nllt May 2017
a. 1(a) What is coherence bandwidth? (Ans. : Refer section 5.5.2) (5 Marks)
nit Dec. 2017
Q, 1(0) Differentiate between Rayleigh and Ricean distribution.(Ans.: Refer section 5.7.3) (5 Marks)
a. 5(8) Classify small scale fading based on Multipath Time Delay Spread and Doppler Spread.
(Ans.: Refer section 5.6, 5.6.1 and 5.6.2) (10 Marks)
1
• May2018
a. 1(d) What are the factors influencing small scale fading? (Ans. : Refer section 5.3) (5 Marks)
Q. S(b) A base station has a 900 MHz transmitter and a vehicle is moving at the speed of 50 kmph. Compute the
received carrier frequency if the vehicle is moving :
(i) Directly towards the BS, (Ii) Directly away from the BS,
(iii) In a direction that is 60° to the direction of arrival of the transmitted signal?
(Ans. : Refer Ex. 5.4.3) (10 Marks)

Chapter End....
□□□

◄
Multiple Access
, Techniques
6.1 Multiple Access .............................................................................................................................................................6-

1
I ··································•..S.1
I. UQ. 6.1.1 Write ~hort note on : Multiplet access technique.
Types of Multiple Access Techniques ............•.................................................................•......•............e.,
I I 6.1 .1
I
I
6.2
Ua. 6.1.2
6.1.2
Explain the multiple access methods. ···················...................................e.1
Types of Multiple Access Depending on the Bandwidth Available........................................................e,
2
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) ........................... ,....................................................................................6-3
LQ. 6.2.1 Write short note on Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) .........................................................s.
3
6.2.1 Features of FDMA ................................................................................................................................6-3
6.2.2 Non-linear Effects in FDMA ........••........................................................ •••······ •· •·························· ..........6-4
UQ. 6.2.2 Explain the nonlinear effects in FDMA.
0.1 (b). Dec. 1o. s Marks. a. 1(a). May 13. 5 Marks. a. 1(a).
Dec. 13. 5 Marks. a. 1(d). May 14. 5 Marks ·····················································································•6-4
6.2.3 Number of Channels in a FDMA System ..............................................................................................6-4
LQ. 6.2.3 Find the number of channels supported in a FDMA system.................................................................6-4
6.2.4 Types of FDMA .....................................................................................................................................~
6.2.5 FAMA-FD MA ........................................................................................................................................6-S
6.2.6 DAMA-FDA ...........................................................................................................................................6-S
LQ. 6.2.4 Write short note on Demand Access. ...................................................................................................~
6.2.7 Merits of FDMA.............•.......................................................................................................................!H>
LQ. 6.2.5 List the advantages of FDMA ...............................................................................................................IH>
6.2.8 . Demerits of FDMA ...............••....................................................................................•..........................6-7
LQ. 6.2.6 List the disadvantages of FDMA..................................................................•........................................6-7
6.3 Time Division Multiple Access ......................•...............................................................................................................6-7
LQ. 6.3.1 Describe: Time Division Multiple Access (TOMA) in detail. ..................................................................6-7
6.3.1 TOMA Features ....................................................................................................................................6-8
LQ. 6.3.2 Explain in detail the time division multiple access with i1s key features ................................................6-8
6.3.2 Number of Channels in TOMA System .........................-........................................................................6-8
LQ. 6.3.3 Write the number of channels in TOMA system. ..................................................................................6-8
6.3.3 Efficiency of TOMA System ..............................................................................................................•...6-9
LQ. 6.3.4 Find the frame efficiency of a TOMA system . ......................................................................................6-9
6.4 Code Division Multiple Access ......................................................................................................................................6-9
LO. 6.4.1 Explain in detail CDMA with its key features.....:...................................................................................6-9

~ ~Ito eomm. S tom (MU•Som.7•E&TC O.O Mufti
uo. 6,4,2 What Is noor for problom In CDMA. How to ovorcomi, It.
.
a. 1 n). Mn 18. 5 Mnrks ............................................ ,, ., ,.,,..,. ., .....,,.,,,,,,,,,,,,..,,,,,,....,,.,,,.,.. ,,.,,,•.,,.,..(),-9
6.4.1 Footuros of CDMA ..............................................................................................................................C.- f 0
read Spectrum Multiple Access ......................... .......................................................... ...........................................r,.10
6,5 Sp
uo. 6.5.1 Explain spread spectrum modulallon. .. ..................................................IJ.10
6.5.1 Features of Spread Spectrum Communicatlon ...................................................................................lJ.10
6.5.2 Spread Spectrum Conditions ..............................................................................................................6--10
6.5.3 Processing Gain .................................................................................................................................6-11
6.5.4 Spread Spectrum Model .....................................................................................................................6-11

11
6.5.5 Advantages of Spread Spectrum Communication .............................................. .....................6-
S.5.6 Types of Spread Spectrum ................................................................................................................. 6-11
6.5.6(A) Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DS I SS) ....................................................................................6-11

s.5.6(A).1 DS/SS Signal Pattern .........................................................................................................................6-13
s.5.6(A).2 Characteristics of DS/SS .....:.............................................................................................................. 6-13
/
6.5.6(A).3 Advantages of DS/SS .........................................................................................................................6-14
6.5.6(A).4 Disadvantages of DS/SS ....................................................................................................................6-14
6.5.6(A).5 Examples............................................................................................................................................6-14
6.5.6(B) Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FH/SS)..................................................................................6-14
6.5.6(B).1 Advantages ......................................................................................................................................... 6-15
6.5.6(B).2 Disadvantages .................................................................................................................................... 6-15
6.5.6(B).3 Example .............................................................................................................................................6-15
6.5.6(C) Advantages of FH/SS over DS/SS .....................................................................................................6-15
6.5.6(0) Comparison of DS/SS and FH/SS ...................................................................................................... 6-15
6.6 Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) ..................................................................................................................... 6-16

ua. 6.6.1 Give an account on SOMA. a, 4(a), Dec. 10. 10 Marks .................................................................6-16
UQ. 6.6.2 Write short note on : SOMA. a. 7(d), May 11, 5 Marks ..................................................................6-16
6.7 OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) .................................................................................... ............. 6-17
ua. 6.7.1 How does OFDM provide high data rate ?
a. 1(A), Dec. 17. a. 1(A}, May 18, 5 Marks ....................................................................................6-17
6.8 OFDM·PAPR (OFDM·Peak•to-Peak Average Power Ratio ) ...................................................................................... 6-18
6.9 Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) ........................................................................................6-19
6.9.1 Advantages of OFDMA .......................................................................................................................6-19
6.9.2 Disadvantages of OFDMA ..................................................................................................................6-19
6.10 Comparison of Multiple Access Strategies..................................................................................................................6· 19
UC. 6.10.1 Compare SOMA, TOMA, FDMA, CDMA and OFDM mechanism.
a. 1(a), Dec. 11, s Marks, a. 3(a}, Dec. 12, a. s b • Ma 13.
a. S(a). Dec. 13, a. 3(b). Ma 15, a. S(a). Ma 16, 1oMarks .........................................................6·19
6.11 University Questions ...................................................................................................................................................6·21
• Chapter Ends .....................................................................................................................................................~...... 6-22
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n, I
:> 6.1 Multlplo Acco,, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _--..."""'

---~~::..:.:.:=..:.:.:::_
1~..,., w,..11'°'1,.on:Mu;.-..~, •Nti;wui&-iiJ

'the l.r.lnQltl,,lon h11Jldwld1h In llllfc:rrnt ftt.qucncy h:ind \:tflt.\ in ~n,rc. tr h n re th.,n the hJ111·lwld1h r Oki f.r; i
O'IC-t..,:t1<'<' In ho tmn~mhle(I. llrncc. looruer 10 utilize the frequency 1pc,;."trum cfncicnc)' "Mulllplc ac-c.f:',,. 11,;d·,,11vr
intl\xlUCt'd.
Ccllul:u S)' tcm~ron~i~b of mruiy u'-Gn. lh111 wiill lha.rc the b:mdwidth. The ability o( the )'~tern to carry 11 1.111y ~i!llW, 1'
the "3mc time i~ crult\l 1iS "multjplc nccc.\,t,".
Through "multiple occcsf' it is p<m ible 10 share the communic.ition cnp:icity of the cellular ~Ystcm 11 rr1011g a Lu ..
number of bn'-C &tntions.
l~g. 6.1.1 hows the block diagram of n multiple access system.
Tmnomltto, 1
Tmnsmlllor 2 Channel
Transmlnor 3
Tmnsmlnor N
Fig. 6.1.1 : Block dlngrnm or n multiple ncce.ss system
a. 6.1.1 Types of Multiple Access Techniques
lua. t.1.2 ~ the multiple access methods.

llie three main mul!iple uccess rnet11ods used 10 share the bandwidth in a wireless communication .system arc:
(i) Frequency Division Mulljpfe Access (FDMA)

(ii) Time Division Multiple AC£CSS(fDMA)
(iii) Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
,
In Frequency Division MulUple Access (FD.MA), indh·idual channel .are assigned to individual users and ench user is
allocalcd a unique frequency
. .
bund or .channel.
The Time DMsJoo MulUplc Access (TOMA) ysterns divide Uk! radio pectrum i1110 time slots und in one ~101 only
one user is allowed to transmit or recei\'C.

I
1n Code Dl,·lslon Multiple Access (CDMA) system-~. the narrowband me: ·11ge signal i~ rnuhiplkd by l\ IM!l\'
l bandwidth called spreading signul. ·mis sprcuding signal is nc tuall)' u p'-C: udo 11oisc code sequence u1d it h 1L~ a higoo
chip rnte tfom rho daru ntte of the message signul.
./ -
Tedt-Noo Pul,liaation•-- lrhrtr Author, 1'm1nir 1i11KJt-.r1i<,11 ·-I .'i.UJ/i,V.,w11 frlUIIR"

--
[iJ Mobile eomm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 6-2 Multi le Access Techniques
~1.2 Types of Multlple Access Depending on the Bandwidth Available

ding on the bandwidth that is availabl · ·
pepen e to allocate to the users, the multiple access systems are grouped as •
i) Narrowband systems .
ii) Wideband systems
(I) ·Narrowband systems
_ In these 5Ystems, the available radio spectrum is divided into a large number of narrowband channels. These channels
arc working with the help of FDD.
_ The frequency separation is increased to minimize the interference between the forward and reverse links on each
channel. However, duplexers and a common transceiver antenna are to be installed in each subscriber unit.
_ In narrowband FDMA a user is allocated a specific channel that is not shared by other users in observation. If FDD is
used then the system is called as FDMAIFDD. -
_ In narrowband TOMA, a user shares the same radio channel but allocates a unique time slot to each user on the
channel.
_ A small number of users are separated in time on a single channel.
_ The radio channels can be allocated using TDD or FDD while each channel is shared using TOMA. Such systems are
called TDMA/FDD or TDMA/fDD access systems.
(ll) Wideband syste~
_ In these systems, the transmission bandwidth of a single channel is larger than the coherence bandwidth of the channel.
So, multipath fading willnot vary the received signal power. The frequency selective fades occur in a small part of the
signal bandwidth at any instant of time.
_ In these systems there are a large number of transmitters that transmit on the same channel.
- If TOMA is used then only one transmitter can access the channel at any instant of time. They can use FDD or TDD.
- If CDMA is used it allows all the transmitters to access the channel simultaneously. The systems can use FDD or TDD
multiplexing techniques.
- Table 6.1.1 shows different multiple access techniques being used in wireless communication systems.
Table 6.1.1 : Multiple Access Techniques used in Wireless Communication system
Global System for Mobile (GSM) TDMA/FDD
CT2 (Cordless Telephone) FDMA/fDD
Digital European Cordless Telephone (DECT) FDMA/fDD
US Narrowband spread spectrum (IS-95) CDMA/FDD
W-CDMA (3 GPP) CDMA/FDD

CDMA!I'DD
CDMA 2000 (3 GPP2) CDMNFDD

CDMA!IDD
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r ~ Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 6-3
.:::>~s~.2~F~r::eq~u~e~n~cy~Dl~v~ls~lo~n~M~u~lt~lp~le~A~c~c:!:e!:ss~(~F.:::D,:M::A:!..)_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
""-
I& Prlnclple of FDMA
l!.Q.~6.2.1 . Write short note on Frequency Division Multiple Access (FOMA).
In wireless communication systems, the Code

individual users are allocated individual
channels in ·FDMA. The channels or ,·the
frequency band is unique for each.subscriber.
The entire allowed raqiq spectrum is qivided
into ~~y _sl_ices .6f the frequency ban~s and
each band or channel is allocated to user. The
chann~I allo~~tion can be done on a de~irnd
basi~ tothe users to r_equest s~rvice.
When a call is processed, no other use~ can
Time
share .the same channel.
. .
In FDMA/FDD systems the users are Fig. 6.2.1 : FDMA where different channels are assigned
different frequency bands
assigned a pair of frequencies, one for the
forward channel and other for the reverse
channel.
Fig. 6.2.1 shows the principle of FDMA scheme where different channels are assigned difforent frequency bands.
'2s. 6.2.1 Features of FDMA
The features of FDMA are :

i) If a FDMA channel is not in use, it will be idle and not used by any other user. Hence, there is a chance of resou1tt
wastage.
ii) The FDMA channel uses one phone circuit at any instant of time.
. . is, assigned.. in FpMA, then the mobile unit .and the b~se station start transmitting simultaneously.
iii) If v,oice channel
iv) FDMA needs. tight RF, filtering
. to minimize the adjacent channel. interference.
.
v) The FDM~ mobile unit uses duplexers as both the transmiller and receiver operate simultaneously. It results an increase
in the cost of subscriber units and base stations.
vi) The complexity of FDMA systems is less.
vii) The FJ?MA systems have narrow bandwidth as each channel supports only one circuit per carrier.
viii) The symbol time is large in comparison to the delay spread. This indicates that the inter symbol interference is low 1111d
no equalization is n~quired in FDMA narrowband systems.
- -
ix) The cost of cell site is higher in comparison to the TDM~systems.
,....
x) FDMA fs a continuous transmission method. ,So few bits are required for overhen<l purposes (like synchronization and
, ' .
framing bits).
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bile comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 6-4 Multiple Access Techniques
,_ _ .2 Non-linear Effects In FDMA

62
..... '-"·"~~· • .,,.. • '¥✓¼"..- i. ;,.,A', . .~
_ In this multiplexing meth0d, th~ same antenna at the base station is shared by several radio channels.
- -pie p0wer amplifiers are operated near saturation region for getting maximum possible power efficiency and it is non·
11near-
- ~e~ non-lin~arities cause the s p ~ of signals over .th~ entire frequency dom~in and result in intennodulation
(IM) freq~enc1es. '
_ IM is undesired RF radi~tion. It c.an interfere with the other channels in the FDMA system.
_ Adjacent ch~nel interference can be produced as a result of the spectrum spre3ding.'
Intermodulation generates harmonics that cause interferences in the actual signal and intermodulation must be
minimizdd.
'B- 6.2.3 Number of Channels in a FDMA System
_ In an FDMAIFDD system a single user occupies a single channel while call is in progress. The single channel is two
si'mplex channels that are frequency duplexed with a separation.
_ When a hand-off occurs or a call is completed, the channel is cleared so that another mobile subscriber can use it. The
voice channels are sent on the forward channel fro·m the base station to the mobile unit and on the reverse channel from
the mobile unit to the base station.
- The number of channels that can be simultaneously supported in a FDMA system is given ~y.
B1 -2 Bguard
N=
Be
Total spectrum allocation
Guard band allocated at edge of allocated spectrum
Channel bandwidth
Ex. 6.2.1
· If a cellular operator is located t 0 MHz for each simplex band and if B1 is 10 MHz, Bguan1 is 10 KHz and Be is 30 KHz, find
the number of channels available in a FDMA system.
lilSotn.:
Given: Bl = 10MHz Bgu:ut1 = 10 KHz
For an FDMA system

Bl - 2 Bg,ard
N = Be
6 3
10 X 10 - 2 X 10 X 10 = 332_66
N = 30 X 10
N = 333
Each cellular carrier is allocated 333 channels.
..,,..___ .
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~ 6.2.4 Types of FDMA
There are two types of FDMA. They are :
---------■
Types of FDMA
(I) Fixed assignment multiple access
(ii) Demand Assignment Multiple Access (DAMA)
Fig. 6.2.2 : Types or FDMA

► i) Fixed Assignment Multiple Access : It is denoted as ''FAMA". In this method the channels are assigned in a
predetermined manner and distributed so that random changes in the capacity are not allowed.
► li) Demand Assignme~t M~ltlple Access (DAMA) : Jf there are mu,!!!£!:_.stations there is a change of capacity. Then
channel can be allocated according to the demand.
FDMA
+
FAMA-FDMA DAMA-FDMA
Fig. 6.2.3 : Types of FDMA
~ 6.2.5 FAMA-FDMA
FDMA deals with link accessing using different frequency band and by multiple stations. It is concerned with the
logical links between the stations that are preassigned:
FAMA-FDMA is preassigned. It is not flexible in accordance with the changes in traffic .
~ 6.2.6 DAMA-FDMA
1··•·r'1i-':J?.4--""'-'"'.:l -..:1':.~ •- ··•.y.,.,••;i 'f'.,.~ -•--;. ,.... d ~ ·
"')'.-1;.~ 4 />. :;. ~ -·~
-,,.-,~. XJ.~...
:•' .~ :·•... •✓- t: -~·.. _..r~::-
:t~~~/1~e:tt~.::~~~t:?,.;:.'#~~;~~--,;~:
LQ;-6:2.4!tWnte snort note on Deman Access. , . . . . .,-.::~ _,. :~ .·. J·-'" ,, , -'~ :\: .::. :1, - : ..'"f.. ·,ti;d?.:,;-.:1,,;-;~---.--,z..;:,(._,,ll:.~:;w:7-&-W.J..~;~
Demand Access signifies the allocation of satellite channel to a user on demand, rather than continuously. Therefore
Demand Assignment Multiple Access (DAMA) is used for the earth stations where the traffic conditions are
continuously changing.
On demand allocation of channel greatly increases the number of simultaneous uses who can be served by the system.
For example telephone voice users communicate at random times, some for less than a minute to several minutes. If
each user were allocated a fixed channel, most of the time the channel will be idle, resulting efficiency·utilization of
entire system is low. Therefore demand allocation remarkably increases the number of telephone user served by the
system.
Demand access system require two different types of channel :
(a) Common Signaling Channel (CSC) (b) Communication channel
To enter the communication network, a user first calls the controlling earth station using the CSC, and the controller
than allocates a pair of channels to that user for communication.
In DAMA packet transmission techniques are widely used because of the need for address to determine the source and
destination.
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>
c,ic l
'
and " -;u ti. for :, rl"p l ,

n,,s control p:iclct 1~ ~'c'ivcd hy tJ1c: oonwllrng a.n.11 1ati<>n w. tiJoCh ~ "L"1c, , 1 l 1Jit..uri. t?r ,..J.llT.,, uc • tn"'ct.r ·c.&a ~
~tcllitc Jci.1111:1110 11 fo r LIie c.;ul, DA. t11e :addrcu or tlic lt,q'JCtJing u.a: 111>n. Jt
The p.ici.ct .ihtJ co11l:un dut:i to mc.lrc:uc contru llrn • ..Uh<'n ttuJ 11 11 .1 t uotn>I p.a.lct lu>tn t I'll) tfJr°a.. ~ ~ • t:,
Rcdunc:b!ICy Che L cciic, 111:it " u:.cd 10 UIC lttCl\"Cf 10 chc·d . the m un In the p.a. let
The c,1ntrol :-t!lt ion thc-n :illoc1.11n the VSAT :.n upltnl frt-qucnq uiJ .a tllJ c ,ki,( o r .1 ,pndicJ Wll.U,o I!! I!... ~.,..=-!
TD~I fr.une.
Thc ou1hound linl of 1h1 ~ VSAT nct\lo'Uf l i 2 ntinOOlh m M I N.tc.wt ( •t 2 ) 11.a.-unww! 1::1• £b •
ir.:tn~n<kr. In VSAT ~) ~tc-m. the mhounJ :mJ o ut! nJ h.1r.och ~ U>tJ ..11) l) r11nc tn... 1, r!cn~i C', ., ~...~s: •
hoth din-ctfon.
Onex !l!l mboumt ff"C'4uc-m·_ :mJ dn t.1uttxlW\J Um( J'",c 11c .all,r ~ w c._ \'S T
compk1~d whi h c-n:sblc 1h1:1 inn fc-r or , v i c- ,mn1J.ru.:-•• · n.
A A A
Data ~
890 897
Pig. 6.!.S: Ou1bou.od TU\l ln.mt to \ ' ' \ T ~.Jd
~ 6.2.7 Merits of FOMA
ILQ. I.U Uat lhe advantages of FOMA.

i) AJJ Uldion~ Cltll Opt"r!lll' rolll!nllOth l )' !!112-1 } n)Uf\ \Ii 11h --~1 &Hz .(,,., L.J [ Vt f.f!II w :i..; • -
ii) No i.ynchroni:ua1ion i, nt'<'t ~~!U)'-

lii) ~ oomplca:i1y of 1>)'1>lt111~ h 10 111', _______________
T~N,,e ruWau..o. _ ll'brrr t11tJ.., IA1irr. . - , ~
.,.,,._._,

~[i]======M=o::ib~lle~Co~m~m~.~siys~t:em~(M~U~-~Se~m~.r7-~E~&T~C~)====,g6~·7=========M=ul;;;;illp~lo~A~cc;;;;;~oss~T~ocl)~~
~ 628
• · Demerits of FDMA
LQ..6,2.6. Ustthe disadvantages ot FDM~.

i) Intcrmodula1· fi • ·
ion rcqucnc1cs can cause adJ'acent channel interference.
ii) As a result of no J' ·· • .
n- rneant1es, rntermodulat1on products are generated.
iii)
It carries only one phone circuit at a time.
iv) The cell site cost of FDMA systems is high.
v) the bandwidth of FDMA channels is narrow.
:> 6.3 Time Division Multiple Access

r----------------------------:--:--=---:-----:;--::-----:;."-- ~ - - --....
li.Q, 6.3.1' Describe: -Time. Division Multiple Access (TOMA) In detail.
It uses time instead of frequency. Different users share the same time slots of the complete time available.
Each user to allocated a time slot in which the user can access the channel. In each slot only one user is allowed
10
.i I
I
transmit or receive.
As shown in Fig. 6.3. 1 each user is assigned a time slot so that channel may be thought as a time slot that reoccurs
I·
I
every frame where N slots comprise a frame.
't
I 'I I
I
II I
Frequency
· !j·
Time Fig. 6.3.1 : TOMA

I
I!
...__ _ _ One TOMA Frame _ __ _..,
Trail Bits
Sync Bits Information Data
Synchronization bits
Fig. 6.3.2 : TOMA frame structure
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,c1 .aAhllO comm. S .tom MU-Som,7,E&TC
~IV"'::: n-o ,A(lfl k,Mtt1 _
,-oMA systems trnnsmit dntn In hur"t 11
, 'fhe ting fnmic structure us ~hown In H anc ,urrn lllCthuJ, ·1he '"'"""1,,1,Jn from dlrrcretif ~n lfl fntcrfaud lhfl1
a rcpcJI g, <J.3.2.
me consists of n number of i.lo~ l.:.nch f
~ fro IOt will be used ror tl ~ . rnrno con,l,h of Jlfc1111•Jlc, nl'I lnfotrfl3tkm tMC-\Ygt: •JI(• ttall Mu. Half of
' (he tiltlC s s · . ic orwnnl link chnnncts nnd the remnlnlng hnl( ro, rcvcru.: link ,h.-OMh,
reamble field compn~c.~ the nddrcss O d
, 'fhC P
identify each ot11cr.
· · n synchronl1.atlon dnta that both the hue ,taflmu 11tid mt~rikn °~ tn
uard bits arc used to provide synchro · . I I

'fhC g 1
"N" nizatron of different rccclver1 between different time ,wt, and (ri~,. 1 -,
, ,.~urned that t 1erc arc number of slots for N users so lhnt each us.er can ac~s, the chrumcl In thetr .iJlrr'nd c,rr.e
slot.
- fhe TOMNFD? sy~tcms ~ave identical frame structure that can be used for forward or rcve:r;c uummioion. bm &-.c::
c.....
A~er frequencies will be different for both the 1·Inks .
TOMA Features
"' 6.3.1
--~~-----------------.
E>eplain In detail the time division multinle 8 ;..,.ftss 'th Its k
"' ........., WI
f
ey eatures.
'fhe features ofTDMA are:
i) TOMA uses diffe~t-time slots for transmission and reception. Hence, duplexers arc not required. If FDD is wed then A
switch is used to switch between transmitter and receiver.
ii) As the transmission rates are high adaptive equalization is necessary .
.iii) TOMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users, where each user makes use of non-overlapping time slots.
The number of time slots depend on parameters like bandwidth, modulation method etc.
iv) Using TDMA we can allocate different number of time slots per frame to different users. Thus, bandwidth can be
supplied on demand to different users by reassigning time slots depending on the priority.
v) Data transmission is done in bursts. It results in low battery consumption as the transmiller of the subscriber can be
turned off when it is not in use. ·
vi) Guard Lime needs to be minimized. If the signal is transmitted at lhe edges of the time slot, it is supprc~d to reduce lb:
guard time. The transmitted spectrum will expand resulting in adjacent channel interference.
vii) In TDMA, the handoff process is simple. An enhanced link control like that provide by mobile assisted lwldoff
(MAHO) can be carried by the subscriber by listening on an idle slot in the TDMA frame.
viii) Because of burst transmissions high synchronization overhead is needed in TOMA systems.
'B. 6.3.2 Number of Channels In TOMA System
LO. 6.3.3 Write the number of channels In TOMA system.

The number of channel slots that can be provided in a TOMA system is found by multiplying the number of TD~lA
slots per channel by number of channels available.
m (B, - 2 Bguaro)
N= B
C
Where Maximum number of TOMA users supported on cnch radio channel

Total spectrum allocation
Guard band allocated at the edge of allocated spectrum
Channel bandwidth
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hr Umha of O l l('tf ,ai.4 t O f1Cl f1I c~T t> le IO C'J1d1 , ).,c
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~ 6.4 Code Division Multiple Access
LO. a.A.1 [~in in diQI COMA ~th 115 U")' lf.aans.

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In tl.u • m:.ilupk """'r » ,.._1 ,c m,: nun ~ u,-cn ,.,.,~ tnc ~X'
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6-10
~ 1 features of CDMA
"Z'- 6,4,
wres of CDMA are :
'file fea '-,. J cf.elaY
cDMA the channel data rates arc very high. Hence, the symbol durution ls short und Jcu than the cunnne .
i) :read, As PN sequences have low a~to correlation, multipath thut ·is deluyed by more than a chip will appear a# nOJf.C,
: Rake receiver can be us_cd to improve the reception by collecting time delayed vcrsion11 of the required i1lgnal.
· user h'as a h'•g h po~er compared to other user then near far problem arises at the CDMA receive
.. If on undesired · rend,
,
JI) 11 S · · · · . •
.MA uses cochanne ce s. pat,al diversuy can be used to provide soft handoff. Soft handoff is done by thc · that
I MSC
D ~ ·de the be11t
can monitor a spec•'fiic user irom
•·u) C two or more ba~ stations. Without switching the frequencies, MSC can dec1
version,
...... rnMA system users share the same frequency. TDD or FDD can be used.
·v)
1 ·~
CDMA has a soft capacity limit. If the number of users increases the noise increases and sy5 tem performance
~ '
(!eereases.
vi) Multipath fading can be reduced as the signal is spread over a large spectrum. If the spread spectrum bandwidth is
greater than the coherence bandwidth of the channel, the frequency diversity will mitigate the effects of smaJl-s.calc
fading.
vii) In CDMA systems self jamming is a problem. The spreading sequences of different users arc not exactly orthogonal.
This Jeads to selfjamrrung.
, 6.5 Spread Spectrum Multiple Access
The increasing demand of wireless communications have faced problems because of limited spectrum capacity and
multipath propagation. These problems can be minimized by spread spectrum communications.
a 6.5.1 Features of Spread Spectrum Communication
Some of the features of spread spectrum communication are :

(i) Capability of Multiple access
(ii) Resistant to jamming
(iii) Higher channel capacity
(iv) It has the ability to resist multipath propagation
(v) Because of multipath propagation. It provides immunity to distortion
(vi) It cannot be intercepted by any unauthorized person.
~ 6.5.2 Spread Spectrum Conditions
The conditions of spread spectrum communication are :

(i) It is a type of modulation where the modulated signal BW is larger than the baseband signal.
(ti) A pseudo noise (p-n) ~ode is used for the spectrum spreading. The p-n code can al~ be used to despread the signal at
the receiver.
T"'1-Neo Puhtication,
. _ _ '"1em AuthorsUJSput:
. • JJllH)WIIHJD
. .
..-4 SAGUNSHAJJ Yeature
----------
~ Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 6-11 Multiple Access Technlq~
'2s.. 6.5.3 Processing Gain

The processing gain is defined ns the factor by which the bandwidth of the message signal is increascd .
Proc~lng gain N = &

8
B Message signal b~dwidth
Du Spread spectrum signal bandwidth
'2s.. 6.5.4 Spread Spectrum Model
Fig. 6.5. I shows the general model of a spread spectrum digital communication system:
The input is given to a channel encoder that produces the analog signal with narrow bandwidth at the centre frequency.
Then the signal is modulated by a spreading code or sequence. The spreading code is generated by pseudo noise or
pseudo random number generator. Modulation increases the bandwidth of the signal to be transmitted.
Channal t Channel
Channel :, Demodulator
' encoder:·.• ?" daooder Output
Spreading code ~,;.---~ §>vreading code
Pseudo-noise'
1,_generator. ,,
/
ig. 65.1 : Spread Sp mModeJ_-
At the receiver end the digit sequence is used to demodulate the spread spectrum signal. The signal is sent to the
decoder to recover the data.
'2s.. 6.5.5 Advantages of Spread Spectrum Communication

(i) There is no interference with other signals.
(ii) Spread system can be operated at the same frequency at which the current narrow band systems are working.
(iii) As signal is spread over wide bandwidth, interception and jamming of signal will be difficult.
'2s.. 6.5.6 Types of Spread Spectrum
The two methods of spread spectrum communication are :

(i) Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DS/SS).
(ii) Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FH/SS).
'2s.. 6.5.6(A) Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DS / SS)
where, m{t)
y(t) = m(t) · c(t)
Message signal
m(I) r••'"',
The signal spreading cod!! is called as Pseudo Noise {PN) sequence in the spread spectrum communication systems.
The DS/SS signal can be expressed as,
' l: :-----
, .......,
I
I
I
y(t) = m(t).c(t)
c(t) Pseudo random binary sequence. I

c(t) i(t)
Fig. 6.5.2 shows the DS/SS signal generator Transmitter Interference
Fig. 6.5.2 : DS / SS generator
Tt'f.h-Neo PuUirations."'"'"" 11'/,rrr: Aulhors inspire 1ono,'Bllon

r£1 f.40bile eomm. S tam (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) .
l.!!:! 6-12 Multiple Access Techniques
The bit rate of c(t) is higher than that of . .
0
, m(t). The pulse m c(t) is called as chip and bit rate of c(t) is called chip
fSIC ("O'·
Chip rate Re = ..!..

Tc
where. Tc : Chip width
The auto corrclatfon function lj/ ofc( ) is n
m(IY,: u
t arrow. Fig. 6.5.3 shows SS generat.o r signals.
F
<
m~
Tb : .
,-
-§:t~·-
0(0-H~-t+-1L+H~~Jb..+-iqw..i.~W-.r.ll...!J1...!..-l-q.i--c,--
T~=oo -Y(~ -t-1-ru1t+-t-cP-++r-+4-JJ~cfu+-t.....b--W.-%~ci~1, - -
Fig. 6.5.3 : SS gtMrator signals
fo r detectio n. 3 ·ynchronou r:i.ndom segue~ c(t) is u~d a l the receiver end.
y(I) c(I) lPF m (t)
c(t)
Fig. 6.5.-& : DSISS receh'er
The received ignal y(t) is multiplied by c(t) 10 reco,•er the desired signal m(t).
y(t) • c(t) = m(t) · c"(t)
' =m(t)
As &hown in Fig. 6.5.4 the LPF is an integrator. The receiver does the correlation of the incoming signal m(t) . c(t) and
c(t) is genera1.c d.
The Chip rate = Re bits/sec. and
Symbol rnte = Rb bits/sec.
Processing gain N = ~
~ T, = chip width
or N = TC
The power spectral density (PSD) is :
(w) =
S 111 Tb sinc
2
(w:b) for input signal A
for output signal B
-A SAGUNSHA.II Yeoture

--,
..
6-13 Multi lo Accees Tochn II
I'll$, (),, ,ti bh,,w,_ 11111 pow, , •peclrnl ,len/jlly of lnpul ~lg1111l m(I) 1111d oulpul Hlg1111l of DS/SS y(I). The bandwidth of Psi)
I- dlrtclly pmp,1111011111 11>1ho hll rnlc, Hene<1 l'SD of y(I) 111 N thneH wider llian lhe J'SD of m(I),
111,i, f,,tJ.~ 1 l'owc:r RJ)t(!trul l>t:nHlty or ln1uit und output Hlgrwls or DSISS liyst.em
Sl{lnnl onoroy
~ . O.fS.6(A). 1 08/88 Slgnol Pottorn
'I'll{; wl1lll1 tJf lhe J11f1Jrmu1lo11 11linul JH 'I'. IJenee, lhe du111 rule i11 4,.
Thi; 111ir,<;1n1111 of lhe 111211111 depe11clH011 Ille rnc1l1od of encoding und
111 11mu111I 't-r, Pig, (i,:u, 111,nwfi 1he 11pcc1rurn of DS/SS. -r1 0
r1
(II) Spectrum ,,r the d11ta HltJW
Tiu; 11pcc1rum of l'N 11lg1111I IH} ,'J'he re11ulllng 1>peclrum Hprending
0
of l)fi/HH 111 h11()w11In Fig. (i,~.r,.
7l, O.IS.6(A).2 Choracterlatlca of DS/SS
(/) H4;rurv. comm1111lcutlo11 1 If r ~.eutlo rnndom code 111 uood 1 0 1 •I
11,,;11 lhi: blJ!lllll c1111 he tlelt-<:led 111 rl,e recei ver end. It - To Tc
11v1,ltlHu,11wrh,,ll:,A",d 11lg1111I 11(.;C(;HII. (b) Spec:trum of~udo•nol.<ie Hlgnal
(II) Jumml11u t1:1il1ilu11e;41 : Tl,,; l)S/SS 11pec1rurn f)(>wer iH
.~
,11~1,U,111t;JJ over II wl,lc:hrm,J, l lc:11ce, lht~ 11lgnul11 11re
rllffl,;1111 1,, J11111, TIie l'SI> ol' J11rr11nlr1g 11lgnul dccre11~ hy
11 (111:1,,r N lir,euu~..c 1J1' 11,r. hf>CClru111 11pre11dlng.
- (..1+..1) 0 .1+.1
.,
(HI) lfldh1u of 11lv1ul I Tiu; l>S/SS Nl£1111I hpe<.:lrum IH Hpread T T0 T T0
11ver 11 wl,fo hrwJ. TIie l'SI) Ill 1HT111ll, llcnce, II IHHlmple (r) S11ectrum or the combined 11lgnal
,,, l1M// Ilic HIJ!t1ul wl1hlt1 the 11olf.e floor, Fig. 6.5.6 : Spectrum of DSISS
(IV) Mulllph, uw :Hli I M1111y 111-.e, 11 c1111 u,-,e 1l1e Hurne hund wirh II heller ,iignal-lo-noise ratio.
( v) lfAJ11l11lum•41 1,, mulfl1u1th fu,H,1u I The 11lt1111I received hccuur;i: of rencction is delayed version of DS/SS signal. The
l>H/t,t; 11111111 l11w m,ro correlullon wl111 11111Jduycd ver11lon. 'fhl11 minimizc11 1J1e effect of multipalh signals.
(vi) N.,u,.fur 11rohfom I Th,; muss IH11ffc<:1.cd hy 1l1e 11cur-for pmhlcm. Near-far problem occurs because of unequal power
''"'' 111 rt:eelvtil hy 11,e Uf,C ( ,
Wl,e11 1111 1mv1111111'.,1I 11li1111I 111re11g,IJ IH more l>CC1111HC of IIHproximhy to lt11 traniuniller, lhe desired signal strength at the
r~ lvcr jlj wc11k. 1111111cll cMtH Ilic rle11lrr,d Hlp,wal cuu he HupprcHsc<l, The near far problem can be eliminated by making
1110 c111~H m1l1ou111111I. It I~,llfficull 10 11111kt lurge 11u111hcr of codcHorlhogonal.

[§]
i;i,S-
Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC)
r CDMA 6· 14 Multiple Access Techniques
.. !dvantages o : 1t suppons a high .
(\'11) b manY users irrespective of the separati· er_capacity of the communication channels. The spectrum can be occupied
Y . on distance bet h . . .
reading codes support code divisio • ween t em. Each user has umque spreading codes . The umque
sp n mu1tiple access (CDMA).
1'- s.5.6(A).3 Advantages of DSfSS
(i) It bas beSt discrimination against multipath signals.

(ii) It bas best noise and antijam performance.
•") Tbe unidentified receivers n·nd it difficult to d t th .
(111 e ect e direct sequence signals.
'2,. s.s.6(A).4 Disadvantages of DSISS
(i) pS/SS has a longer acquisition time.
(ii) It requires wideband channel with small phase distoru·on.

(iii) The pseudo noise generator must generate sequence at high rates.
~ 6.5.6(A).5 Examples
(i) JEEE802.1lb standard for wireless LAN uses DSSS over 2.4 GHz free spectrum.
(ii) IEEE 802.15.4 WPAN (Zigbee) uses DSSS.
(iii) CDMA
(iv) Cordless phones operating in 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz and 5.8 GHz bands.
(v) Radio controlled model automotive vehicles.
(vi) Wifi.
~ 6.5.6(B) Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (Ftl/SS)

Fig. 6.5.7 shows the FH/SS system.
- In this method an FSK signal is generated. Then the frequency of FSK signal is shifted by pseudo-noise (PN) sequence.
- The FSK output frequency is <o, and synthesizer frequency is Cl\· The output of mixer contains ((I\ + co,) and (<Oii - co,).
The BPF (band pass filter) passes ( CJlt, + co,) frequency components.
Input
data m(t)
FH Spreader FH Spreader
Transmitter Receiver
Fig. 6.5.7: FH/SS system
- The signal is transmitted by pulses whose frequencies hop over a wide range of frequencies according to the PN code.
- The bandwidth of the FHJSS signal is more than that of the FSK signal.
- The FHfSS receiver is identical to the PN code. The received signal shifts the frequencies back to original FSK
frequencies. The frequencies can be demodulated.
~ Publicatiom_ Jf'bere Authors inspire irwol'lltion ' - ' SAC/ONSHAH l't!nture

,
Mobllt Comm, 8 alo~ MU•Som.7-1: fr'C - ~ - - 0·10
There 11rc two condillo1~11 depe11dl11g 011 1110 fre,111011cy hoppl11g r1110 H,. 11ml ~yrnbol rulti Hi,,
(I) When Rh S: Ri, ii ls culled Show l' n:c1uc:11cy llo1111h111 CtWII),
(II) When Rh> Rb It Ill culled 1r1114l Jtrc:1111cnry lfo1111lnw (lff'II).
a 6.5.6(B).1 Advantogoa
(I) It has lc1111 dlstunco effect,
(ii) TI1c bandwidth orthcr.c ~ystern IH Iorgo.
(ill) It ha.'I a i.hort ucc1ulsilion lime.
(iv) It can he progrummcd 10 uvoid i.O1110 pnrt~ orIlic ~pcctrurn.
a 6.5.6(B).2 Dlsodvontegos
(i) It needs error correction
(ii) It needs complex frc11ucncy 11y111hcsl1.crN.
{iii) II is not useful for rnngc nnd range rntc mcn~urcrnent.
a 6.5.6(8).3 Example
(i) Dluctooth uses fll SS over unliccrn,ed ISM buml 1112.4 - 2/1835 Ullz
(ii) GSM
(iii) It is used in militnry
(iv) Walkie-talkies in 900 Mll1. unliccn-,cd hnnd.
~ 6.5.6(C) Advantages of FH/SS over DS/SS
(i) A USS is less 1>uM:cp1iblc 10 the near-fur problem~ tha11 !)S/SS.

(ii) AUSS can produce signals of wider bandwid1h a~ compared lo DS/SS.
{iii) The processing gain is higher than 1hu1of DS/SS.
(iv) In AUSS the problem,; of relative power levels of co-channel !.ig11al arc not critical us compared IO DS/SS.
a 6.5.6(0 ) Comparison of DS/SS and FH/SS

11 l
Sr. Parameter DS/SS FH/SS
No.
I. DeOnltlon In DS/SS 1l1c p:-.cudu noi!.t :-.equc11ce of large In f-11/SS the data hit~ that arc transmillcd in the
bandwidth is rnulliplied with narrow hand different frequency slots arc changed by the PN
data signal. !>equence,
2. Signal Over the complete bandwidth of the spread In fl 1/SS the d..ila sequence is spread over small
spectrum spectrum signal the data sequence is spread. frequency slots of the spread spectrum signal.
3. Modulation DPSK Mary r SK
method
4. Proces.'ilng gain T PG= 2'
PG==f = N
C where I = bits in the pseudo noise (PN)
sequence. -
s. Distance effecl DS/SS is relative lo distance. FJI/SS is less affected by distance change.
-
Tech-Neo Pul,lirJition• - 11'/,C/'t! Authon /ll,,p,~ ,n1xm llon

►
~ p.40bile Comm. System (MU-Sem 7-E&TC) 6-16 Multiple Access Techniques
---cost
1.
High cost
Low cost
L--- - Po"'er High
8. consumpt Ion Low
~jtl)a:~ta==ra~t=es~====~~H~ig~h~d~a:ta=ra=·=te~s====================l~Lo;;w~da~;ta~ra;;te~s======================~
Junge More
~:...---t-=-::::...:~--,1.--~----------~Lc~=ss~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - i
L---~I':...·+-Ca=..:pa:...-c-:lt~y_ _7 -:Lo:::::w:::-o~v::-:
eral:-:-l:-c:-ap~a..:c..:. :it: '. y_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __J_~1'~fo:i:re:.~o~ve~r~al~l~c~ap~a~c~it!..y_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __,
[xample IEEE 802. I I b
.__!._~2::..-J...:=--__:.---_.__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _i:B~lu~c~to~th:.._ o _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __J
~ 6.6 Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
ua. 6.6.1 Give an account on SOMA
ua. 6.6.2 Write short noto on : SOMA. MU - a. 7(d). Mav 11. 5 Marks
_ Space DMslon l\lultlple Access (SDMA) controls the energy radiated in space for every user.
If offctS service to different users by using di fferent spotbeam antennas. Th~ antenna ·beam coyers different areas tha~
offers service at the same frequency. For SDMA;-sectorized ante~nas ar~ prefcrre'd to be used. --·' ~ - ·
. . ' ' . ' ~
Fig. 6.6.1 : SDMA with adapth·e antennas
- However, inordcr to avoid the problems on reverse link ad~ptive antennas are used at the base station. These adaptive
antennas allow the base ~tation to reuse fr\!que~cy. So th_at other mobil~s can communicate ·with each other eve'n if tliey
are separated from .the base station.
- Highly dire~tional beams are used for SDMA such that the base station creates multiple channels at same frequency
but separated in space as shown in Fig. 6.6.1 .
The spectr~ iency is increased in SDMA. The system capacity is expressed as
CsoMA = NsoMA · C
Where C50 MA = Capacity of SDMA system

NSOMA = Average number of simultaneous spatial channels per RF channel
T-.,Ne. Puhlirations..._ fnH:re Authors ia..pi~ UJIJ(JratioD -A SAGONSHAii Yenture
'
►
~ ........ Comm. sr:'"" (MU,G,,m I .CO 1c1 O·" ....,.. ""'·" '0~
~:>~~6:.7:::0:F:D:M::O:rt:h_o~_~o:n:n:IF_
~ro: l:10:n:c: D:lv:ln:lo:n:M:u:l~tl:~;;;~~~;~~~~;~=~~---
ua.1.1., data'"'' 7
Orth\l~°'llal F1t"l.111r111.~)' l)l\ hll,n Mulupk\lnjl (01l>M) 1, a 111ul11 1\11 r r 1r;1111111lnl11n le t,n<1lr,,,.
h~f\in.tlNl 1' to I htaln II hlahtr data nit an 1bc nn1ll1f"11h f. 1mg cm it\rnll'lcnt uf ,ri,:,lille ommunk .uio"'
In ""'Mic <.'\1nm,unicn1ion the -.clc-cti<.'n or J ig11~ moJ ulntion h lkpcndcnt on thn:c 1~ r;,111e11:r• 1hcy at
i) NIUl\J"-cr hanJ"idth
ii) Efficknt pown u1iliu 1ion
t lo O roortlplo on rrl0r9
iii) Elimin:ition of inlC'mlO<!ula1ion products.
Fig. 6.7.1 !I.how~
rxrrm
n multicmicr OffiM method. Orthogonol t 2 J 4 5 0
mc.-:ins --Unr-elntcd or indepc.ndcnl or eoch other". llic
subcmicrs for cuch radio chnnnel arc ortho!!onal 10 one
another.
As shown in Fig. 6.7.J the ubcarricrs arc spaced close to each
other \\ithout guard bands.
,. Fli:. 6.7.1 : OFDM method
The principle of orthogonality o n be obtained by di\'iding the c~irricr sjgnal " i_th un intrs cr multiple tlut il ~
m:u.ing the invcr..c of symbol duration of the parnllel bit strcnn~ . .
OffiM uses dnt!l bur..t, 10 reduce the intersymbol interference muny syrnhols arc sent In parullcl. Ik nee. the ,,
rate decrease .
When the symbol duration increases. the intc:rsymbol intc:rfcrt'ncc effects thnt were pro<lucc:d by R:i) lcigh r~. •
. . .
reduced.
The Ofl)M method is npplird to reduce the frequency selec tive fading und hun.t errors genrrutcd by " iddu~ fc:t
sign:i.ls in wircle· communicn1ion.
The OffiM method is robu~t in the narrowb:ind interfrrence t'nvironmcnl.
The advnnwge of OffiM is it's efficiency to hnndlc: uppre ing multip:ith effects.
Figs. 6.7.2(a) and (b) shows an OffiM tron mi11er and rccei\'er.
Forward Error Inverse

lnlerisavng Fast Guard
Correction
Mapping Fooner l nta Nal
(FEC) coder
Tnsn'stotm
I A
Antenna
l nphaso Symbol
1 High powor qu.1dtt1turo wavo
modulator shaping
\ ampl,hor
Osdllotor
1-1,:. 6.7.2(11) : OFl>M lru,mnlth'r
Ttth-Nec» Pu11iraliom- 111,r,r Autl»n iafpirr iall,,1•ti.ul _ f J.ttJIIJSll41,_,,

~ Mobile comm. S stem (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 6-18 Multfple Access Techniques
Antenna Automatic gain

control (AGC)
ampllfler
Low noise
amplifier
(Automatic frequency
control)
Osclllator
it·;... ..• ,,:/_~- - - -

· Forward Err~? . ~~Demapplng,~t
. , Correction ':: -
, Delntar1eavlng .
, Decoder Unit. ~~.'J ·;: ;·, .. ;· .., :•~ i.-----
Fig. 6.7.2(b): OFDM receiver
_ Al the transmitter side erro~ correction coding, interleaving process is done over the data stream.
_ The data stream th at is sent is in the form of symbols that have undergone quadrature amplitude modulation. Then the
symbol stream is passed through serial to parallel proce;s. Each symbol is assigned to one of the subcarriers with
assigned symbol. Eve~y subcarrier will ~perate at a particulai:Jrequency.
' . -
_ Jn frequency domain the symbol frame is fonned with the group of symbols from all subcarriers.
_ Then every symbol frame is transfonned into time frame with the help of N p~int "In~erse Fast Fourier Trans.formation
(IFFf)".
_ The digital data strea~ is gene~ted by these time frames.
Finally the signal is amplified and transmitted to the antenna.
- Convolutional coding method with CRC error detection is use to provide high data security.
- OFDM is sensitive to phase and frequency noise. To minimize it correct pulse shape needs to be selected.
- In OFDM receiver the symbol frames received is detected. It has to adjust automatic gain control to the desired level. A
robust algorithm is to be used to withstand phase noise and frequency offset of the receive unit that will interface with
the synchronization process.
~ 6.8 OFDM-PAPR (OFDM-Peak-to-Peak Average Power Ratio)
- Peak-to-Peak Average Power Ratio is the ratio of peak power to the average power of a signal. It is expressed in the
units of decibels (dB).
- PAPR is observed to occur , in conditions where in a multicarrier system , the different sub-carriers are out of phase
with each other. At every time instant, the sub-carriers are different with respect to each other and hav·e different phase
values.
- If simultaneously , all the subcarriers attain the maximum value , the output envelope suddenly shoots up . This causes
a 'peak' in the output envelope.
- As in the OFDM system there are a large number of independently modulated _subcarriers , the peak value of the system
may be very high compared to the average value of the complete system. This ratio of the peak to average power value
is called as Peak-to.Average Power Ratio (PAPR).
- In LTE system, OFDM signal PAPR is approx. 12d.B.
Tttb.Neo PubJ·•c:alions
· •••_ .._ lnere Aul.hors iMpm:
. ,nnora/Jon
· • .-A SAGUNSHAii Yenture
......._
~ Mobile Comm. S stem (MU-Sem.7-E&TC 0-10 Mullf lo Accol!e To
:> 6.9 Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multlple Access (OFDMA)

-_..;......;;;.:.:,:.:~=:..!..!:~~~:!!.:.::=:.::;:~~,;;,:.;;;.~~-----------.~
Orthogonal frequency-division multiple ucccss (OFDMA) is a fculure of WI-Pi 6 (fl02. I l ax).
OFDMA simultaneously allows the uccess poinls 10 offer Ncrvicc lo rnulliplc users.
OFDMA obeys a set of rules created for the 1ra11smit1i11g the dalil or i11forrnalio11 over a wirclcMI lranHmi,uiion 1/ledium
For example to sec how OFDMA works consider 1wo phones 1hal send dara over Ilic R~imc phone line. Every pliorie ;
1
allocated a time-interval for 1ransmi11ing the dara . Turn-by-rum rhc 1wo phones will 1,cnd thc data during CYtr
assigned interval. However, these time intervals arc very small . This allowH lhc data lran~fcr proce,;,i to OC<:: ,
simultaneously and seamlessly.
OFDMA is an modi fied version of frequency-division mulliplexing (fDM) method.
It used to divide packets of data or information inlo separate bands rhat arc carried by separate 1,ignals.
OFDMA uses carrier signal waves, called subcarriers, to 1ransmil data.
~ 6.9.1 Advantages of OFDMA
I. OFDMA provides higher diversity and frequency efficiency.
2. OFDMA provides lower interference between cells.
3. OFDMA provides a good coverage over networks.
4. OFDMA provides more flexibility.
a.. 6.9.2 Disadvantages of OFDMA

1. Frequency diversity becomes very complex in OFDMA .
2. OFDMA needs additional power because it is always on and ready to lransmil data.
3. OFDMA has a higher sensitivity.
:> 6.1 O Comparison of Multiple Access Strategies

UQ~6.10.1 _
Compare SOMA, TOMA, FDMA, CDMA and OFDM mechanism.
■ ,1, 11 - • M fF.l D t1,1.-, • ._, ,,,<: lj :1:ftll• - 1t: , ,_ t1,,.- ... -. _ Jl•l111!1•1""'"'ICI
. ..,. l • J1.1 r,1• t1, ·- l(• • rJ!'Jl•JMl'if.\'Jli 1.-.• -• ■-; . - ,1,,: u~ 1 ;- f1 ■ ,l,r,n'T.II
Sr.
Parameter FOMA TOMA COMA/SSMA SOMA OFDM
No.
1. Method Overall band Time sharing of Sharing of Sharing of It is used lo obtain
width is shared satellite bandwidth and spectrum in a higher data rate
among many transponder time both takes angular direction In the multipath
stations. takes place. place. with smart fading
antennas environment of
mobile
communication.
2. Interference Due to Due to incorrect Both type of Interference is OFDM uses data
effect nonlinearity of synchronization interferences will dependent on bursts to reduce
transponder there can be an be present. the beamwidth the lntersymbol
amplifiers, inter interference and antenna lnlerference many
modulation between the sldelobes. symbols ere sent
products are adjacent time in parallel. Hence,
generated due to slots. the symbol rate
interference decreases.
between adjacent
I channels. -
Tech-Neo Pulilicatiom_.,___'" When: Authon inspire i11norntion .....ASAC/1/NJ7Ull Yr.ntw-r

r►
--
Mobllo Comm. Gi)'Dlom (MU,!lf-111 1. [ ~ 1C) n 1t> '"'f"'-~•"'"
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bandwidth
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reuse
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channel
bandwidth
Number of RF 12 5
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channels
12.5 416
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12.5 416
0.03 == 1.25 • 10 -
11 . Control 2 2 2 -
channels I cell
-
12. Usable
channels I cell
57 57 8
I
13. Voice channels 57 1 = 57 57 X 4 :: 228 8 X 4 :: 320 -
/cell
14. Sectors per cell 3 3 3 -
15. Voice 57 ::: 19 2~8 = 76 3?0 . 100
3
-
calls/sector 3
16. Key resources FDMA assigns TDIM syslcms CDMA S~ICm<J SDIAA system OFOM UY11 c;i•
Individual divide Iha radio USO tho 5amo 8 !!Sl']n1 a buf'53 ID teo..<o
channels to spoctrum lnto camor t,equoncy chaMol to m.'ln/ 11\0 lfl! t 1
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Tecb-Neo Publication,- nm, htl»n'4y,lrr lnnt,1•IHID - 1S.10/LrJIIUI '""'-"

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Mob"( m. system (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 6-21
Multiple Access Techor
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Each user is Each user makes Willi
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allocated a unique use of non-
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codeword that is combination for
user can share slots. The data
orthogonal to applications.
that channel when transmission
a call is in occurs in bursts. other keywords.
progress.
18. System
complexity
Lower Higher Higher Higher less ----
19. System Simple and Flexible Flexible Flexible Flexible ----
flexibility

Robust, inflexible
--
11
• Dec. 201 o
Q . 1(b) Explain the nonlinear effects in FOMA. (Ans. Refer section 6.2.2) (5 Marks)
Q. 4(a) Give an account on SOMA. (Ans. Refer section 6.6) (10 Marks)
11
• May 2011
a. 7(d} Write short note on : SOMA. (Ans. Refer section 6.6) (5 Marks)
11
• Dec. 2011
Q. 1(a) Compare SOMA, TOMA, FDMA and CDMA mechanism. (Ans. Refer section 6.10) (5 Marks)
11
• May 2012
Q. 7(a} Write short note on: Multiple access technique. (Ans. Refer section 6.1) (5 Marks)
11
• Dec. 2012
a. 3(a) Compare TOMA, CDMA, FDMA and SOMA. (Ans. Refer section 6. 10) (10 Marks)
11
• May2013
Q. 1(a) Explain the various nonlinear effects in FDMA. (Ans. Refer section 6.2.2) (5 Marks)
Q. 5(b) Compare SOMA, TOMA, FDMA and CDMA. (Ans. Refer section 6.10) (10 Marks)
11. , Dec. 2013
Q, 1(a) Discuss non-linear effects in FDMA. (Ans. Refer section 6.2.?) (5 Marks)
Q. 5(a) Compare SOMA, TOMA, CDMA and FDMA system. (Ans. Refer section 6.10) (10 Marks)
Ttth-Neo·Publications_.___11'/Jere Authors inspire inooration •..•.ASACIIINSHAH Yenture

(§J ~._"~'" ()'41111\, fl I\\I\\ MU·~"m,'M ;,\TO f\ cu M11III 16 Aooo11 Toohnl uo1
';flf M"Y l-'01"

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(10 Marki)
Q. 6(1\) C\""fHm~ t:\IHi ()l'11tm:1t FOMA, Tl)MA, 8DMA, (r\11s, 11c">fc1r Sc>ct/011 r,, tO)
1.+ Mny 2017

(5 Mark•)
a. 1(b) ·. pl,,ln :lpll)i\ci :1pt)\,II\IIH mmi11l,,t1011. (Alls. : m>fc)f Sc>ct/011 6,5)
ult Doc. 2017

(5 Mnrka)
a. 1(A) ttow <iOtl:l OFDM pmvldfl hl\')h df\ll\ mto? (Alls, : nolor soct/011 6, 7)
llllt Mny 2018
(6 Marks)
a. 1(A) Whf\t I:) l\tlf\l' fm prol>lom 111 COMA. I low to ovorcomo II. (Ans. : Rolor soctlon 6.4)
(5 Marks)
a. 1(A) I low doos OFDM provldo high dntn mto ? (A ns. : nofor soctlon 6. 7)
Clwpr1·r E,uls ...
□□□

2G Technologies
7.1 Global Systom for Mobllo (GSM) ................................................................................................................................,.7,

1
7.2 Fe"'tures of GSM ....................... ..............................
I.I. • • • •• . . . . ••••o ••••••••• .... •••••• •••• •••••• .. ••••••••""'"' ' ' " '"' '' '''"''''""''' ..............),,
UQ. 7.2.1 Explain toaturos of GSM. Bfi!j&'J(M❖i-lGl•ldffllitMflff .............................................7,
1
UQ. 7.2.2 GSM provldos •on tho air privacy• socurlly foaturos during volco calls JuSt1fy.
l!El!il•I·l-ll:ll•l~,®fl ....................................................................................... ".......................1.1
7 .2.1 TOMA for Multlplo Accoss Channol and FDMA for Mulllplo Usors .......................................................7.~
7.3 GSM Servlces ...............................................................................................................................................................7.~
UQ. 7.3.1 Explain GSM sorvlces. .. ...............................................7,~
7.4 GSM Functional Block Dlagrom ....................................................................................................................................7~
7.5 GSM Network Architecture .................................................................................... .......................................................7-4
UQ. 7.5.1 Draw the block diagram and oxplaln GSM orchltocturo In details Indicating
all the Interfaces. 0 .'3 a ; Doc. 11, 10 Marks ······ ························································· ······•...............7-4
ua. 7.5.2 Explain GSM Notwork archltocturo In detail.
liEl:>Mlfl•la@M•l,Ifil~l•&tm&'llfill•l~,tfflff..........................................................1~
ua. 7.5.3 Explain GSM architoctura and olaborote function of oach block.
BE:tomtill•I &tffl :n......................................... ...............·········································.........". . 1.,.
UQ. 7.5.4 Draw neatly and explain the role playod by various entities In the GSM architecture.
a:'2 B . Dec. '1t, 10 Marks ·········.. ······ ··· ······· ······ ··························· ········· ............................ ..............1-4
7.5.1 Mobile Station .......................................................................................................................................7.5
7.5.2 Base Station Subsystem (BSS) ............................................................................................................1.5
7.5.2(A) Base Transceivor Station (BTS) .......................................................................................................... .7•6
7.5.2(8) Base Station Controller {BSC) ..............................................................................................................7•6
7.5.3 Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS) ............................................................................................7-6
UQ. 7.5.5 Give a complete functional account on NSS.
E&ru>l•Nl•l•!FM1&\111•1ttiD.m'lml•l&rfflff.........................................................,1-s
7.5.3(A) Mobile Switching Center {MSC) ............................................................................................................7•7
7.5.3(8) Home Location Register (HLR) .............................................................................................................7·7
7.5.3(C) Visitor Location Register (VLR) ................... ................ ... ......................................................................7-8
7.5.3(0) Authentication Center (AUG) .......................................................................... ......... .............................7-8
7.5.4 Operation Support Subsystem (OSS) ...................................................................................................7·9
7.5.5 GS'M lnterfaces .....................................................................................................................................7-9
7.5.5(A) Urr. lnterface ..........................................................................................................................................7-9
7.5.5(8) Abis lnterface............................................................................. :........................................................7-10
7 .5.5(C) A Interface ..........................................................................................................................................7-10
7.6 Radio Interface ...........................................................................................................................................................7-10

·,c1
~
••obile eomm. System (MU-Se. m.7-E&TC)
fY' 7-B 2G Technologies
~ . a 7 6.1 List and explain specific t' -
U · · . a ions of radio transmission in GSM system. •·7• 10
Signaling Protocols Architecture .............. ............. . . _2
7.1 11.1 Explain in detail Si nar ......................................................................................................7 1
ua. · . g ing protocol architecture used in GSM. .............7- 12
ua. 1.1.2 Explain GSM protocol architecture in detail. 0 . 2(a). Dec. 13. 1o Marks .........................................7-12
t.7.1 Link Layer LAPDm Protocol
(Mobile Station-Base Transceiver St t' . . 7-12
a 10n S1gnahng Protocols) ......................................................... .
1.1.2 Base Transceiver Station (BTS) 7 15
• Base Station Controller (BSC) Signaling Protocols....................... -
7.7.3 Base Station Controller (BSC) M . 7 15
· - ob1le Switching Centre (MSC) Signaling Protocols ....................... •
Identifiers ................................................... 7-15
7·: GSM Channels ........................................ .................... .........................7-17
7
· ua. 7.9.1 · Discuss in detail GSM fogi:;·~~~~~~;~•................................................. ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: .. ·······7-17
ua. 7.9.2 Why are so many logical channels used in the GSM?
Explain GSM channel Structure. · 7-17
······················································
7.9.1 Traffic Channel (TCH) .............................................. ·.........................................................................7-17
ua. 7.9.3 What is meaning of traffic channel w.r.t. G. S. M? .......7-17
ua. 7.9.4 Explain traffic channel in GSM. ...........................: ...............................7-17
7.9.1(A) Full Rate TCH .....................................................................................................................................7-18
7.9.1 (8) Half Rate TCH ....................................................................................................................................7-18
7.9.2 Control Channels(CCH) or Sig~alling Ch~nnels ...........................................'.......................... . 7-19
ua. 7.9.5 What is meaning of signaling channel w.r.t. G. S. M ?
a. 1(d, Dec. 11 , a. 3(a), May 14, May 15. 5 Marks ......................................................................7-19
7.9.2(A) Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH) ................................................................:.................................. 7-19
ua. 7.9.6 What is meaning of broadcast channels w.r.t. G. S. M?
Q.1(d), Dec. 11, a. 3(a), May 15, 5 Marks ............................................................. ......................7-19
ua. 7.9.7 Explain broadcast channel in GSM. . ....................................................7-19
7.9.2(8) Common Control Channels (CCCH) ............................................................................................ ;...... 7-20
ua. 7.9.s What is meaning of common Control channel w.r.t. G. S. M?
a. 1(d); Dec. 11 , a. 3(a), May 15, 5 Marks .....................................................................................7-20
ua. 7.9.9 Explain common control channel in GSM. a. 4(a), May 14, 5 Marks .. ........................................... 7-20
7.9.2(C) Dedicated Control Channels (DCCHs) ...............................................................................................7-21 .1

ua. 1.9.10 Explain slow associated control channel in GSM. a. 1(b), May 13, 2.5 Marks ..............................7-21
ua. 7.9.11 How is FACCH used for carrying urgent messages? a. 1(c), Dec. 1O, 5 Marks ...........................7-22
UQ. 7.9.12 Explain fast associated control channel in GSM. a. 1(b), May 13, 2.5 Marks ................................7-22
7.10 Frame Structure ...........................................................................................................................................: ..............7-22
ua. 7.10.1 Explain frame structure used in GSM. a. 2(b}, Dec. 12, a. 3(b}, May 14 10 Marks .....................7-22
ua. 7.10.2 Describe GSM frame structure. a. 3(a), Dec. 16, 10 Marks ...........................................................7-22
UEx. 7.10.1 a. 5(b), Dec. 10, 10 Marks, a. 1(b), Dec. 18, 5 Marks ..................................................................... ... 7-24
7.11 GSM Speech Coding RPE-LTP ......................................................... .......... .. .............................. .................:................7-24
UQ. 7.11.1 Explain signal processing in GSM. ........................................................7-24
UQ. 7.11.2 Explain RPE-LTP speech coder as used in GSM. .. .............................7-24
7.11 .1 Speech Coding ...................................................................................................................................7-25
Tetb-Neo Publications."-"" Where Authors inspire innovation . "".A SAC/JINSHAH Yenture
-- Scanned with CamScanner

Ii] Mobllo Comm, sr:tom (MU-Som.7-E&TCI 7-C 2GTecti~
UQ, 7,11.3
UQ, 7,11,4
Explain OSM spooch procosslng In detall.
Exploln signal procosslng In GSM.
a. J(b). Dec. 12. 1O Marks
a. 2 b. Dec. 13. a. J n . Mn 14. a. 5 n). Dec. 14. 10 Marks .......................................................1.25

'
..........................................7·2S
7,11.2 Chonnol Codlng ..................................................................................................................................1.25

7.11 .2(A) Chonnol Coding tor Data Channels .........................•..........................................................................7.(8
7. 11.2(8) Channel Coding tor Control Channels ................................................................................................1.2
6
7, 11.3 lntorloavlng .........................................................................................................................................1.2
6
UQ, 7,11.5 What Is tho uso of Interleaver? .............................:.....7.26
7.11.4 Clphorlng ............................................................................................................................................1.2
6
7,11 .5 Burst Formatting .................................................................................................................................1.27
7.11 .6 Modulation ................................................................ •.. •······· ........· .............. ···.........·...........................1.27
7.11.7 Equallzatlon ........................................................................................................................................1.27
7.11 .8 Demodulatlon .....................................................................................................................................7.27
7.12 Authentication and Security ........................................................................................................................................7.27
UQ. 7.12.1 Explain security algorithm In GSM.
a . 1 c . Mn 11 , a. 7(b). Dec. 11. O. l(a). Ma 12. 5 Marks .........................................................1.27
UQ. 7.12.2 Write short note on: Authentication In GSM. a. 7(a. Ma 11, s Marks ..........................................1.27
UQ. 7.12.3 Write short note on: Security and authentication in GSM.
a. 7 b. Dec. 13, 0 .6 d. Dec. 17. 10 Marks ...................................................................................7-27
ua. 1.12.4 Explain authentication in GSM. a. 1 c). Dec. 14. s Marks .............................................................7-27
ua. 1.12.s Describe algorithms used tor authentication and security In GSM with diagrams.
a. 3 a . Ma 18. 10 Marks ...............................................................................................................7-27
7.13 Call Procedure ............................................................................................................................................................7-30
UQ. 7.13.1 Write note on : Call procedures In GSM. El!ImmtilHMfib .............................................7-30
7.14 Hand-off Procedure .....................................................................................................................................................1.32
UQ. 7.14.1 Write short note on: Hand ott in GSM. ..................................................1.32
UQ. 7.14.2 What are the reasons tor intra-cell handover? Discuss different
possible handover scenarios In GSM. a. 4 a. Dec. 18, 10 Marks ...................................................7-32
7.14.1 Handovers in GSM .............................................................................................................................7-33
7.14.l(A) Inter-Cell Handover ............................................................................................................................7-34
7 .14.1(B) lnter•MSC Handover...........................................................................................................................7-34
7.14.1(C) Inter-SSC Handover ........... ........................................................................................:.......................7-34
7.14.1 (D) Inter-SSC Intra MSC Handover ..........................................................................................................7-34
I
i. 7.14.1 (E) lntra•Cell Handover ............................................................................................................................7-34
,I 7.15
7.14.1(F) Intra-Cell, Intra SSC Handover ...........................................................................................................7-34
GSM Evolution in GPRS and Edge .............................................................................................................................7-34
7.15.1 EDGE for 2.5G GSM and IS-136 ........................................................................................................7-34
UQ. 7.15.1 Write note on EDGE architecture. ........................................................7-34
UQ. 7.15.2 How higher data rates are achieved in EDGE? ......................................7-34
7.15.2 Comparison between GPRS and EDGE ............................................................................................7-35
Tcch-Nro Puhliailiom_ _ JT'hue Authors in.pire innol'ation ..-4 SACIDNSHAll Yeoturt

,,,.~s~:te::;m_.M..U~-~S~em:i-.7~-E~&:T~C:':°=====7~-~D~========-=-=-=~2~G~T:;ec~h;;_ri;;;,o""'I,====le;;;,s
. ,,,i,ilB ~ compare GPAS and EDGE with technical and functional dlff
,._,,j.j~tlflft
@ ~
II
0.1.15•'
erences.
~•rs_. ___.__ ................................................................................................................7 35
packet oata Network ................., .............................................................................................................7-3~
_
pflS 11rid 0 1scuss GPAS technology. -•ldmLi41ii.l@ihtdlfA1•■&&fiff.......................................7•36

G .16.1 W rite short note on : GPRS technology.
1
11:·1.16J plOlil&iGl•Ml•IME••J§◄fiHMflb .....................................................................1-36
16
t·
I.I • What Is the role of GPRS In enhancing 2G GSM systems 7 ...................7-36
16•' S ................................................. • .......7 -36
11°· 1~sot o PFI. .........~PAS technology. · · ..........................................................................................7-3 6
fe8ttJ o,scuss ............................... .
_11 7.11•1 W ·te short note on : GPRS technology.
1 0
viJO·· 1.11.z ~Jti•EAS❖tMEl•t§◄EMt•HfflH
~ · _____.__ ....................................................................1-36
Whal Is the role of GPRS In enhancing 2G GSM systems ? ...................7-36
1)0· 1•11•' rl< Architecture .......................................................................................................................................7-37
c;PflS r.JetwO Discuss GPRS technology. ........................................7-37
1
7,18 tJ0· 7.1 8· oraw and explain GPRS architecture ......................... 7-37
2
tJ0· 7.18· W rite short note on : GPRS technology.
va·
1.18· 3 plGi&i>tl•tiAl•J4¥ril•1MiilHMfltl ....................................................................7 -37
Write note on EDGE architecture. .......................................................7-37
oraw reference architecture In GPRS and explain role of GGSN and SGSN.
p1illliZIJA(M11IMttiff...............................................................................................................1.31
Transmission Plane Protocol Architecture ..........................................................................................7-39
:; ~E;~:i;~: :;~:::•••:••:•:•• ••• • :•••• •••:•:•••• ::• • : ••••••••:•:•: :: ::: : • •:: : : :::::::~~
721 G
uo. 7.21.1
Explain how G PAS architecture handles data call. ..............................7-43
GPAS Attach ......................................................................................................................................7-43
721.1 GPRS Detach .....................................................................................................................................7-43
1.21.2 PDP Context Activation ......................................................................................................................7-43
1.21.3
APN-Access Point Name ....................................................................................................................7-44
1.21.4
Mobility Management ............................................:............................................................................7-45
121.s
. Routing .................................................................................................................................. '. ............7-45
721 6
Data Services in GPRS ...............................................................................................................................................7-46
122 .22. GPRS Handsets .................................................................................................................................7-46
7 1
Device Types ......................................................................................................................................7 -47
7222
,22.3 Bearers in GPRS ................................................................................................................................7-47
7
713 Advantages of GPRS ..................................................................................................................................................7-47
124 Disadvantages of GPAS .......................................................................................................................................:..... 7-47
725 Appfcations of GPRS ................................................................................................................................................. 7-47
7.26 Billilg and Charging in GPRS .......................................................................................................................____ 7-49
727 Difference between GPRS and GSM ................:.................................................................................._ _ _ _ _ 7-5:,
728 Unil'ersity Ouo
...stions ..... . ... . .. ... . ..... ........ ... .... . .. .... ....... ..... .. . .. .. .. .. .... .. . .. ..... .... . ..... .. ..... .. . ........... -5t
Qiapte,- Ends ----............................................................................................ -------------1~
pin: U1D01-atioo
f"hm: .4atlxm in.< _J.SJ.ii/DTSEXE' i =

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11
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OSM WUH developed lo Holvo lho l'rng111e111111lo11 prohlolllli or lho f'lrHI p.011ornllo11 1101workN,
'•Y-ltr~
A OSM 1,yslem h11s 11111xln111111 200 full duplex d1111111cl11 per l'cll. l!uch cdl 1111H1llflb•r11l 11pll11k 111111 clowrilh1k frt<
fl hundlcs chunnel 11cce1111 11sl11g u co111hl1111lltJ11 of 111>M, Tl>M 1111<1 11lollecl Al.Oil,\,
l'lenct,
The Globul Syiaem for Mohile (OSM) co1111111111lc111lo1111 111 11 fo11111rc rlc.:11 clltdlul wlrclc1111 lcd111ology, 11 Prtl\'I .
11
subscriher11 with II high q1111li1y dlgi111l wlrclc11Hphone 11e1·vlc0 1111d cl11rl1y 1111d e11l11111ced c11ll 11cc11rlly 1111<1 prlvucy, ~
GSM is u 20 ccllulur HyHlcrn 1hu1 uscH dlgi111I 111od11l111io111111cl 11e1work level 11rchl1cc111rcHurul HcrvlcoH, Tho com,nc
services of GSM sturtcd 111 rnld-19'J I. rcl•t
Because of its 11dv11111Uges IL wn~ widely ucccpted In 11 11u111hcr of' 11011-E11rope1111 co11n1rlc11 like AHl11, Sourh A111cric•
. ~o~
Australcu by end of 1993,
GSM can handle bolh voice und d11111 truffic, The voice wuveform IH dlgl111lly c11coded hcfore ln111H111i11Hion, The OSliJ
trunsmission is done within frequency l11111ds of 9()() MIiz, 18()() MIiz und 1900 Milz.
:> 7.2 Features of GSM
1
.I U?· 7,2,1 Explain features of GSM. i,WO•ll©mtltl•t+Miil•~filiiJMDI
I
ua. 7.2.2 GSM provides 'on the air privacy' eocurlty fooluros during volco collo Juotlfy.
The features of GSM arc :

(i) IL supports more subscriber cupacily in the given spectrum.
(ii) The short messaging service (SMS) allows the GSM subscri bers 10 lransmil and receive cl111ructcr lext mcHsngc,,
(iii) It has a subscriber identity module (SIM). The SIM is a rucmory device lhul stores infor111111ion like NUbHcrlbcr'a
identification number. Each sub~criher uses a four digit personal II> numher in order lo ac1iv11lc Hcrvlce fromony
GSM phone. The SIMs ,ire smart cards or plug-in modules. The suhscrihers can inserl their SIM into II rnobllc
phone, a personal phone and !hen receive GSM calls lo lite r111111her irrespcc1i vc of lite location.
(iv) On-I he-air privacy is provided by lite GSM system. Privacy is done by e11cryp1ing the digital hi! stream liCOl by
the GSM lransmiller, according lo a se<:rcl cryptographic key 11t111 is known ro the cellular currier, For cuch user
key is different. Defore dcployi11g a GSM syslcm, the GSM system manufacturer must sig11 11 Mcrnornndumot
Understand In~ (MoU). The MoU allows cryptographic algori thms.
(v) It has the ability to use the same phone in different networks.
(vi) It allows data transmission and reception across GSM networks al 96fJO bps.
(vii) It supports PAX transmission and reception al 9.6 kbps.
(viii) It supports smaller handsets.
; I./
i
i
I
i (ix) Jt supports call forwarding, call on hold, conference facili ty.
Tuh-Nco Publication8........... 11'/icrc A111/,013·in,,111'rc 1i111orn11011 --ySl/11/N 5/1,fl/ ~.,

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l ) 1'h(- cnc:ry ~ ~ •Til.lO!U t.l\;;t ll.''1!1<( he L::i;,roi.

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~ 7.2.. 1 TOt_. A to r IJuttlplo Accc,o Ch~nnel and FOMA for MulUplo U5'ers
1
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:> 7.J GSM Services
II I
(1)
.A ~ rrt.i l'IC' s, l!IC' !.I 1:3 ! !.U. tr!c :i.rJ \ i. C" ~-j .~ 'l~ni ., (,\ lit L 'lr .1.'.l l <!.c1 1.'\.~..C,CO i}'\!!Jru... l!I G ~, ~rc.cch h
..: p!.1..lJ t"'•,~•.l:J :.:,J U..!,:'•••Hc-J t•.·••~ ~•1!Jot' (;\ \! tJrt"'vt i. i, ~ .!. .;:.~ ,!:-c.1.~
~.t'lt ~iJ TrlMrU U.:.tnltt1>l.l tt
(TI} Ooarer aervleea or d#~ a-ervlce1
The thl.J i.("rntt fdlt, 1i.W ti) G ~-.1 :u~ :

I• ) T'hr u ~ nan tnw~mit '-.nd tt"<'CJ\C ~t~ fn,m ) t-p-. tu 9 Kt-~
(b ) Aocr ss m U'-("t'\ nn N)T (M:u.o OIJ ic k-pht•nc Scnicc). I O~. Px-lrt Sv. itched Public 0 3ta Nd ~ and
JJ'C'Uh Switcllod Nc1•'t'r l.~ U)it1• • \ 1lJ"lc-t y of nett:., nlt"U10.l :&nd pruc. ls W.C X.25 ~ X.32.
(c) It wt'f'(lrt.' Oiw p 3 f101cruk (FAX ) '<'rvitt.
{d) h 5trrf'tlt'b t,.ldirt-ctiC'JW SMS "'"n-ict'. lht" n~\11~ o.rt lr.Ul~ported in :a sto:re-31\d-forv.~ nwtner. The SMS
can t,e ~ on poiot-to--pulnt lltld rdl t>roooast mode.
_4 S40llJ'SllUl lt.lltlff

,.
j
••
~- ~
(~ Cill IIi~"'O (bl ~\mttr ~ntif,.,"3l.ioo ~n'l\."CS (d Ck\.~ ustt poops
(d) Cl!] fuo."3:".fu$ ~~"'CS ( ('\ Olli (\.)Jl't'ktioo ~J'Y~~ (f) Multi(\311)' ~n°k"'C'.s
W Cl!l~"tK-.:1~-i-.~ h) S.~m,e~i~~ni-c
TI:r GS..\I s~"St":m ~ rro,~\.~ ~ P.t.:-l-ci R~ S<-n-k-e. It pro,i-Jcs l')-!sit--ility to °'-"C'C-' ~ puhlk pxkrt s ~
omi,cri,;:s ~--b ;i ihh."':1.."N trilfi,.:- dun.IX I.
~ 7.4 GSM Functional Block Diagram
~ 7.-U sb:ni.--s 1.bdu:13-."!K'm.l hloct ~..m cf :s GS.\f plx-ne..

Tb: ~ ~ ' " t t s:rtr.m:t1 tr...n.._'1Il.its or m.-rin~s the RF ~gn:tl. 1k An!i.los 10 Di~tll (AID) :Uld Digit3..l to An41og <Dt'A)
c c n , ~ ::r-e o__'Q! in ().-~te directi('!l$ d:-peooing on tr.uL"1Uis;s.ion or ~~pticm.
Channel ~ Ciph,lmg
\"ci::e lnterlo:la,mg
M)ard GSM and
VOC(Xier and Decipherlng
OJA Deinterleaving
RF RFA•'Dand
Transm'tter
D!AGMSK Demodulator
and
modulator
Roce.\ "Sr
Fig. 7.-ll : Functional block diagram of a GS:\I phone
1be micropbone and loudspeakers are~ in opposite directions.
The channel coding is done in opposite directions \\ith the help of interle~ning method.
~lodulation is done using Gaussian ~finimum Shift Keying (G11SK) method.
The antenna is ~IDIO ~fultiple Input and MuJtiple Output).
User authentication is also possible -wi th GSM phones.
Depending on the senices prmided by lhe GSM standard there are SL't examples. They are :
GSM standard
I
Tran.sactfonaJ Travelling Mobile Personal Security
Fun
service related office services services
•shopping • roaming •modem • gambling • budgeting • emergency caas
•booking • weather • fax • on6ne games • health monitoring • alarm provision
• email • paying bills
T~Xeo Puh&atiom,.__ JFkrr Autlxm iMpire iimo,'lltion -4 S4Ulll(SH.ill Yazlln

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1:§iJ Mobllo Comm. S slom MU•Hefll.7,t t.1 C)

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:, 7 5 . GSM Notwork Archltocturo
uo.1.s.2 E~lnln GSM Notwork archll octute h1 d!!ltlll

Ut!d•Etmm.tVl•l'i!tJlf.:l·lilimD!8t.Wl®H!tiiil
Uo, 7,5.3 ~loin GSM otchllect11m Met nlalJOJl}lg h.mct.loo fl , 1 ;J! nvo~»zm.mtWHm!tJ!d
UO, 7,5.4 Omw nootty and explain Lho t()lo It\}' by vnisoo, 1~a 1n 11\o o •.t MC.I ·, ,.,
1\ GSM network con,i,t, ,,r ' nrfou, fun lroMI cntll ic\, v.ho~ (ur;c111u\, and lnlct fx c• .uc :,,,.,..t f., iJ I ,i . 1 s 1 -~nw·.
ihc scncric architecture nf n G M nct" ork.
A GSM 3 rchit<'C turc comii.1~ of three major \Ub\)'\ICnt\ 1h31 in1crac1 hc1v.ecn 1hcm\Cht:\ ·• 11111hc u :cn a-.:,;,~.£:'> , M:'t'
network inlcrfncc~. The ~ub11y111cnl..', :ire :
(i) Dai-c Station Subsy~1cm (BSS) (ii) Network ::rn<l S"' i1chins ,ub~)"'I IC'm (N ' S)
(iii) Opcrntion Suppon Sub1,y!>lcm (OSS)
Tiic Mobile Station (MS) is abo a i.ub yMcrn. but iii consider 1o be p:i.rt of BSS for nrd1i1ccturt pot I<''
fig. 7.5.1 . hows the GSM archi1ccturc.

SIM (Stibecribor
ldontlty modulo) BTS HLR VLR
P STN
Mobllo
Equlpmont
(ME)
0 ~-B_T_s_.
I
I
BTS
BSC
..
MSC
ISDN
D,14
~-
Publlc
I Norwot!u1
BTS I
1
BTS EJR AUC OMC
I
j
Um lnterla . j a
Abl A Interlace Op«atlng Support
lnt~aee Sut>.y1"lem
~
(OSSl
' --v-
.,J \.,
----...../"
,I\,
---y,-
.I
Moblle Station Buie Station Subaya\em Network Swtt.chlng

(MS) (BSS) Sub.-yrtem
(NSS)
BTS Base Trarn,ceiver S1111ion
BSC Base Station Co111roller
HLR Home Loca1ion Regi~tcr
VLR Visitor Location Regbter
MSC Mobile Switching Cent re
EIR Equipmelll lden1i1y Register
AUC Au1hen1icu1ion Center
OMC: Operation Main1e11unce Ce111er
Pli:. 7.~.I : <:S I urt hllrdun-
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2G Techno
I: [i] Mobile Comm. S stem MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 7-5
ver the radio interface (VJ.
' lion subsystems o
'· st
The mobile stations (MS) communicate with the base a . •on path between the mobile Slati
I I .
The BSS culled as the radio subsystem, provides an
d manages the ra
. .
dio transm1ss1
r:
b'I stations and other subs 8
between mo I e
%
Y tc111g
.I radio mteriace
I
nnd the Mobile Switching Centre (MSC). It also manages
of GSM. ·
t the mobile-sta ll. on to th e ne t work illld
I Each BSS comprises many Base Station Controllers (

BSCs) that connec
r switching subsystem (NSS) through the mobile switching center.

The NSS controls the switching functions of the GSM sys
.h .
w11 networks Irke PSTN, ISDN, CSPDN,
PSPDN and other data networ 'S.
k
ation and maintenance o

.
tern It allows the mob• 1e sw1
·
·tching center to cornmu •
f th GSM system. It all

e
n1caic
ows Uic
,
The Operation Supports Subsystem (OSS) allows the oper f the GSM system. The OSS subsystclll
- - . .
system engmecrs to diagnose, troubleshoot an sc °
d b rvc the parameters o
.
'd . .
pany staff that prov1 es service factiitics
interacts with the other subsystems and is provided for the GSM operaung com ·
for the network.
a 7.5.1 Mobile Station

d mart card called SIM (Subscriber ldenuty
The Mobile Station (MS) comprises of Mobile Equipment (ME) an a s
Module).
. • _ ·rres ective of the mobile equipment. After
SIM provides personal mobility to have access to subscnbed services I p d . other subscribed services
• calls make calls an enJOY .
inserting the SIM card into a GSM handset, the user can receive •
. . I t tional Mobile Equipment Identity CIMEQ
The mobile equipment (handset) is uniquely 1dent1fied by the- n erna
number.
th
The SIM card has the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) used to identify the subscriber to
5
e sy 1em.
II is n separate secret key provided for authentication.

Both the IMEi and IMSI arc impcndent. They allow personal mobility.
The SfM card can be protected against unauthorized use by a password or Personal Identity Number (PIN).
The GSM mobile stations support power levels ranging from ~-8 - 8W. In order to extend the battery life, power saving
techniques are used.
a 7.5.2 Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
The base station subsystem comprises of two parts :

(i) Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
(ii) Ba~e Station Controller (BSC)
The BSS consists many BSCs that_conncct to a single MSC. Each BSC controls upto several hundred Base Transceiver
Stations (BTSs).
Some of the BTSs can be colocated at the BSC and the others can be remotely distributed. They are connected to the
BSCs by dedicated leased lines or microwave links.
The interface that connects BTS to DSC is called as the Abis interface. It carries the traffic and maintenance data.
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r
1

76
~~~===~:;;;;;;;;:=~;:::::;~~===~~=========~~~~~
2 _ G Technologies
cS- 7.s.2(A) Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
The BTS has radio transceivers that define a cell and are capable of handling the radio-link protocols with the Mobile
Station (MS).
The ruoctions of BTS are :

(i) Handling radio link protocols.
(ii) Providing full duplex communication to the Mobile Station (MS).

(iii) Interleaving and deinterleaving.
The BTS comprises the Transcoder Rate Adapter Unit (TRAU). In this unit, the GSM specific speech encoding
and decoding is done. Also the rate adaption function of data is done.
~ 7.5.2(8) Base Station Controller (BSC)
The Base Station controller manages the radio resources for one or more BTSs. It controls upto several hundred BTSs.
a
They are connected to single MSC.
The functions of the base station controller are :
(i) To control BTSs

(ii) Radio resource management.
(iii) Handoff management and control.
Mobile handoffs between two BTSs that are controlled by a BSC are handled by the same BSC. This reduces the
burden of the Mobile Switching Center (MSC).
BSC also handles radio-channel set up and frequency hopping.
The BSCs are physically connected through leased lines or microwave links to the MSC. The interface between the
BSC and MSC is called as A interface.
Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)
It handles the switching of GSM calls between the external networks and the BSCs in the radio subsystem.
The NSS is responsible for managing and providing external access to various customer databases.
The central component of this subsystem is the MSC (mobile switching center). It controls all the traffic among all the
BSCs.
The function of MSC is to handle mobile subscribers registration, authentication, localization, handovers, call routing
etc.
The network and switching subsystem includes three different databases for mobility management.
Ttch-Neo Publications",_ Where Authol'Y inspire innoration ·- ·A SAO/INSI/All Yenture

Mobile Com s
m. ystem (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 7-7 2GTec~
They are:
(i)
Home Location Register (HLR)
(ii)
Visitor Location Register (VLR)
(iii) Authentication Center (AUC)
~ 7 •5-3(A) Mobile Switching Center (MSC)
The MSC connects to fixed networks like ISDN, PSTN etc. It provides additional capabilities to support mobility
management functions like tenninal registration location, updating and hand0ff·
The functions of MSC are :
(i) Call setup, supervision and release.
(ii) Digit collection and translation
(iii) Collection of billing information
(iv) Mobility management- registration, location updation and call handoff between BSC a nd MSC
(v) Call handling/ routing.
(vi) Cancellation of echo.

I
' (vii) Management of signaling protocol.
•''
I '
I I (viii) Radio resource management during call.
(
11,, 1 (ix) Interrogation of appropriate registers (VLR / HLR).
(S.. 7.5.3(8) Home Location Register (HLR)
The call roaming and call routing capabilities of GSM are handled by the Home Location Register (HLR).
It comprises all the administrative information of every subscriber that is registered in that corresponding GSM
network . Also the current location of the mobile station (MS) is available in the HLR.
A unique International Mobile Subscriber Identify (IMSJ) of each subscriber is maintained in the HLR database. Each
home number can be identified by this number.
There is logically one HLR per GSM network, although it may be implemented as a distributed database.
The I-il..R database can be grouped into two types.
1. Dynamic database
It contains the location infonnation for each subscriber.

I I
2. Permanent database
ii Ill It includes :
i I (i) International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) (ii) Service subscription infonnation.
(iii)
Supplementary services. (iv) Service restriction.
(v) Mobile terminal characteristics. (vi) Billing/ accounting information.

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Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 7•8 2G Technologies
~ 7.5.3(C) Visitor Location Register (VLR)
The Visitor Location Register (VLR) contains selected administrative information from HLR essential for call control
and provision of subscribed-services.
The VLR is a temporary database. It stores the IMSI number ·and customer information for each roaming customer
visiting the coverage area of a specific MSC.
It consists the info~mation of every user visiting in that area.
When a mobile that is roaming, is logged in the VLR the MSC sends the essential information to th~ subscribers HLR
so that calls to the roaming mobile can be routed over the PSTN by users HLR.
The VLR also contains information about the locally activated features like call forward on busy.
The temporary subscriber information in VLR includes.
(i) Currently activated features.
(ii) International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI).
(iii) Current location information about mobile station (MS).
(iv) Directory number to route calls to the roaming station.
(v) Copy of subscriber data from HLR.
(vi) Temporary mobile station identity (TMSI).
(vii) Location where the mobile is registered.
(viii) HLR address.
(ix) Mobile station ISDN number.
~ 7.5.3(0) Authentication Center (AUC)
The Authentication Center is a protected database. It stores a copy of the secret key stored in each subscriber's SIM
card that is used for authentication and encryption over the radio channel.
The authentication center maintains authentication keys and algorithms. It provides security triplets (RAND, SRES
and Kc) to the VLR.
The AUC handles authentication and encryption keys for each subscriber in the HLR and VLR.
The Authentication center contains a register called as Equipment Identity Register (EIR). It identifies stolen or
fraudently altered phones that transmit the identity data that does not match with the data in HLR or VLR.
The EIR is a database that contains a list of valid mobile equipment on the network where each mobile station is
identified by its International Mobile Equipment l~entity (IMEi) number.
The IMEi is marked invalid if it is reported stolen or not type approved.
The data in EIR is in the form of white, grey and black lists that the network consults when it wishes to confirm the
authenticity of terminal requesting service.
Tech-Neo Puhlications...,_,,M lnere Authors inspire innoYBtioo MM.A SAODNS/IAII Yeolure

J -,
_Ii]_--:~Mobne--Comm=~-~S~ys~te:m~(~M~u~-se~~m~.7~-E~&~T~Cl,)===~7~-9~==========--2G~T:eyy
1nc different lists and the'1r contents are given below · ~
Type IMDNumba' Contents
White List Valid l~lEI number. List of valid mobile equipments.
Black List Prohibited I.MEI number. List of mobile for which service is b:lrrcd.
Grey List IMEJ under scanner List of suspected mobile under observation.
a 7.5.4 Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)
lne OSS supports one or many Operation Maintenance Centers (OMC) that are used to monitor and tnaintaui
performance of different subsystems within a GSM system. "
The three functions of OSS arc :
(i)
To manage subscription management i.e. charging nnd billing procedures.
(ii) To man:ige :ill mobile equipment in the sy!>tem.
(iii) To maintain nll telc-communic:ition hard\\ :ire nnd net.,..-ork operation within a market.
An O~1C is allotted to C'nch t:i,k. 11 hos c:ip:ib ility of ndju,ting nll the base t:ition parameters and billing procedures.
It allo" the S) -tem operntor.. to detenninc 1hc perforrn:mcc of lhc GSM ~y tern.
If there i :in emcr£ency nt the h:i,-c ,1:11icm. 1hc OSS c:m determine where the BTS is located, what type of fail111t
ocrufTC'd and "hot C"quipment the ~ite cngincc-r " ill need 10 rc:pjir 1hc fai lure:.
°B. 7.5.5 GSM Interfaces
Fig. 7.5.2 s.ho" ~ tlie GSM lnterfa e:.. 11)c different I) pc, of in1erfJcc\ for interconnecting subsystems are:
(i) Um intcrfocr. (i i) Ahis intrrfn e. (iii) A interf· e.
Mobtlo
S\ation ; BSC MSC 1---.--1 PSTN
S57 protocol
Um Interface Able A Interface

or OSM Radio lntcrf1co (atandardlzed)
Air (standardized)
lntorf1co
(standardized)
Fig. 7.5.2: I>ilTl'rcnt Interlaces used In GSM
'ZS- 7.5.S(A) Um Interface
The radio or air interface is called as the Um interface. This interface is used to communicate between the Base
Transcch•er Station (BTS ) with mobile station (MS).
Tttl,-NNI PuhltatioM- 'flbur Authors inspirr i11DO,.,,ticn _,4 SAaIINSHAil YtlllJI'
Sca nned w ith CamScanner

-
~ 7.5.5(8) Abls Interface
7-10 20 Tochnok?glos
Abis interface is used to connects a BTS to a BSC.
This interface carries traffic as well as the maintenance data. The Abis interface is generally specified by lhc:
manufacturer of the GSM equipment.
~ 7.5.5(C) A Interface
The interface between a BSC and a MSC is called as the A interface. They are physically connected by dedicated or
leased lines or microwave links.
The A interface allows a service provider to use base stations and switching equipment made by different
manufacturers.
The A interface uses an SS7 protocol called Signal Correction Control Part (SCCP) that supports the communication
between the individual subscribers and the MSC.
~ 7.6 Radio Interface
MU- 0. 2(b), Ma 11.10 Marks
The GSM networks uses two 25 MHz bandwidth globally in bands.
The 890 - 915 MHz band is set for subscriber to base transmissions (reverse link).
The 935 - 960 MHz band is set for base to subscriber transmissions (forward link).
In order to provide multiple access to the mobile users the GSM uses FDO and a combination of TOMA and FliMA
methods.
The 25 MHz bandwidth forward and reverse frequency bands are further divided into 125 carrier frequency channels
(assuming no guard band) each 200 KHz called as ARFCNs (Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Numbers).
The ARFCN indicates a pair of channel (forward and reverse) that are separated by 45 MHz. Each channel is time
shared between 8 subscribers in the TOMA scheme with a frame duration of 4.615 ms.
The radio transmissions on the forward and reverse link are done at a rate of 270.833 Kbps using binary BT = 0.3
GMSK modulation. Hence, the signaling bit period is 3.692 µs and effective channel transmission rate per user is
33.854 kbps. The user data is sent a maximum rate of 24.7 kbps because of the overload on the GSM system.
Each Time slot has a time allocation of 156.25 channel bits of which 8.25 are guard bits, six are start and stop bits to
prevent overlap with adjacent time slots.
Fig. 7.6.1 shows a Time slot. Each Time Slot (TS) has a duration of 576.92 µs.
Total
3 57 26 57 3 8.25 = 156.25 bits
Time Stealing Jralnl Stealing - Data Stop .auard
slot ',' bit f
bit~ :· · -· bit _, , . bits '. bits , bits
Duration= 576.92 µs - - - - - - - -
Fig. 7.6.1 : One time slot
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~
Mobll<1 Cl'l111n, S • tom MU-Stmi.7•E&TC}_ 7.11
1&\ 1::5 hlltl

r--.t ei7d.o~ 1,t1
Ts 8 TS TS7 8 11mll slots
TS: TS:, Ts, IS
.Stlt 5 m:1 --------i

r- - - - ,ro m~ - - - - -- -- --+i
I : ldlo rnuno
s : Stow nooclntod control chnnnol rmmo.
Tft: n"' TCH rrnmo.
Fl~. 7.6.2: Sp,>t-..·h th'11kuh-tl ronlrol dum1wl frnmc 11ml nmltll'nunc slmclurc
As l':~ch r:•dio l'lmnnd n11npriscs s tinK' shits. 1hm· :u,• 1()()() tmflic d1:1nnds within ?SM.
Pr:1ctic:11ly :1 guard~~
I00 Kl IL 1s pt\)\'hkd at 11ppt· r nml 111\\\"r l'n1ls 11f 1hc s1x·l·tr11111. Only I .!-t d1:11mds arc ,mpkmcnll'l.l.
The c11mhin:11ion of the TS 1111111h,:r nml r\RFCN c11n~tit11tcs :1 physkal ch:rnnd for the forw:mi nnd revcn;c link. 4'((
the physicnl l'h:1nnd can Ix· 111:1pp,·d 1(1 dilkn·nt lo~kal rhannds at diffl•t-cnt instants l>f time.
The GS~t spt·cilic:11ion~1ldincs rnril111s ll,giral drnnnds th:1t c:1n he used to link the physical lnycr with data linkbJt
11f the GSM nc-t\\\)I I... The h1~irnlly clrnnnds tmnsmit data nml control the nl'twork on ARfCN. The GSM air in~
spt·cilkati1111s arc gh"<'n in T.1hk 7.Cl. I.
T11hl,• 7.<d : GS:\t Air lnh'rfnl't' / Rudio lnh'rfnl't' Spt·clncntlons
l'nn1mdcr Spl'Clnculions
F1irw:ll\l rh.1111wl fn.·q1tl' IICY 1 >J5 - %0 Mill
Rc,·l·r~c d1:i1111l'I fi,·qucncy :-90 - 9 15 Milz
r\Rf-C'N N11111ba O 11, 12-l :1111\ 975 to I023
Tx / Rx F1,·q11c1ll'y spa ·in):! -l5 ~lllz
Tx / Rx Ti nll' ~lot ~p:11.'i ng 3 Time sllits
~h1d11l:11i1lll Data R:\ll' 270.83 1..hps
Frn,m· pcrhxl -U)l5 11\S
~ lodulntil,n 0.3 Gi\lSK
Usn s pa fr:11nc 8
Tinll' slot ix·riml 576.92 ~IS
Channd spacing 200 kllz
l111nk:1ving delay (maximum) .JO ms
Voice Codl·r Dit Rt11c 13A kbps
Rcvcr.-c nnd forward Channl'I Bnn1lwidth 25 MHz
Bit period 3.692 ~IS
Fl'\'q11c11cy deviation 67.708 kHz
Slow fn·qucncy hopping 217 htlps 1x·r second
Tt'('h-NIt'O rulilu:allons - - rrhrll' . fot!H.1/')i l ll.•/J/11' /nll(}l;f(l(,n

r~
:, 1.1
MoblloC=m. tom MU-Som.7-E&TC
Slgnallng Protocols Architecture

7-12 20 Tochn lot
uo. 7,1.1 Explaln In dotn.11 slgnallng protocol archltooturo uaod In GSM. MU. 0 . (l fl , One. 11 , to r,1nrkn
uo. 7,7.2 MU• 0 . 2(n). Doc. 13, to "1nrk 11
The signalin~ pt\,t\X'\,I in GSM is stnictuml lnh1 thfl'c 8Cllcrnl lnyc1 ~1lcpcntllnl( 1111 Ilic lnlcrfncc.
Lnycr I is the physical layer that uses the drnnnd stnicturcs over the lnlcrfm:c. l..uycr 2 1, d o111 link l11ycr. Acr~, the U,..
interface the dnta link lnycr is II mollincd version of the I.Ink Arrc.'i!I l'rolocol 1> (LAl'I)) u11Cd In ISl>N. 111, c111lcd a,
the 1..APDm.
Across the A interface, the message tmnsfcr pnrt lnycr 2 of signal system number 7 (SS7) ls ui.c<l.
Tiie GSM air interface consists of TDMNFDMA time slots nnd frequency bands.
LAPDm is used O\'er the nir interface hctwccn the base station trnns-rcccivcr and the mobile device.
To tr.msmit the information to a desired destination, some additional control information is required apart from the
actual datu. ll is called ns a slgnnllng m~gc.
The signaling channels nrc multiplexed on an aggregate of the TDM slots.

Layer 3 of the GSM signaling protocol is divided into 3 sub-layers.
(i) Mobility Management (MM). (ii) Radio Resource Management (RRM) and
(iii) Connection Management (CM) for calls routing.

A
For the purpose of mobility,
communication of network resources, GSM CM Ab s CM
code format und call related
Layer3 ------
MM
... -------
MM
management messages between tJ1e ------·
RRM RAM BSSAP
------
BSSAP
different network entities, the layer 3 Layer2 LAPOm LAPOm SCCP SCCP
protocol is used . Layer 1 TOMA TOMA MTP MTP
Between tJ1e Mobile Station and the
Base Station Subsystem (BSS), Radio Mobile Station Base Transceiver Base Station Mobile Switching
Resource Management (RRM) can be (MS) Station (BTS) Controller (BSC) Center (MSC)
implemented. Fig. 7.7.1 : Signaling protocol structure In GSM
Mobility Management and Connection Management is the communication between the Mobile Station and MSC
(Mobile Switching Centre). Fig. 7.7. 1 shows the Signaling Protocol Structure in GSM.
The A interface uses an SS7 protocol called Signal Correction Control Protocol (SCCP) of SS7 that supports
communication between the MSC and BSS and the network messages between the individual subscribers and the MSC.
°B. 7.7.1 Link Layer LAPDm Protocol (Mobile Station-Base Transceiver Station Slgnallng
Protocols)
The physical layer between the Mobile Station (MS) and the Base Transceiver Station (BTS) is called radio. (U.
interface).
Fig. 7.7.2 shows the functions and protocol layers between the MS and BTS.
Tcdi-Neo Publicatioru_,_ Jin,.,.., Authors inspirr inno,·• tion

.,
[li:iJ Mobile Comm. S)'9t•m (MU,Snm.7-E&TC! 7-13 ,or..,,~
The tlntn link lnyer control111 the now or pnckcls lo ond from the network layer und provide~ ncccs, to the dlfrcrtlll
services.
Tho dntn link lnycr protocol between MS nnd IJTS Ill L,\Pl)m (Link ,\ccc~11 Protocol D-chnnnel modlncd) for u...
The runctions of LAPDm nrc shown In Fig. 7.7.2. It doe11 nol II~ ,111y nug for frornc dcllml1111ion, rather the Phy,k-,
lnyer defining the frnmc houndarics tlocs frumc <ldlmitntio n.
~--------------------------------------------------
[;] •• - • • • • • - • • ~ • • I
I
I
RAM
\
\
I
.,,.'.
I
'.: ,'
I
I
,•
BTSM
I
Network layer Network laye r
L.APDm LAPDm
LAPDm
Radio
L.__ _ _J-4""7,_T
L~~====f--T-----7i----
,' PCM
Abls
a.--+CellJ
um I
------------------------~
LAPDm functions Radio function•
I:
,! • . I) Data flow control
i) Full or half duplex aocess
I l ii) SOMA, TOMA and FDMA
II) Acknowledged / unacknowledged
'I data transmission
iii) Bursting and framing
Iv) Frequency correction
Ill) Address and sequence number checks
v) Coding FEC,CAC,data interleaving
Iv) Access point for multiple services
and encryption
v) re-sequencing of data vi) Error detection, correction and blocking
vi) Segmentation
the data not correctable
vlQ Data reassembly vlO GMSK digital modulation and transmission
.viii) Demodulation and reception
ix) Decryption and decoding
J '
Fig. 7.7.2: Functions and protocol layers between the MS and BTS
There is a length indicator in LAPDm to differentiate the information carrying field from the fill-in bits used to fill the
transmission frame.
LAPDm uses a 3 bit Service Access Point Identifier (SAPI) as an address field. SAPIO is used for call control. MM ·
and RRM signaling.
SAPl3 is used for SMS. All other fields are reserved for future purpose. Fig. 7.7.3 shows the general format foc
LAPDm.
Address Control Length Fille r

field field indicator Information field Bits
Fig. 7.7.3: General format for LAPDm
The eight bit address field identifies the SAPI to enable different services. Fig. 7.7.4 shows the 8 bit address field
format for LAPDm.
Tech-Neo Puhlicationa.N,N... Where Aulhors impire innon,lion

N ,_.A S.40/lVSllUI Jr,twt

~ Mobile Comm. S tom MU-Som.7-E&TC 20 Toohn
8 7
LPO I I8AP1 0/n EA
FIR, 7.7.4 t Addrc.'i~ nflcl form11t for l,Al'lhn

Jnordcr to specify I\ specific rccommcnd111lo11 of the use of I.APDm tho 1wo bll11 Link Prorocol Dbcrlmlnutor (tf'D) nrc
used.
Dit 2 i.e. tho CIR is II single bit thnt specifics the response or commnnd frnmo.
Dit I i.e. Extended Address (EA) cun be used lo extend tho uddrcss field 10 more thun one octet. In tJ1c h1-,t octet of ,tie
oddrcss this bit must be set to I, otherwise it is set to zero.
The 8 bit control field in LAPDm identifies the command frame, frame type und curries the sequence numbers.
The S bit length field identifies the length of the information bits.
The infonnation bits identify the opcrntion needed for a network layer mcssngc.
The filler bits are Is. It is used for acknowledgement in asynchronous comrnunicntion. When LAPDm is used then
there is no communication for layer 3. There arc 16 filler bits 10 make I 84 bit LAPD.
The network layer has three sublayers :
(I) Connection Management (CM) for culls routln~ : The CM sublayer protocol supports call establishment,
maintenance and termination. It also controls and supports the functioning of SMS nnd supplementary services.
It also supports DTMF signaling.
Thus, the functions of CM arc,
(i) Protocols for call setup, maintenance, termination and reselling on interruption al MM.
(ii) Protocols supplementary services using CCCH.
(iii) Protocols for SMS.
(iv) DTMF signal control.
(li) Mobility Management (MM) : This layer issues regarding mobility management when a mobile station moves
into another cell. The functions of MM arc:
(i) registration. (ii) location update. (iii) authentication and identification methods.
(iv) maintaining reliable communication to upper layers.
(v) use of TMSI allocated by VLR in place of IMSI at HLR.
(HI) Radio Resource Management (RRM) : This layer is used to establish, maintain and release RRM connection
to set up point-to-point communication between the mobile device and network. RRM is used for data and user
signaling.
The pr?Cedures include selection, reselection and hand off process and the reception of BCCH and CCCH when RRM:
is established.
RRM session is always initiated by a mobile station through the access procedure, either for an outgoing call or in
response to a paging message.
Tech-Neo Publications.-·-···- lfbcre Authon in.fJJJrc innovation .-4 S.401/NS/UJI J~nturr

Mobllo C
omm. S stem (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 7-15
1l1us, the functions of RRM arc :

{I) Radio I' k · (ii) Frequency assignment
'" quality management
(iii) Prr,.,u h .
-,.. ency opprng sequence option (iv) Signal measurements
(v)
Ilandovcr management (vi) Management of RR.\{ session.
(vii)
Adaptation liming for synchronization.
~ 7 •7· 2 Base Transceiver Station (BTS) - Base Station Controller (BSC) Signaling Prot
Tl· ·
. le interface between the BTS and BSC is the Abis interface. It carries tbe traffic and m:unteDan<::c daia. tbc
~
interface ·,s S' " d d' .t.\.•
· · ...n ar 1zed for GSM systems. "'
The connection between the BTS and BSC is through a wired network. (PSTN, ISDN, PSPDN etc.)
Voic~ is coded in lhe 64 kbps PCM format in a PSTN network. The Abis interface uses 64 kbps form:u. Pc:\1
techniques arc different from 22.8 kbps. TCH radio interface U"' (between MS and BTS). ~
The translation between the coding formats is done by recoding the TCH bits received ~rom caller mobile station
10 64 kbps PCM and from PCM to TCH for receiver MS. The translation and retranslat,on can affect the voice ~
llcnce, .i procedure called TFO (tandem free operation) is adopted at the BTSs, BSCs and MSCs. ~ -
The data link layer protocol between the BTS and BSC is LAPD (link access protocol D channel) for Abis.
protocol prescribes the standard procedure for D-channel of ISDN. ~
The network layer protocol between the BTS and BSC is called BTSM (BTS management).
~ 7.7.3 Base Station Controller (BSC) - Mobile Switching Centre (MSC) Signaling Prot0cors
The physical layer between the BSC and MSC is PCM multiplexed. The ~SC connects to the PSTN, ISDN and O!bcr
data networks that use 64 Kbps PCM or 2.048 Mbps CCITT (in1emat1onal telegraph and telephone consuJtain
• • ?
comm1ttcc) lhat carncs 32 PCM channels.
The interface hetwccn BSC und MSC is A inlcrface. There is wired communication between BSCs and MSCs.
The da1u link layrr protocols between the BSC and MSC arc MTP (message transfer protocol) and seep(~
rorr«tlon control protocol). 1301h MTP and SCCP arc parts of SS7 (Signaling System No. 7) used by A interface.
I I
The layer protocol prescribes a standard procedure fo r MTP and SCCP for SS7 transmission and reception is a 2 Mbps
CCITT PSTN / ISDN I PSPDN network.
The network layer protocol at BSC is BSSAP (Base Sub System Application Protocol).
:> 7.8 Identifiers
The GSl\f administrative region is called as Pl.MN (Public Land Mobile Network). Its configuration is shown in
Fig. 7.8.1.
The GSl\f PLMN config uration comprises of a central HLR and central VLR.
The VLR stores the necessary infom1ation about the data and location of the mobile.
The HLR has all necessary infom1ation about the subscriber.
T«-m-~ro f'ubliration.~ - lrhrrr .luthon· in.<pirr innorotion .._,,1 SAC/1/HSI/All J'en/utf
,,H...___
. - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - -
re1
~
Mobllo Comm. S torn MU-Som.7•E&TC
7•10 ?0 To (M
for cstublishlng u successful cnll, 1he MSC r < 1 ,
... c Ill rc,i 1111 lhc l11fot111111lo11 nbout tho ~ub~crll,cr,
The tn1nsnalssion rntc is 2 MO/s within lhc swl .
nod lndiu. With lhe help of . tchlnt1 111111 m111111gc111c111 ~y~1c111. It I, referred ltJ 11, l!I lnterfrtec In
Euro pc 1case(1links or 1111.
• crownve It con he 11cco111plhlicd.
Tho SS7 (Signaling protocol) Is used for 1 • •
cl of ISDN user ()Ort (ISUI'). Over tho ~ r.occss 1118 lnfornanrlon rcennl111g 1lic c11II hctwccn network ,u,cJc, with 1hc
~:p (Mobile Applkntlon l'nrt) Is used, S? nctwo,k for procc~,ln1:t 111ohllo ~11e<.:lflc 1111111 (J ,1i11alllng r,tr11oc,J1 called
MAP is responsible for handling.
(I') Outubusc 1ransac1ions like updates enqu·,r· . ,

• 1cs. services etc.
(ii) Handover/roaming between the MSCs.
Equlpn,ont
ldon111y Aoglalor
(EIR)
Homo Loasllon
Mobile AoglolOr
Switching (HLA)
Centre
(MSC) Slgnallno point
O Slgn11Ung point (SP)
SS#7 Notwork .
Visitor Location end loased line
Roglster Aulhenllc:atlon
(VLR) Centre (AuC)
. PSTN
(Public Switchod
Tolophono
Gateway MSC
Nolwork)
(OMSC)
I SDN
Base Station Mobile Switching (lnlooratod
Controller Centre Systom Di(Jltal
(BSC) (MSC) Notwork)
Visitor Location
Roglstor (VLR)
PDN
Visitor Location (Public D11111
·, Register Notwork)
--- --- Signaling data
- Usordata
Base Base
Transceiver Transceiver
Station Station
(BTS) (BTS)
G
Mobile
Station
(MS)
Fig. 7.8.1: GSM PLMN connguratlon
Every MSC uses three registers. They arc called SP (Signaling Point) as shown in Fig. 7.8. 1. They can be addressed
with a unique code that is called as Signalling Point Code (SPC).
Over the SS7 network, BS~AP (Base Station System Application Part) is signalling protocol used between the
BSS (Base Station System) and MSC (Mobile Switching Centre).
SS7 is not used within BSS and also at the air interface in GSM.
Tech-Neo rublirations........... W/11:rc Authors i/1,\pirc i1111orotion ,_ AS.llJ/11\'SJlUI lrnlll/T'
Sca nned with CamSca nner

I UQ. 7.9.1 Discuss in dotaH GSM logical channels.
•61•0•Eiffll•l4468i•i~
. GSM channel StructUre.
in the GSM? Explain
UQ. 7.9.2 Why are so many logical channels used • , .
TI1Cre arc 1wo type~ of GSM logical channels. Tuey arc :

(i) Traffic channel~ (TOI) (ii) Control channels (CCII)
O SM Logical Ch11nnols
I
l
Control cnannols (CCH)
T111M1c ctiannols (TCH)
!
Fun 11110
I
Hall rnto
!
BroadcaS1
l
Common
l
Dodic.ltod
oontrol channel control ch.1nnol control channel
Full mto (22.6 KB/s)

Spoodl
Tiie tr:uTic ch3nncls (TCI_I) !lrl"
u~ 10 c:ITT)' digi13ll)' cnco.k d Hall rato (11 .4 KB/s)
U'('r ~['«Ch or u-.cr d3t3 in th'"
for"' :mi or re,-e~ linu. For 9 6 KB/s
fu II r:it(" thc '1113 1"31(" i " - --0.,_1.a-+- 4 6 KB/s
22.8 KD/) :inJ for h~f 1"31C tJ,c 2 4 KB/e
d:itl r.llc i~ 11 A KDJ .
G SM l..oglo., I FroQuoncy oorrocton (FCCH)
lllC.' nt rol ch:innd (CCII ) ctiann~ s
BCCH Synchroolzatlon (SCH)
C:uT)' the )) n hron111ng :iml
ign3Jing mnund ~v.c-cn
t1lC.' b3.'>C )l:11ion :ind the mobile Pan1ng (PCH)
1.:1tion. TilC) :lft' re,poruiblc Control chan nol - +-C-
ommon
- - + -- Act:;css grant (AGCH)
(CCH) CCCH
for mobility man:1genlC.'nL Random Act:;css (RACH)
Fig. 7.9.1 ho"s the GS~1 Fast associated (FACCH)

ch:inncl )tructUrt. Oudicatod
'--- - --+-- Slow associated (SACCH)
OCCH $land-alone (SOCCH)
l-7g. 7.9.1 : CS~l Channel Structure
B- 7.9.1 Traffic Channel (TCH)
UQ. 7.9.3 What Is meaning of traffic channel w.r.t. G. S. M ? MU• Q. 1(d), Dec. 11. 0. 3(a). Ma 15. 5 Marks
ua. 7.9.4 E.xplaln traffic channel in GSM.
Traffic channcl carry digitally encoded user data or u\Cr speech on the forward :ind reverse links.
A TCH is a group of 26 con<.ccutive TD\1 A frames. called a multlfrnmc of 1hc 26 TOMA frames. 24 are used as TOI
frame•• one frame ( 13a.) i for SACCl l and 26th i unused or idle frame.
Tttft-~c-o Publication . ' - 117'Mr Autban in•('irr inno111tion -A S.40/lli SIWI J~ tlll'l'

~ Mobile Comm. System (MU-Som.7-E&TC) 7•18 20T~
----- SACCH
Multi frame
Tall Data Steal Training Steal Data Tall Guard Normal

bits bits bits bits bit bits bit bits burst
3 57 26 57 8.25 = 156.25
Fig. 7.9.2: TCH data transmitted In 26 consecutive frames
TCH supports two types of information rates. They are :
[ (i) Full rate (TCH/F) (ii) Half rate (TCH/H) I

When transmitted as full rate, the user data is occupied within TS per frame. When transmitted as half rate, the user
data is occupied into the same time slot but sent in alternate frames.
The 26th frame contains idle bits if full rate TCHs are used and contains SACCH data if half rate TCHs are used.
B- 7.9.1(A) Full Rate TCH
Different full rate TCH for data and speech channels are given below :
(i) Full-Rate Speech Channel (TCH/FS) : At 13 Kbps the full rate speech channel is digitized . The full rate
speech channel carries 22.8 kbps aft.er adding the GSM channel coding to the digitized speech.
(ii) Full-Rate Data Channel for 9600 bps (TCH/F9.6) : The full rate traffic data channel contains raw data that is
transmitted at 9.6 kbps. After the application of additional forward error correction coding with the GSM
standards, 9600 kbps data is transferred at 22.8 kbps.
(ill) Full Rate Data Channel for 4800 bps (TCH/F4.8) : The full rate traffic data channel contains raw data that is
transmitted at 7.8 kbps. After the application of additional forward error correction coding with GSM standards,
the 4.8 kbps data is transferred at 22.8 kbps.
(iv) Full Rate Data Channel for 2400 bps (TCH/F2.4) : The full rate traffic data channel contains raw data that is
transmitted at 2.4 kbps. After the application of additional forward error correction coding \\ith GSM standards,
the 2.4 kbps data is transferred at 22.8 kbps.
B- 7.9.1(6) Half Rate TCH
Different half rate TCH for speech and data channels are given below :
(i) Half Rate Speech Channel (TCH/HS) : The half rate speech channel can carry digitized speech that is sampled at a
rate half that of full rate channel. GSM anticipates the availability of speech coders. It can digitize speech at about
6.5 kbps. After adding GSM channel coding to the digitized speech, the half rate speech channel will carry 11.4 kbps.
Tech-Neo Publications.. ...... Where Autliors impirc innoralio11

[iJ Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 7-19
1
2G iecti110
{il) Half Rate Data Channel for 4800 bps (TCH/H4.8) : The half rate traffic data channel carries raw user d ~
sent at 4800 bps. After the application of forward error correction using GSM standards, 4800 bps data i$ ~4
11.4 kbps. nt it
(lli') Half Rate Data Channel for 2400 bps (TCH/H2.4) : The half rate ~raffic_ data channel carries raw user data that.
sent at 2400 bps. After application of additional forward error correcuon using GSM standards, 2400 bps data is 11
at 11.4 kbps. Se,_
'B. 7.9.2 Control Channels(CCH) or Slgnalllng Channels
UQ. 7.9.5 What is meaning of signaling channel w.r.t. G. S. M ?
The control channels carry the signaling and synchronizing commands between the base station and the mobile station.
They are used when the mobile is in the idle or dedicated mode. They are also called as Dm channels or si8naJ•
channels. IJJg
There are three main control channels. They are :

(i) Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH)
(ii) Common Control Channel (CCCH)
(iii) Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH)
Each control channel consists of several logical channels that are distributed to provide necessary control functions.
(S. 7.9.2(A) Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH)

.
UQ. 7.9.6 What is meaning of broadcast channels w.r.l G. S. M ?
UQ. 7.9.7 Explain broadcast channel in GSM. MU• a. 4(a). Ma 14, 10 Marks
The BCCH is a forward control channel. It is a unidirectional base to mobile channel that provides infonnation about
the network. the cell in which the mobile is currently located and adjacen_t cells.
It broadcasts a list of channels that are currently in use within the cell.
The BCCH includes two channels. They are :
(i) Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH) (ii) Synchronization Channel (SCH)
·'
.
.ii
(i) Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH)
.,
J
I
It is a base to mobile channel_that provides information for carrier synchronization. It is a special data· burst that
occupies TSO slot for the first GSM frame. It is repeated every ten frames within a control channel multiframe.
The FCCH allows the mobile subscriber to
synchronize its intemaJ frequency standard ~ -- - - - - o.sn m s - - - - - - ~
with the frequency of the base station (BS).
Tail Guard
Fixed bit sequence
In the first burst of FCCH, all zero bits are sent bits bits
to indicate the unmodulated carrier. 3 142 3 8.25 = 156.25 bits
Fig. 7.9.3 shows the frequency correction burst. Fig. 7.9.3 : Frequency correction burst (FCCH) structure
Ttth-Neo PubUcatiom--Where AulfxmiJJSpire innovation _,4 SA CJ/INSIWI YtotDtr
'i
~ Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 7-20 2G Technologies
(11) Synchronization Channd (SCH)
This channel acts as a base to mobile channel. The mobile channel carries the information for identific.ition and frame
synchronization of the base station (BS) transceiver. It also comprises the frame number in relation to the hyper frame
and the BSIC (Base Station Identity Code).
In the frame that after the FCCH, in time slot TSO BTS transmits with SCH . The SCH has a unique burst structure. It
comprises of a 64 bit binary sequence that is common throughout the GSM networks.
The BSIC is assigned to each BTS in the
GSM system. The SCH is tmnsmitted once Tall Synchronization Codod Data Tall Guard Bits
every ten frames within the control chnnncl bllS Codod Data sequence • bits
multifrarnc. Fig. 7.9.4 show. the 3 39 64 39 3 8.25

synchronization burst structure. FIJ:. 7.9.4 : Synchronization burst structure
~ 7.9.2(8) Common Control Channels (CCCH)
uo. 7.9.8 What Is meaning ol common Control channol w.r.t. O. S. M ? MU. a. 1(d). Dec. 11. a. 3(a). Ma 15, 5 Marks
uo. 7.9.9 Explain common control chaMcl In GSM. MU- a. 4 a . Ma 14. s Marks
There arc three different channels :
(i) Paging Channel (PCI I) (ii) Random Acces Channel (RACII)
(iii) Access Grant Channel (AGCII)
Paging Channel (PCH)
The 1>3ging channel (PCH) prO\·idc paging sign:il from the base t:ition to nil the mobile in the cell. It registers an
incoming call that originate from the PSTN.
Paging is done by tran mining 1~1S1 of the target ub:.cribcr along with rcque t for acknowledgement from 1he mobile
unit on the RACH.
The PCH can be used to provide cell broadc:l!>t ASCII text mes ages to all the subscribers.
(II) Random Acress Channel (RACH)
It i a reverse link channel. With the help of RACII, the mobile station (MS) originates a call. sends signaling messages
"hen not on call, acknowledges mc~sage.
It uses slotted ALOHA access method i.e. all the mobiles mu t access or respond to a PCH alert within TSO of a GSM
frame.
At the BTS each frame will accept the RACH Iran mbsions from the mobiles during TSO. The base station responds to
the RACH tran mi ion by allocating a channel and a stand-alone dedicated control channel (SDCCH) for signaling in
the presence of a call. The conncclion is confirmed by the base station over the access gran1 channel (AGCH).
The RACH burst has longer gu:ird period to
Tall Synchronization Coded Tall Additional guard
protect for burst transmis ion from Mobile bits sequence Data bits bits
station that does not know the timing advance
8 41 36 3 68.25
when it first accesses the system. The
additional guard time allows a di tance upto i . - - - - - - - - 156.25 bits - - - - - - - - + I
35 km between base station to mobile station. (0.577 ms)
Fig. 7.9.5 shows the Random access burst. Fig._7.9.S: Random access burst
Tttb-Nt-o Publiation.'-- rrlN-rr Authors ia.<pin: innoralioa ---4 S.4CHINSIU/I Jt-atlln'

~
:;(Jt=~l.:i:M~o~bl;:lo~C~o:i:i:m~m;_;,S~ys:t:om~(M::U;:_;-~So:m~,,:_;7·;.E&:,T~C~)---....;7~-2:;,,;1~------------2•0.;.i.::;•~ J
(Ill) Aetes.,i Grunt Channel (AGCII)
The AGCII is used hy the huse stntion to provide forward link co111111unlcullo11 lo the mobile. II Chrric, dai.
inslrucls tho mobile to opcrnte inn specific channel with n pnrtlculur dcdlcutcJ conlrol chnnncl. ~
It is the messnge sent by the bnse stution before II subscriber is moved off the control channel.
The AGCH is used by the bnsc station 10 respond 10 RACII sent by the mobile st.it ion ln the earlier CCCH frame.
a 7.9.2{C) Dedicated Control Channels (DCCHs)
The dedicated control channels (DCCHs) come into picture after a call is established. The dedicated control ctu. '
arc bidirectional. They have same formals and functions in the forward and the reverse links. n11e~
There are three different dedicated control channels. They are:

(i) S1and-alone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH)
(ii) Slow Associalcd Control Channel (SACCH)
(iii) Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH)
(I) Stand-alone Dedicated Control Channels (SDCCH)
The stand-alone dedicated control channel (SDCCH) is allocated for every mobile station.
It contains the signaling data that foll ows the connection of the mobile with the base stalion (BS) , prior to lhc
allocation ofTCH by !he base station (BS) to the MS.
It guarantees !hat •the mobile station (MS) and base station (BS) will remain connected. The Base Station and Mob'ie
I
Switching Center will verify subscriber unit and assign the needed resources to the mobile.
This channel that accepts the newly completed call from the BCH . It holds the traffic while waiting for the base Station
to assign a TCH channel.
The SDCCH is also used to transmit authentication and alert messages as the mobile synchronizes itself with the frame
structure and waits for TCH.
SDCCHs can be assigned their own physical channel. Also they can occupy the TSO slot of the BCH if there is low
demand for BCH or CCCH traffic.
(ii) Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH)

... ' " ,\'. ~ .
UQ. 7.9.10 Explain slow associated control channel in GSM.
It is related to traffic channel or SDCCH.

On the forward link it is used to send regularly changing information like
(i) transmit power level. (ii) specific liming advance instructions for each user.
(iii) broadcast messages.
On the reverse link it carries information about

(i) Received signal strength. (ii) Quality ofTCH and BCH
(iii) Measurement results from neighboring cells.
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II 15 ui,td hl lnfi'1111 tho hlL\C .,r ro•'tf M,('11\0ttrnenh nude hy ,,~ ,,..,. ~ ,,f •Irr.,! .. ,t.. 111t ift (14' MP"""' (,Off♦•
,. II 1, t~n,mlttro Junng the 13lli hl\"1C (111kl on lhc 2',~ rrttr.! ""1""" 1-t~1t t•t
" ll<AH it ,,.,.,JI ,,4 •tf • ,r....t'-'rf · t,,.,,.,,r
.. ...., 111ulll frame.
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$,\CCII clch:1ngc., conll\ll lnfomullC'h l'Ct'-'('(II h•w- , t.:illcm •r1tl fl'lf41II AIAlkw\ tfu,111, . ,~u l,f ,.t, ... , r·
r - ,\~lalro Control Channrl, 0,-ACClh)
llU)
7:J,11 ttow ii FACCH utod, tor canylng urge,nt mouago1? f.lU · 0 llcl ~c IO -, U_..rt,
1n la11 auocialod control channol In GSM. LIU · 0 l tbl Ll.ty l l 1 ', U.-:.,
FACCII c:unc.'- imponant me !.l1gc~. II h u!.Cd for clch:inge or time critic;il lnro,m.u n ki••ccn ll<f: rr.) 11 1c tt>.1! tf;:
h.'\...C !-l:ition during the progrc s of the call. The fACCII i ~,igocd \lthcOC\cr SDCOI b no( dwicatc,1 10 ~ 1,1 w;r •• :
lhefC is an ur,:ent mL~J?c like hand-off rcquc~L
n,c FACCH tr,msmits control information by stealing capacity from the :L\!iOCiated lr.iffic clunncl It h try -..cuini
J, 'it.
two i;pecinl bits called stealing bits. In lhc TCII forward channel bursL If a ste;iling bi1 is \Cl , the umc ,Ive c<mt.uc•
FACCII da!Jl for lhat fmmc.
~ 1.10 Frame Structure
ua, 1.10.1 E,cplain frame structure used In GSM. MU• 0. 2(b). Dec. 12. 0 . 31b • Mn 14 to u a,ka
ua, 1.10.2 Describe GSM frame structure.
_ Each GSM user transmits a data burst during a lime slol 1hat i assigned 10 ii. The lflln\lni,.. ,ion of burm
particular fomut called as GSM Frame.
_ There arc five types of data bursts for controlling lhc traffic bursts. They are :
(I) Normal bursts : The nonnal bur..1s are used for TCII and 1hc DCCII 1rammb...,ion, on the fot"Aard iind rc\cr\C
link. It consists of 148 bits tliat are transmi11ed at a rate of 270.83 Kbp ·. Only 114 bil\ are information bit, Ltu1
arc transmi1ted as 1wo sequences of 57 bits.
The middle pan of lhe normal bursts comprises of 26 trainjng bits 1ha1 allow 1hc adapti\c equalizer 1n the b.i.x
station or the mobile to analyze the radio channel before decoding the user da1a. TIM:rc arc two ,tealing fbg, .l1
two sides of the training bit.s. 11 is commonly used for TCII and DCCHs Lransrnis~ion\.
(U) FCCH burst: It con i ts of 3 tart bits am! 3 slop bits with 142 bits bc1-...een the start and the Mop b1u. TilC \lOp
bits are followed by a guard period of 8.25 bits.
(W) RACH burst : It consist.s of 8 start b;ts and 3 top bits. It also contains -t I bits for S) n hroni.ution of inn m.11~,
and receiver, 36 bits of encryp1ed data and an extended guard period of 68.25 bits.
(Iv) SCH burst: II consists of 3 start bits, 39 bits of cncr) pted data, 6-i training bits, 3 i.1op bib anJ ;i gUJ.l\l ~ n"'1
of 8.25 bits.
(v) Dummy burst: II consists of 3 ~,an and 3 ~top bit . II contaim 1-...0 p:trts of 5 mhcd bu, th.it '1lt ~p.u:unl by
26 training bits and a guard period of 8.25 bi1s.
Fig. 7.10.1 shows lhe lime ~101 data bun.ts in GSM and f-ig. 7 .10.2 bh O'A i> the GSM l'rrunc i.tructurc. Tiicrc :uc citht
time slots per TOMA frnmc. The frame period is 4.615 ms. ·nu: frunic rate 1~ 270 833 Khr",
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1'tw ' "" "11"''•111 liv11lilt•11t 11'! ,t,~" •1111•"~ •••J I' , •., .. i- , ,., .. ,:c.i-~ .\ "•\l••!tl• '"''" "~ ,,. to \•111:t•"I'-,
tilt J tt1tttll•'I rif ~, .. ,,, t flf ••,•1"••'1 11 1., ~ • .,.._~➔, 1, ,,.,
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~~~ MU· a. 5 b. Dec. 10. 10 l\1nrks. a. 1 b . Dec. 18. 5 Mnrks
~· .
C,a1cul; e·gross bit rate/ user I second, data rate/ user/ sccoml nnd gross bit role/ physle11I c:hmnel ror OSM 1y,1crn.
~
gf soin.:
In GSM eight subscribers use the same ARFCN nnd occupy u unique time slol per frame.
Radio transmissions on the forward and reverse link at done ut n dutn mtc of
1625.0
Data rate l second = ~ = 270.833 kbps. using 0.3 GMS K modulation
The efl'ectiYe channel transmission rate ~r user

270.833 kbps
= 8 users = 33.854 kbps
G~ bit rate /user/ second
456 bits
= 20 ms = 22.8 kbps
G~ bit rate/physical channel
= 22.8 kbps for full rate
= 11.4 kbps for half rate
~ 7.11 GSM Speech Coding RPE-LTP
ua. 1.11.1 Explain signal processing in GSM. MU - a. 4 a). Ma 13. 5 Marks

.· .. . \,
ua. 7.11.2 Explain RPE-LTP speech coder as used in GSM.

fig. 7.11.1 shows the GSM operations for processing a speech signal from the transmitter to receiver over logical
traffic channels.
The GSM transmitter section perfonn the operations given below :
(i) Speech coding (ii) Channel coding
(iii) Interleaving (iv) Burst fonnatting
(v) Ciphering (vi) Modulation
r-----------------------------------------------------------------,
•.------,
Speech : Digitizing Burst
__
Channel Interleaving Ciphering
and source coding . formatting
:.__
I coding_,
I
I
I
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I--------------------------------------------------------
Radio channel
~------------------------------------------------------.-----,,
'--...--... :
I
- ' Channel
I
I
-., "~ I
Speech Source De-Inter Burst Deciphering I
leaving formatting I
~ -~-eoodlng deooding
'' I
------------------------------------------------------------------4
Fig. 7.11.1 : GSM Speech Signal Processing
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~ MoblloComm. syalom (MU-Som.7-E&TC) 7-25
2GT8Chno~
Tho receiver 1,c: II

c on perform" lhc opcrutions given below :
(I) l>cnlO<lul111ion (li) Deciphering
(Ill) Uun.t formulling (Iv) Dcinlerleuving
(v) Chunncl decoding (vi) Source decoding.
7.11.1 Speech Coding
UQ. 7•11 •3 Explain GSM epooch procoaslng In detail. MU. a. 3(b). Dec. 12, 10 Marks
UQ. 7.11.4 Explain ol nal processing In GSM. MU. a. 2 b , Dec. 13. a. 3 a. Ma 14, a. 5 a, Dec. 14. 10 Marks
The GSM speech coder uses n csld1111lly Excited Llncur rrl'<llctlve Coder (RELP). The operation of lhe coder can be
enhunced with u Long ;l'crm Predictor (LTP).
The RELP provides 260 bits for each 20 ms blocks of speech. This gives a bit rate of 13 Kbps.
I lulf rate coders can also be incorporated.
Generally u user speaks on average for less 1han 40% of the time. Hence, u GSM system can operate in DiscontlnuoUs
Tnmsmls.<;lon mode (DTX) hy incorporating u voice activity detector (VAD) in the speech coder. This provides a
longer buttery li fe. Also it reduces the instantaneous radio interference. The GSM transmitter is inactive in silent period,
At tho receiver end a Comfort Noise System (CNS) is used to introduce background acoustic noise to compensate for
the unnoying switched muting 1hat occurs because of DTX.
B. 7.11.2 Channel Coding
The speech coder output bits arc grouped for error protection, according to their significance in the speech quality. The
quality of speech produced by encoding the 260 bits in a frame are divided into three classes. They are :
(i) Class la : 50 bits (Most sensitive to bit errors) (ii) Class lb : 132 bits (Moderately sensitive to bit errors)
(iii) Class II : 78 bits (Least sensitive to bit errors).
In class la bits, there arc 3 parity check (CRC) bit added to them for detecti ng the non correctable errors at the receiver.
The class lb I32 bits along with the first 53 (50 la bits + 3 parity bits) are reordered and appended by four trailing zero
bits making a data block of 189 bits.
Class la Class l b ·c1ass n
The block is encoded for error protection using 50 bits 132 bits 78 bits
I ,
,,
2 rnte convolutional encoder with constraint
length K = 5. It provides a sequence of 378
,,
, '
/
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l ''
''
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I
I
:
' I
I
bits. 50 3 132 :. 4
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The lust 78 bits do not have any error • '

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protection. They are concatenated to the I

/ Parity check J I
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existing sequence to fom1 a block of 456 bits in
I
Convolution code rate 1/2 I
I a 20 m~ frame. I
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constraint length k = 5
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I
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;•
The error protection coding method increases 378 . . 78
I ., ✓
1 the data rare of GSM speech signal with

channel coding to 22.8 Kbps. Fig. 7.11.2 shows I• 456 bits per 20 ms speech frame •I
rhc error protection for speech signals. Fig. 7.11.2 : Error Protection for Speech Signals in GSM
Trd,-Nro ruUirotions.•._ lfhr.rc Autl,on·in.pilT' inno,"Hlion .-A SAaDNSI/AR rt:11turt
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[iJ t,4obll• eomm. Systom (MU-SOm.7-E_&TC)_ _ Mtll
;1 7.11.2(A) Channel Coding for Data Chann,11
For full rate data ch:innclA (TCllll~.6) the coding h tkpc-ndt'nt eon h.tn,111111 lf> friu ,~ W¥..J tf,t1..t ,. .,-i«ur1 ,4
240 bits of u~ data arc applied with fout laJI biL, to 11 ½r11tc cohYoh,o,rn-1 v-kt •1th('""''""' 1-__,.r,h ~ .w j
_ n,c ~ultlng -'88 coded blL, ArC dotrca~ to 4l6 1hm11~h puncturlna, 1 he tbta h ,,~,t lni1/ f.t,..x 11 • t •1 ~ ~"• tt.Jtt
C4ll be npplicd in interlca\'cd mnnnt'r.
-::,. 7.11.2(8) Channel Coding for Control Channel•
_ The control channel mes~igcs nrc of 184 bil5. lllcy arc encoded v.-iih 1hc help o( 1 ~ nM) c,dic: (,n cr1~,
followed by II half r:ue convolutionru coder.
_ n,c fire code U.'iCS genernlor polynomial

21 17
G~(x) = (x +l)(x +x>+l)=x-,+x 26 +x 17 +x>+I
This polynomial results in 184 message bits, followed by 40 parity bits. To clear the con\-olutiorul c.o.kr 11-..ai l'T:~ 1 m
2.28 bit block. four tail bits arc added.
_ The block is applied to a half rate convolutional coder with constraint length K = 5 that re~lu in .&.56 encoded in,
'J'heSC bits arc interleaved onto eight succc:ssive frames.
'8. 7.11.3 Interleaving
~ 7.11.5 What Is the use of lnter1eaver?

To minimize the effect of sudden fades on the: data that is received. the 456 encoded bits are split into eigtil $7 ,c ~
blocks.
1be eight blocks comprise a single speech frame. They arc spread over eight succes,i ve TCJ I time: ~lou .
If any burst is lo st because of fading or interference:, the channel coding ensures thaJ sufficient biu will be received
corrcctly to allow error correction to operate:.
A TCH time s lot carries two 57 bit blocks of data from two different 20 ms speech segmc:nu.
Fig. 7.11.3 shows how speech frames arc diagonally interleaved within the time: slots.
Frame Number
i-+-0 I+ 1 1+2 I~ l+-4 I~ ~ I• 7
I oa 14b II
1a sb j 2a j eb f 3a f 7b 14a f Ob 15a f 1b f ea f 2b f 1a 13b I
f-114-+-114-+-114-+-114-+-114-+-114-+-1~4-+-114 - i
bits bits bits bits bits bits btts bl1S
Fig. 7.11.3: Diagonal lnt.e rteadng for TCH / SACCH / FACCH data
a 7.11.4 Ciphering
It changes the contents of eight interleaved blocks by usi ng I.he encryption mcthod.s Ltul ~ lno,..n IO ~ ~I...~
Station (MS) and the Base Transceiver Station (BTS).
In order to enhance the security, different encryption algorithrrn are u.~d for different n.lh...
Ted,.Ne. Publication,_ _ ll'IN-m Autho" itupirr im»••lioa _ , .(llJIH j/11/1 , . _ , .

""I I~] Mobile Comm. S tern (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 7-27
In GSM there are two ciphering algorithms A3 and A5. These algorithm~ arc used to prevent unauthori7.cd 'let
access arid radio transmission privacy. "'Qr\
The A3 algorithm provides authentication to each mobile by verifying the passcode with the SIM with a cryPtogra
key at the Mobile Service Centre (MSC). ~~
The A5 algorithm provides scrambling of 114 ~oded data bits that are sent in each time slot.
"'2s.. 7.11.5 Burst Formatting
Burst formatting adds binary digits to the ciphered blocks inorder to help the synchronization and equali1.ation or
received signal. ~
"'2s.. 7.11.6 Modulation
The GSM uses 0.3 GMSK modulation. 0.3 describes the 3 dB bandwidth of the Gaussian pulse shaping filler in rclaij
to the bit rate. (e.g. BT= 0.3). °'
GMSK is a type of digital FM modulation. The binary ones and zeros arc represented in GSM by shifting the RF c~
by± 67.708 KHz.
The GSM channel data rate is 270.833 Kbps. It is four limes that of the RF carrier shift. This minimizes the bandwidth
occupied by the modulation spectrum. Also, it improves the capacity of the channel.
The MSK modulated signal is passed through 1he Gaussian filter inorder to smoothen the rapid frequency transiti0tu
that will spread the energy into the adjacent channels.
"'2s.. 7.11.7 Equalization
At the receiver end equalization is performed through training bits that are transmitted in the middle of each time sloL
"'2s.. 7.11.8 Demodulation
The part of the transmitted forward channel signal that i important 10 a u er is determined by the assigned TS and
ARFCN.
The correct TS is demodulated with the help of synchronization data provided by burst formatting.
After demodulation, the binary inform'.ltion is deciphered, deimcrlcaved, channel decoded and finally the speech signal
is decoded.
:, 7.12 Authentication and Security
ua. 7.12.1 Explain security algorithm in GSM. MU - 0 : 1(c, Ma 11~-0 ..7 b ,·Dec. 11, Q.1(a), Ma 12. 5 Marks
ua. 7.12.2 Write short note on: Authentlcatlon in GSM. MU - a. 7(a), Ma 11. 5 Marks
", " ...
ua. 7.12.3 Write short note on : Security and authentication in GSM. MU~ 0. 7(b), Dec. 13, 0.6(d), Dec. 17. 10 Marks
ua. 7.12.4 Explain authentication In GSM. MU - a. 1(c), Dec. 14, 5 Marks

UQ. 7.12.5 Describe algorithms used for authentication and security in GSM with diagrams.
" .,. fl' ',~. :?#
,, ,, ; ',', .,,.'-, '
MU - a. 3(a), Ma 18. 10 Marks
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CISM It • •)' tr111 thnt ''IIC'r11t<'• "" 111,llo frN111r11CIC'11, The lnfoml!ltion on the air interface needs to be protected in order
2G T ~
111 p11wh~ 1\1111111 th~ IIM"I ,,n11fokntl11lly (In SIM), Ali.0 i.uh,cri~r priv~y nttds to he ensured.
In O M, 1hr 11¥1\lllr , 11111111\ ron~hti. of two ran : ont' tht' hanlwarc and the sof\wnrc specific to the Ddio interface- The
11.rr .,, II 1l11IA h; 1tfr11rd 1b Suh~rU"°r ldtnlll)' Modult' (SIM).
SIM h.-- , 11d11u~ l\u1<·tlc111, 1111 I llmltrJ pn1grnm,. Mollt of the infomution present in the SIM is protected agsinst
n11lllifk 111l1111 l\rr :111\C." of M'Curity funr tlo11s ilupllc11tlon of SIM is difficult as ii provides 3 high degree of protection
• t•l11,t lt 1uJulc11t l'O\ to the 11ct\\'-11k.
11ic 1«u1 ty '"Ile h Hll'l"''lnl hy the OSM SIM nrc:
(I) AutlK"nl lcnthlll 111.:nrithm (A))
(ii) Suh,nlhcr u11thc11tl 1111011 lcy (Kl)
(Ill) ClplK"r lcy .,rnrrntlon lll)lorith111 (AK)
(Iv) C,1n1rol of t•c,, to SIM :-wrrJ 1l111n nnJ furic1lo11, pcrfom~d In the SIM.
'OlC SIM 10111rr cup.1hilil)' lndudc'i dntn ith·cn In T ,hie 7.12.1.

TahlC' 7.12.1
Sr, Otscrlpllon
No.
,\Jmini,II Jll1 e info1111:i1ion II ind1 ,11c, the 111,1,k of l1pcr.11io11 of SIM.
~ I ,_:_::~~___:____:_.:.::.:.:,;.:_____~ .- - - - - -___:---- - - - - - - - - - - i
2. SIM M' I\ IC't' 1uhlc It in<l1c.11r, 1he option.ii \Cni c, th:ir arc prm•ided by SIM.
), ln1c.-rr1:1111in.1l Moh1lc Suh'-4.·nl'<'r II idcn111in 1hc ,uh ribcr unlmbiguou ly.

ltk11111y (IM SI)
TI1i, numbcr uniquely idc.-ntifics rhe SIM and ca.rd issues.

It con,i,t~ 1he T.MSI (Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity) and Location
Ami lnfor111:11io11 (LAI).
llmndcn,1 control hunncl II ti,h 1hc cunicr fn:quencies 10 be used for call selection.
inforrn:i1ion
7, Cipher Ley nnd cipher Ley i,c.qucnce II ii. u :-cqucn e of symbols nc:c:ded 10 encrypt or decrypt Lhe information.
numher
8. L:ingunge prefcrc:nce II ~hows the Man-machine Interface (M~l) languages preferred by the
1>uh-.crihcr.
9. Forbidden PLMNs. They urc u~ed by SIM lo avoid unnecessary registration attempts.
Tiic dcgrrc of 1-Ccurity in GSM i~ higher. The basic i.ecurity mechanisms :ire:
I. Arr~i control und oulhfnlkullon : To prevent access by unregistered users.
2. Rnrryptlon : To prevent unaulhori1..e<l listening.

Security In GSM
3. OlnOdrnllallly : To prevent subscri~r locution I
~
di-.clo~ure.
'
AtxJass control and
Authentication '
Encryption Confidentiality
Tl'd,.N,.. J'11lJlr•tion•-- IT'hMr Author, ins,11rr iano1-ation -4 S,.400/YS1I,(// J'a,ture
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An,, 1h< lt lll l.c nlh NI I Ill I ,r ,..,.., Tu,•,, , ,,n \h"J 1IIT\1' 1, ,,, , , .., t' ~,., •rr,,-:, ,.,, ,_,.,, .. rp
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I r11t11 m111CIJ
1hr l tJlhrr I r •~' " nr~ r r-n~

\ .Jur '° tlh I pat11t ullJ lllr rtf I 1m
11,r l 1;a',(' , ,~n"lCWN IJMlllm (111 ~, &.°lJ

llpllC"t \ r nf M h11 ,
Oil) Aulhmll01llon
,SM U\('.~ I 4 J1r11 l'I 1 (Pcr\il1Ul ldcntll) ~ u

the l'IN thlil ,, t hcc l rd h) the SIM
(ti) ( iS 1 m lctrc1r 11.n "' "h llic un11, It o ontJt"tlkJ from lJ)C M.SCJ\' l.H uthctt11.. .it1 n = be u..--~ - ,~ '°Ill
hll'nll,~11 mn, h:mJ,,,·r r r te
() ca 11 1h1k u-<r h:n lit11lC' an -"-tc,~ wJ l,('f' l, c rcquc)t, l})C OCl"'- Or\. ti,._ l, the Wctiuty ( t!E ~
ru m nunoo (HAN D } of 12k ht1\ I ll the mA•tk
TIIC II h, k ui.c the ~ I>. K, .ukl A 1 21£ mhm tor, u.:c .i 2 tut ,1 ncJ rn ,c (~Rr: ) L'ill h ~~ ~
l11C rr p,1n-.c lrnm ti)(' II)( h1lr A .. c ..) ontinuc ool) 1( lhc tv. u rc1p,.,n,c, nut..lt
In tird< r to 11u1nt~1n dr Wt"J )o('("Ufll) lc, cl, A 1 h dc , hcJ w.> ll:..11 cor~uuon c,( \I •ocJ rn
and~•~ ~lmpk . TI,r romputs11 ~ c,( K fro m RA!'.'D .:nJ SRLS t) COllfl!.U
Mot,ll;t ill4IJM
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-~ Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC)
The RAND and SRES and secret key "Kc" are sent to the Home Locnlion Register (HLR). The Visitor Location
7-30 20 Toctinologles
Register (VLR) sends random number RAND to lhe SIM where the subscriber and network docs the same type of
functions. When both match, the VLR will accept the subscriber or will reject it. Hence, higher ui;cr authentication is
made possible in the GSM users.
Also, authentication of GSM mobile users can be carried out on mobile originated call and mobile terminated call setup
and on activation of supplementary services.
~ 7.13 Call Procedure
Upon power up the mobile terminal, tries to initially register the mobile with lhe desired network. The SIM card has the
information of the home network of the subscriber. The SIM card is first checked for authenticity of the user.
· Once mobile acquires the home network then the mobile device sends a connection request otherwise it tries to connect
to the last network before it was switched off. All this data is present in the SIM.
On arriving al a new location, the mobile device searches all the frequencies within the band to establish connection to
the existing network i.e. The mobile device looks for a strong BCCH signal that includes FCCH and SCH.
To understand how the traffic and control channels are used, we will consider the case of call establishment from a
mobile.
The subscriber unit should be synchronized to a nearby base station as it observes the BCH.
By receiving the FCCH, SCH and BCCH messages, the subscriber will be locked on the system and correct BCH.
To originate the call, the user dials the intended digit combination and then presses the send button on the phone.
The mobile transmits a burst of RACH data. A channel is requested on RACH. It can be in contention with other
mobile using stoned ALOHA.
The base station then responds with an AGCH message. On receiving the grant, the mobile proceeds with call setup on
the allocated dedicated control channel by sending setup message to the network. The network accepts the call
establishment on SDCCH.
When the called party alerting is initiated, an alerting message is sent to the mobile over the FACCH. A ringing tone
can be generated by the network and sent to the mobile.
When call has been accepted at the remote end, a connect message is transferred to the mobile that indicates that the
connection is established in the network.
The mobile station responds by sending the connect acknowledge message. It enters in active state.
Table 7.13.1 gives the detail activities during call establishment from a mobile.
Table 7.13.1 : Call establishment from a mobile
~,t...::.f. .,.r;.,·~.,..i,.-:..;.,.~Motille,Activity,,- ' =.~-·. . .....~~.

, . ~...... .~.~.. ;, •• , ...,.,~' ~ ... -
~ · l ._.4.,,'.;A~J~ __. ~ """ ~ ..

·""" ...
., '.,....
\' . • --:::,.-.J':,,,,.
u
1
' , Cbaimel.. I, - . _;.·,
, ¥
···.-s~~em Act:lvity '
- ~
-
_..,-
~
It monitor BCCH and CCCH for the mobile control BCCH System overhead parameters and other overhead
f----
message. messages.
Generate the channel request RACH Receive channel request
~
Tech-Neo Publications_,__ ~ere A.uthor5 inspire innoY11tion -A SA.aDNS/WI le11tun!

~ Mobile Comm System (MU-Sem 7 E&TC) - -
731 2Gt
.
.. ... 1 ""
·-
, ,
Mobile Activity ·
Receive standalone dedicated control
Channd . S,stan.Adhig. ~
channel AGCH Assign stand aJ~ dedicated COGtro1 ~
f--
assignment and stoi'e in the memory.
' Send call establishment request SDCOI Receive the call cstabli.sh.I:o:::m ~ 1
.
l
·1
Receive authentication request SDCCH Request wt:h..-nticztioo from the IlX>bile ;
Authentication response SDCCH Recei \'e and check authentication 1
'
Receive cipher mode request SDCOI Request mobile to transmit in ciphered ~ I

Acknowledge cipher mode request SDCCH Re.ceive acknowledgement t
Send setup message and desired number. SDCCH Re.ceive setup request I
I
Receive call proceeding indication
Receive traffic channel assignment

SDCCH
I
SDCOI
Send call. proceeding indication to IIX>bi
route call to desired number.
Assign traffic channel to mobile
ile ~1
Switch to traffic channel and send an acknowledgement FACOI Receive traffic channel acknow~ I
al located channel. - ct
Receive alert ringing sound FACOI Send alert signal tha! called number is .n~---:---
phone is ringing. it(
Receive connect message FACCH Send connect message when calle.d party ~
Acknowledge connect message and switch to traffic FACCH Recei\'e connect accept response
I
channel
Conversation commences on TCH TCH Exchange of user data.
I
(if" Call establishment to a mobile
~
J
When cal ls are originated from the PSTN, the process is similar.
A paging message PCH is routed to the traffic area in which the mobile is registered and transmined on ~~
channel.
When access grant is received from the base station, the mobile responds with the call confirmed message 00 ft
dedicated control channel. A traffic channel (TCH) is then allocated and the call proceeds.
Table 7. 13.2 shows the activities in call establishment to a mobile.

Table 7.13.2 : Call establishment to a mobile
. Mobile Activity Channel System Activity

.
"
Monitor BCCH and CCCH (PCH) for mobile control BCCH System overhead parameters and oth:r
f--
message overhead messages.
Receive paging message PCH Receiving incoming call generate a paging
f---
message
Ge~erate channel request RACH Receive channel request
~
Tech-Neo PuMications_,_" Where Au/hors ill5pire innol'lllion _,4 £-4CII/Jt'SH.lB re0r

►
- R(''<'h -c
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-
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--
•
Ad.oo" lrd~ lpt'C'I llY~C toqU("\.I v.11ch 10 cipher ~l>CCII MC( ('I\-C .ac: l M •'-'Ji~rrc,.,
mc,Jc
Rc~cch~ !oCIUp mc~,11rc OCCl l Send \CC up ITICHJ.,. r,{ I ... .l , a.;1
Receive 1r:ilfic ch11nncl 3.\~ig.nmcnt SOCCI! ,h,1in 1f2f(ic dunncl inn, ,~ l,c
Switch to 1raffic channel and i,cnd llll Jd.nov. ledgc.ment FACCII RcO:I\C tr.Ifft<: dunncl .-lt~·n •kdrr-r=
:ill -.11cJ du.nnd
Recci,·c :ilcrt i.ignal and gcncntc ringing sound FACCII Send 3krt )igruJ
Recci"e connect mc~~gc FACCII Send connect rnc,u£C v. hen u"<f ort P I
Acknowledge connect mc~gc and switch to traffic FACCII Recc j\ c connect !ICC't'p( rc,pomc
ctunncl
Con"ersation begin~ on TCII TCII E,ch.1nsc of U\Ct d.1u
:> 7.14 Hand-off Procedure
ua. 7.14.1 Write short no1e on : Hand off In GSM. MU • 0 . 7(d). U 15 5 U...ti.fo
UQ, 7.14.2 What are the reasons for Intra-cell handover? Discuss different possible handover &c:enarloe In GSM
-
uu • 0. 4(o,. Dec. 11 . 10 uau

H3lldoff or Hando, er i the proce,s of tr.imferring :i mobile: LJtjon from one ctwincl or b:i.-.c U.'.illOn to tbc .l%lLiC:rr
It is defined as u mechillli m 10 hand O\er the contr0l of a mobile cit\ ice to Ilic ncighbouring ct IL
The core network cnn pafonn h:uido, as at , a.nous at , arious k,ets of lhc: !>) !>Um Mch11.ccrurc .
lbe.rc w-c two mllin reason fo r h:indoH·r in the cellul:tr net" . lbey are :
(i) If the mobile device n-lO,es out of the r.inge of one ccU, a diffen!nt b;uc ~oo pro,~ u -..c,!i ~ ~ " ' : t
signaJ.
(ii) lf 1111 ch!tnnel of a ba..-.e ~tn.tion are bu r then lhc: ncub) ~ )Ulion can proHJc ~ t..--c ''-' the Jco-..-r.
Handover is irnpon ant. It mu~t be effi iently done u ing diOueot w.itegi~.
Different mobile phones can U!>e the me hanr-.cl and the neighbvwiog cell) l·;ui U'l<' 1.hc \.1Ia: fm:;uco..: ~
fed,.Nr:e l'uLlirationa_ _ I &--rr Auth..rt i.tt,pirr kt.a.,. ,;.,.

~
[i] Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 2G Technmt:
lI
7-33
There arc two lYJ>CS of handovers. They arc :

{a) Hard Handover
In ~ handover the radio link must be dropped for a small amount of time before it can be taken over by another b~
Station. .
A call that is in progress is redirected not only from a base station to another base station but from current lransrnit.
receive frequency pair to another frequency pair. A break in call transmission is called as caJI drop or call cut-off.
The handover occurs in a few milliseconds. Handover to other cell is needed when the signal strength is low and error
rate is high.
The GSM systems perform hard handovers.
(b) Soft Handover
The 3G CDMA systems support soft handover. Soft handover indicates a mobile station (MS) at the boundary of two
adjacent cells docs not suffer call drops because of handover in the boundary region. A mobile can be connected to
several base stations simultaneously.
a 7.14.1 Handovers In GSM
When the Mobile station (MS) moves out of the coverage range of base transceiver station (BTS) handover is a must or
when traffic is high handover is important Fig. 7.14.1 shows the different types of handovers as the mobile station
moves from one cell to other.
Mobile Mobile Mobile Mobile
-
etallon 1 station 2 station {1-1) station (I)
-
D --
0 --------------------------- D
Inter-cell
Intra BSC
a
handover
fnlel'-cell
Intra BSC
handover
lnl•·BSC
handover
lnter-BSe
Intra MSC handover
Inter-MSC h■ ndovw
FJg. 7.14.1 : Types or GSM bandovers as mobile station moves from one cell to other
Tem-Neo Publication,__ fiere Authon iMpire innor,tioa -A SAODNSHAH Yuturt

-
~ t.lctlle Comm. se (UU.Sem.7-E&TC) 7 -34 20Tectw~
~ 7.14.1(A) lntw-C.11 Handover
V.'hcn the mobik mow:. .,.., y from the 1%11 in "'1lich it u. fl"C'Clllly localiud 10 thc boundary region of another ttll.
ltlCff b lw>do.-c:r from one ccll 10 another.
Tho prooa.• I, called~ lnln-«11 handotrf', 'The ~ g;n&I wcn£1h dc:crctia invcncly with the sq= or dis1ancc from
lhc tranlJnlU«.
~ 7.14.1(0) Int.er-MSC Handover
'llo'l1CJ1 the la!Yk from the « J h and lt SC, i, hlth. ,~noo, ,r occun for ~ins thc ~ 'The a ll thal ls in prog,css
and hanJk-S I>)' • «U c.an l,co handk-J o ,Tr ocher M.SC. A• t•"<> MSC • t.re interlaced through PCM. the hmdo,,:r is done
ou·f a • 1!TJ hnt.
"ts. 7.14.1(C) lntor•BSC Handover
'\lo"hni the tra.mc '"'mc-clh and UTS, h tuc:h. ,~.,,-n '"'°'" I b.al.anclng 1hc load. 'The nsc. conntct lo the MSC.
~ c..JI t.n prop-n,• 1n the c-cll \hn.,u£h ltl S can loe I ~ u io ~.er BSC coancc:ud IO \.&tnC MSC. lu the BSCs
roar,('(1 1 Ilic J,t lnln f r n I•) • I, U,c h u,,j,,,Tt h tl'\U • • U'Ol ltnc t.t>.l I\ c.&l.kd u ln\tt- BSC IIADdonf'.
7.14.1(0) lnt&r-BSC Intra ,.-sc Handover

" 'bnl tn.!fK (!'I'm the c-clh ...'\J UTS, &.'\J ll • " l,1; h.a.~n -ca, ~ lo.ad t-&hncing.. The BTS, connect to a
B SC oJ the B C, ~ ' 1 10 a \I SC
A :,JJ i.:i JYOfrr" th~ .. tunJlC'J I>) • «II lhm<lth Bl .l!1 b.- t-.....~ ,cJ o •Tt .t..OOCxf BSC cocnected to • different
M.SC. Sud! a hiL'><io•Tt " .Jin! a. l nlrr•tl ·c l nlnl ~l ._C ll&J:1dcnrr.
7.14.1(E) Intra-Cell Handover
lk,c.i.u..e cf in1nfrrr c~ me lrt'<j1.oe1 1n, tl,c ..ig~ qu..,J1t) t'C'<: mo ~ - The BSC c~ lu ndc,-Tr the call to another
f rTqUCtlC')' of th- cc U 111 .uch C-"" ' · uc-h • lunJu H·r b :Jkd I ntr-.-t:~u bando • u .
a 7.14.1(F) Intra-Cell, Intra BSC Handover
When .a Mob,k Sw.ion mo, n lO :a nc:,rby cell and , uffcn poor .ls,ul qu~lity. the BSC c~ lund o,·c.r the call to a
diffrm u UTS h!iru>cl o l tl,c •=r: llSC.
A• Lhc llTS• C'OO!lC'<'1 tu tl,c USC 1rttc11:,n·d by l'C .M. t.hc h,.rkk>,cr "' ithin the BTSs is o,-cr a wire. Each BTS bu
diffrn ·nt ,~ clunnc i, Tite USC. :u,11:11, 11 d,lfcrrnl r'3(1io ch:i.nncl. Such :a h.:u ldo,--c r is c.:llled lntu-aU. lntn BSC
Hando•t-r.
~ 7.15 GSM Evolution In GPRS and Edgo
a. 7.15.1 EDGE for 2.SG GSM and IS-136

UQ. 7.15.1 Wrlle not• on EDGE arc::MedUre.
UQ. 7.15..2 How h data rates an ac:hloYed n EOGE1

r
I
l
lj;J Mobllo Comm. 5r1om \MU-Som.7•E&TC) 7.3> ,o T ~
r EDGE, mcnns llnhnnccd Dntn rntc~ for OSM (nr 11lohnl) 1.iv11l111l11n.
I
It is nn ml\'anCC"J upgmlhl \'t~l,,11 of the GSM ~tn1lllnnb. 11 u~I• nlldltlunnl hnrdwnn: nnd ~onw111c IIJ c~htlng ~"C
stations.
EDGE Slanct:ud wns 1levd1,rc-<I in onlcr Ill hn\'C II common ~tnnd11rd for tht' JO hll!h ~peed dnto nccc.'-' (or thc oPr~
of the GSM nnd IS-1.'6 networks. .
EDGE supj)(lrts n new digitnl modulntion fomml cnlkJ us 8- PSK (octul phn\C ~hlfl keying) lh:al I, U\CJ in llddi1q to
GSM's stnnd:utl GMSK modulntion.
EDGE suppons nine different nir intcrfm:c fon:nats c1tlkJ ns Mulllplc Modulutlon J&nd Coding Schcmc1 (MCS1. io
ha\'e ,·,uying dcgrces of error control protection .
Each of the multiple modulation nnd coding sc heme stnte can use the 8-PSK or GMSK modulotion dcpcotlmg on L"ie
operating conditions of the network and the requirements of the network.
Because of the higher dntn rates nnd rcl:acd error control co\'cring in mnny of the selectable air interface fomuu. ~
coverage range is smaller in EDGE thun in HSCSD or GPRS. EGDE is ulso call~ as Enhanet.>d GPRS, or EGPRS.
EDGE uses 8-PSK modulation so that each user cnn adaptively compute the best MCS setting for a specific radio
propagation. The adaptive capability to select the "best" air interface is called incremental redundancy.
In incremental redundancy the packets are initially transmitted with maximum error protection and maximum data nic
throughput, and then subsequent packets are transmitted with less error protection (usually using Punctured
convolution:tl codes) and less throughput, till the link has an unacceptable delay.
Rapid feedback between the base station and subscriber unit then restores the pre,·ious acceptable air intcrfaa: Slalc.
that is at an acceptable level but with minimum required coding and minimum bandwidth and power drain.
The incremental redundancy ma.umizes the user capacity on the network by providing acceptable link quality to ~h
user.
If EDGE is used without any error protection nnd 8-PSK modulation then it can provide a throughput r.ile of 5-H.2 kbps
with all eight time slots dedicated 10 a single user. However pmctically some slotting methods are used that limit the
data rates to 384 kbps for single user on the GSM channel.
The EDGE can provide a data throughput of several Mbps to individual data users.
'9.. 7.15.2 Comparison between GPRS and EDGE
UQ. 7.15.3 Compare GPRS and EDGE with technical and functional differences.
Table 7.15.1: Comparison between GPRS and EDGE
Data Channel Duplexing Needs new Change in Needs new handsets
Technology Band"i dth spectrum infrastructure
GPRS 200kHz FDD No Needs new Yes

packet overlay On GPRS networks they opcr:ite 31
in addition to maximum raw dJlta rate of 171.2 kb~ Oo
routers and GSM networks they oper.ue at 9.6 kbp.s \\ilh
gateways phones in dual mode. In GPRS networks, the
GSM-only phones cannot opemte.
Carrier modulation: Gl\lSK
Tech-Neo PuhliatioDJ--Whcrc Authol'Y inspire inao,-atioa _4 S.4CRH'SHill •ra~

.-- Channel Duplexing Neem new
~ta ~gein Needs new handsets
Bandwidth spectrum
1ecbJIOlolY Infrastructure
. :
' -- " .... . ■- . ,}
~ 200 kHz FDD No Needs new Yes

transceiver at Thus operate at 384 kbps on GPRS networks
the base station. at 144 kbps and on GSM networks at 9.6
It needs kbps with phones in lri modes in EGDE
software network the GSM and GPRS. With 8-PSK
upgrades to base modulation, it provides a maximum raw
station data rate or 547.2 Kbps
controller and
Carrier modulation :GMSK / 8-PSK
b:L,c ~talion.
-
~ 7.16 GPRS and Packet Data Network
ua.7.16.1 Discuss GPRS technology. MU· 0 . 6(0), Ma 11, 0. 4(b), May 12, 10 Marks
ua.7,16.2 Write shor1 note on: GPRS technology. iM•d•l]0JilttrJtl•EGl-t§fiF8-Mfislt•Hffld
ua. 7.16.3 Whnt Is tho role ol GPRS In onhnndng 2G GSM sy:itoms? MU- 0.1(a. Ma 16, 5 Marks
l1lC General Puckl-t Hudio Senk~ ( (;I 1 RS ) prm ale, c!fic1cnt packet mode of data tr.in fer. It i popular because it
provide :i co t effccti, e p.1cl..et ~ nice ,uppon111g mtcrnet .tpplic~tion,.
G(ncr:il P:u:kct Radio ~ :.tem (GPRS) pro, tdc, packet rudlo ucre.,-., fo r mobile Global System for Mobile
Cornmunic:ition (GSM) :ind Timc- Di,i, illll :--lultiplc Acee" (TDi\lA) u-.er...
The GPRS pecific:ition~ arc ,Hillen by the Europc.-in Tckcornmunic:itions Standartl Institute (ETS I). the European
counterp:in of ,\ meric:in National S1:111danJ ln, 1i11111: (ANS I).
GPRS will expand in both ,·cnical Jnd hori,ont:il rn:ukel\ \\ hen: high \ peed d:ita transmi5 ion O\'Cr wire le s networks is
n need.
GPRS networks suppon m:my of new .ipplication, r.rnging from mobile c:-commerce to mobile corporate VPN access.
GPRS network can offer data pcc:ds of 14A kbp, to 17 1.2 kbps.
GPRS allow :-.hon "bursty" trnffic like c: mail, wcb-brow~ing etc. No dial-up modem connection is essential for GPRS.
GPRS devices c311 be co nnected \'Cry fU!>t and provide .i feeling of being "always on" Hence, the GPRS devices are
c:illed "always connected".
GPRS al lows other serYice~ like.
(a) Unicast (b) Multicast and (c) Brondcast
~ 7.17 Features of GPRS
UQ. 7.17.1 Discuss GPRS technology. a. 6(a), Ma 11, a. 4(b), May 12, 1o Marks
MU -
UQ. 7,17.2 Write short note on : GPRS technology. MU- a. 7(b), May 14, a. 7(c). Dec. 13, Dec. 14, 10 Marks
UQ. 7.17.3 What is the role of GPRS in e nhancing 2G GSM systems ? MU - a. 1(a • Ma 16, 5 Marks
Trd,.Neo Publiation.'-.- J1'krr Authors in.<pirr innoratioo -A S.-401/NSI/All Yenture

00
~
Mobile Comm s
. Yst8m (MU-Som.7-E&TC) 7.37 2GTechn~
The features of GPRS are
(i)
II overlays on the . . .
existing GSM ne1work to provide high-speed data service.
(ii)
GPRS devices c be · "a1ways on " hence• lhe GPRS devices
· arc
called.. an connected very fast and provide a feeling of bcmg
ulwuys connected".
(iii)
Oepc nd ing on the coding method, it is possible to have dala rate upto 150 kbps wi th GPRS.
(iv) GPRS is indepc d
n ent of the characterislics of the radio channel.
(v) GPRS support · . . . . . . ·
s pomt-lo-pomt packet transfer service and poml-to- mult1pomt packet service.
(vi) GPRS supports demand based time
. slot ullocation.
(vii)
The GPRS syStem has the ability to offer data speeds of 14.4 kbps 10 171.2 kbps that allow comfortable intcl'llct
access.
(viii) GPRS
· . ·is deSigned
· lo support bursty applications like email, traffic telematics, telemetry, broadcast services and Web
browsing.
(ix) GPRS follows three types of datu services. They are :

(o) WAP (Wireless Appllcutlon Protocol) : It uses WML (Wireless Markup Language) and a WAP gateway. It is
a data bearer service over IITTP protocol.
(b) SMS (Short Message Senlcc) : GPRS supports SMS us a bearer.
(c) MMS (Multimedia Messaging Senkc) : It is lhe next generation messaging service. Video, audio pictures or
clip can be sent through MMS.
(x) GPRS based networks have high bandwidth.
(xi) The security services provided by GPRS arc :
(a) Authentication (b) access control (c) user information confidentiality (d) user identity security
~ 7.18 GPRS Network Architecture
UQ. 7.18.1 Discuss GPRS technology. MU-a. 6(a), Ma 11. a. 4(b), May 12. 10 Marks
UQ. 7.18.2 Draw and explain GPRS architecture.
ua. 7.18.3 Write short note on: GPRS technology. MU• a. 7 b, Ma

a, 7(c, Dec. 13, Dec. 14, 10 Marks
14,
UQ. 7.18.4 Write note on EDGE architecture. MU - a. 6(a), May 16, 10 Marks
UQ. 7.18.5 Draw reference architecture In GPAS and explain role of GGSN and SGSN. MU - a. 3 b , Ma 18, 10 Marks
GPRS provides many services without restricting data rates of transmission. The service precedence namely high, low,
normal, reliability, class, throughput and delay arc determined by QoS profile.
For voice calls the GPRS systems uses the GSM architecture. However, for packet data transmission GPRS includes a
new set of network nodes called as GPRS Support Nodes (GSN).
The main functJon of the GSN is to route and deliver lhe data packets between the Packet Data Network (PDN) and the
mobile stations.
Tcc:h-Nco Publinitions- l1'hcre Authors in.pire inno,-ation ..H.A SAC/1/NSI/All Yenture

!iJ MobllO comm. S tem MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 7-38 2G Techno ies
orRS supports two support nodes. They nrc :

,. (l) . sosN (Scrvlng:qS~) , l . .;, (ii) " GCS~ (Ga~way_qsi,i)"1•.::
rig. 7,18.l shows the GPRS system architecture.
..
Other
GPRS
PLMN
Internet
ISD~PDN
AUC Authenticntion Center BSC Base Station Controller
BTS Buse Tmnsceiver Stntion ElR Equipment Identity Register

Visitor Location Register
\,
HLR Home Locntion Register VLR I
GGSN Gateway GPRS support Node ISDN Integrated System Digital Network
MSC Mobile Switching Center PDN Packet Data Network
PLMN Public Lund Mobile Network SMSC Short Message Service Center
SMS-GMSC SMS Gateway MSC SMS-IWMSC: SMS interworking MSC
SGSN Serving GPRS Support node

Fig. 7.18.t : GPRS System architecture
- In addition to the new GPRS components (SGSN and GGSN), some of the existing GSM elements must be enhanced to
support pnckct dnta. They are :
(l) Base Stall.on Subsystem (BSS) : In order recognize and send packet data , the base station subsystem requires
new functionalities that upgrade the BTS such that it supports transmitting the user data to the SGSN and
between BTS and MS over rndio network .
(ll) Home Looltlon Register (HLR) : For registering the GPRS user profiles and providing response to the GPRS
queries originating from GSNs in regards to the user profiles the HLR also needs to be upgraded or enhanced.
(ill) Mobile Station ~ IS) : The mobile station or the mobile phone for GPRS is different from that of GSM.
(lv) SMS Nodes : SGSN support SMS transmission. The SMS-GMSCs and SMS-IWMSCs are enhanced. For
efficient co-ordination of GPRS and non-GPRS services the MSCJVLR also needs to be upgraded.
M Suvlng GPRS Support Node (SGSN) : It functions similar to the GSM-MSC. The fwictions that GSM-MSC
supports for \'oicc are supported by the SGSN for p:icket d:it:a.
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m. Ys18m (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 7-39
They comprise functions like :

(a) p () Routing
acket switching, (b) Data transfer c
(d) M (f) authentication and security
obility management (e) Logical link management
l1 (g) Billing /charging functions .
(h) Registration of new mobile. subscribers and track of their location for a given service area.
The SGSN I • . •, t" n and user profiles of all GPRS use
. ocation register is responsible for storing the location in,orma 10 rs that
are registered with SGSN.
t
For acquiring the profile data of the subscribers it sends queries to the Home Loca_tion RegiS er (HLR) ·
SGSN is connected to the base station with frame Relay.
(vi) Gateway GPRS Support Node {GGSN) : A gateway GPRS support node (GGSN) acts ~ an interface
between the external packet data networks and the GPRS backbone network.
The functions of the GGSN are identical to that of router in a LAN.
GGSN functions are
(a) To maintain the information related to routing for tunnelling the Protocol Data Units (PDUs) to lhe SGSNs
service specific mobile stations.
(b) To convert the GPRS packets into correct packet data protocol {PDP) fonnat for data networks like IP or X.25.
(c) Perform authentication
(d) Perform billing/ charging
PDP sends these packets to the PON {packet data network ) . The packets received from PDN are converted to the
GSM addresses of the destination user.
The readdressed packets are sent to the SGSN in-charge of it .
The GGSN needs to store the address of current SGSN and also the user address along with his/her location in the
location register.
HI
& 7.18.1 Transmission Plane Protocol Architecture
\" Fig. 7.18.2 shows the GPRS transmission plane protocol architecture.
SNDCP
~-{
link
layer
LLC
RLC
MAC Data
Network
LCC
BSSGP
Network
TCP/UDP
JP
Data
Link
TCP/UDP
IP
Link
,~~·{
Service . Service .
Layer Layer .
Physical Physical Physical Physical

layer Layer · Layer Layer · Layer
on Gi
RFL Physical RF layer PLL Physical link layer

MAC Medium Access Control RLC Radio Link Control
LLC Logical Link Control SNDCP Sub network Dependent Convergence Protocol
BSSSGP BSS GPRS application protocol GTP GPRS Tunneling protocol
UDP • . User datagram protocol TCP Transmission control protocol
IP Internet protocol
Fig. 7.18.2: GRPS transmission plane protocol architecture
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1,,. ru11c11o11 uro
(I)
'l'o comprc1111 I I
llllt lccornp,co 1111er cl11111
(II)
M111tlplc111hc llclwo,k foyer c111111cc1lo11M on u I.LC luyor vl,111111 loelcnl cmmcctlon.
(Ill)
Sogmen1111l011 or 11/ICr cl11111
(Iv) Network ~rvlcc I IIN function IN to coutrol 1111<l 111111111gc rho convcr~ncc ,mbls,ycr,
~ Air lntorfnco
The Ol'HS r110I II I

> c II r l111crf11cc coru,1~111 or 1l1c phyHlc11l 1111d dutn link lliycr.
rr Dntn link lnyor

Uc1wcc11 lhc MS I I . ,
· nm JSS lhc th11111111k lnycr co11Hint11 of:
(i) Hudio Link Co11trol (!<LC) lnycr

(ii) Medium Accc,u, Control (MAC) layer
(iii) Logical Link Control (LLC) layer
Cl) Rndlo Link Control (IU,q luycr
1111 function i11 to Clil11hli11h a rndio link between lhe MS and USS that i11 reliable.
'lI (II) Medium Actl'1iH Control (MAC) Luycr: IL11 runcllon 111 to
(a) Control the mobile 11tation acce1,s on radio channel

(b) Provide algorithm11 for resolution
(c) Provide algorithms for multiuser multiplexing on packet data traffic channel (PDTCH).
(d) Provide rew lution
(c) Provide algorithm for scheduli11g
(Ill) 1.,oglcal link layer (LLC) : Jt11 function Is to l-stabll~h a link between MS and SGSN.
It supports the HLDC protocol to provide

(a) Flow control
(b) Detection of trnnsmi.~sion errors
(c) Retransmission in.case of errors (ARQ Automatic Repeat Request)
(d) Aow control
(c) Sequence control
(f) Encryption
(g) Jn-order delivery
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·eeomm- tem (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 7-42 20 Tochnolo loo
er pt,yslcal layer
11 cornvrises of
PLL (Physical Link Layer) (ii) RFL (Physical RF Layer)
O) pLL (Physical link layer) : Its functlon.'i aare
(a) To tranSfer data over lhe physical channel between the network und mobile stntion.
{b) Data coding
(c) Data framing
(d) Detect and correct Lransmission errors
(e) Utilize the services of RFL layer
(II) RfL (Physical RF Layer)
_ The functions of this layer are
(a) To modul:11e signals depending on the data received from PLL.

(b) To demodulate signals so t hat they can be sent to PLL for its analysis.
_ GGSN maintains routing information necessary to tunnel the Protocol Data Units (PDUs) to the SGSNs service specific
mobile stations. It converts the GPRS packets coming from the SGSN into correct packet data protocol (PDP) formal
for data networks like internet or X.25.
- PDP sends these packets out on the corresponding packet data network. It receives incoming data packets from the data
networks and converts them to the GSM address of the destination user.
- The readdressed packets are sent to the responsible SGSN. For it. the GGSN stores the current SGSN address of the
user and his or her profile in its location register.
- The GGSN also performs authentication and charging functions related to the data trnnsfer.
~ 7.19 Channel Coding \

- Channel coding is used to protect the t.ransmiued data packets against errors. The channel coding method in GPRS is
\
same as that in standard GPS systems.
- Reliable coding method is used in conditions when channel is bad for data recovery from burst errors.
\ .
- In the reliable coding method a data rate of 9.05 kbps can be obtained per time slot.
- When the channels conditions are favourable and no encoding method is used we can obtain a higher data rate of 21.4
kbps per time slot. If there are eight time slots, a maximum data rate of 171.2 kbps can be obtained.
(
~ 7.20 Security
- GPRS security infonnation is same as Lhat of GSM.

- In GPRS authentication is performed by the SGSN. For packet data transmission, GPRS uses ciphering algorithm.
- Similar to GSM systems, the GRPS systems also use SIM cards.
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m. ystem (MU-Som.7-E&TC) 7.43
:> 7.21 GPRS Network Operation
1
UQ. ?.2 '1 E>cplaln how GPRS archltecturo ht1ndlo1 data call.
_After a GPRS device is auached to the GPRS network the network accei.11 can be obtained from the network •ide '-'
mobile station side.
5. 7.21.1 GPRS Attach
A Mobile Slation (MS) needs to known to the GPRS network for accessing the services. The user ls regi\lercd ~
SGSN lhrough a "GPRS attach".
A logical link is established between the MS and SGSN.

An authentication check is done to check if MS is authorized to use the GPRS services. If authentication check l1
sucx::essful the user data is copied from HLR to the SGSN. The SGSN allocates a (P-TMSI) temporary mobilt
subscriber identify to the MS.
5. 7.21.2 GPRS Detach
If a devices, disconnects itself from the GPRS network, it is called as "GRPS Detach". The network (i.e. HLR or
SGSN) or MS can initiate the detach.
After a GPRS detach all the devices are released from the GPRS network.
B- 7.21.3 PDP Context Activation
. After a "GPRS attach", the MS sends request for an address so as to exchange the data packets with the Packet Data
Network (PON) e.g. IP address for an IP network. This address is called ac; PDP (Packet Data Protocol) addrtss.
For every new session, a PDP context is generated it comprises.
(i) PDP address assigned to MS
(ii) Type of PDP
(iii) QoS
(iv) GGSN address that acts as acx::ess point to PON.
The PDP context is stored in GGSN, SGSN and MS. Many PDP contexts can be active at once. The data transfet
between external data networks and MS occurs through GTP tunnelling and encapsulation. To incrc35C the netv.m
reliability and efficiency the user data can be compressed and then encrypted.
The PDP address allocated can be
(i) Static address
(ii) Dynamic address
For a static PDP address, a pennanent PDP address is assigned by the GPRS network operator to the GPRS user.
For a dynamic PDP address the GGSN assigns the PDP address like the DHCP (Dynamic Host Configurlltion
Protocol).
Fig. 7.21.1 shows PDP context activation.

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1llC procedure for PDP C('ntcxt actlvnli(ln is '" foll,,w, :
SteP 1 : The MS sends nn "Actl\1\tc l'l>l• Conte:.-« R . .. ,

t .. tqucst lo tho SOSN. 11 lrullcotc, lhc r<1ll1)wl,1t pi1t,111-:1c,!',
(i) PDPl)'J)C (u) Ac~ · ,
......s,.., po 1n1 111111~
. (iii) Required QoS
\>DI) conl1gur:11lon options.
(i\•)
It also ~cifics whether the PDP nddre,,~ ll~ i .
·•-r~
odw'->->
assignment 1l\n II s gncd is Slnlic or dynnmic. The PDP oddrc.\\ will he empty for 1lym1111/c
· er le mc.,~agc GPRS n t 1• l
• c wor"' executes security function'! fu r 11u1hcnticn1ion bct\vc\!ll M.S 11111
SGSN·
Step lI : On Sllt'C"CS..'iful authentication a "C
► r k bet th rcutc_Pl>P_Context_Rcc111cst" i!. I\Cnt to the CiGSN hy rhe SOSN. It
0~ner.ues a tn . ,vccn e PDP context in SGSN IJN
-
network. nml GGSN to send ,tata p:ickcL~ between SOSN un<l P ·
Step Ill : The GGSN replies with "Creat PDI•

• e_ _context_Rcspon.'ie"' to SGSN compri~ing the PDP nddn:ss for
forwarchng data packets between MS and GGSN.
► Step 1V : The SGSN sends ''Activate PD"P ContM•t • t" · I

~:::;;.·~ --------.....:.....;--=.:.=...:::..::::~~~=~~ 1
r"~c~ce::fp~~lo~l:!!lC~M~S
~b~y~t~1pd
~·~a~lin~gt'i!!:ts~P~D~P~c~C'l~l ll~c:<~t~l~ab~::C·:___ _ __J
MS
SGSN GGSN
Activate PDP_ContexLRequest
Security Functions
-------------------- Croate PDP _Contcxl_Requost
Activate PDP_Conloxt_ Accept Create PDP_Conlexl_Responso
Fig. 7.21.1: PDP context acth'at1on
a 7.21.4 APN-Access Point Name
An APN (Access Point !'lame) is a method by which t he MS communica1cs with the websites through the GPRS
networks.
After the GPRS network sets up PDP context depending on mobile device settings an Access Point Nnmc (APN ) is
selected.
The GPRS networks DNS (Domain Name Server) is queried by APN.
For activating the PDP context the APN provides the GGSN IP address.
The functions of APNs are :
(i) To give routi ng in fo rmation for SGSN and GGSN.
(ii) To provide IP address assigned lo mobile station.
(iii) To indicate the manner by which the data network can be accessed by the user.
(iv) To provide the details about Lhe security methods.
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f1g. 7.21.2: GPRS routing
1be HLR enquires about location of MS in PLMN I. The d.ua pxl cts mi,rJ :m roe p,uuu-J ~ nJ.nndnJ io mi-.
Pl.MN GPRS b.1clbone 10 SGSN. TIIC SGSN decapsulaks pxtru :u:x! :1tnds then to MS.

,,....
~ Mobile Comm. Syatom (MU•Som.7-E&TC)
-
:> 7.22 Data Services In GPRS
7-48 20 Toohnologloo
OPRS networks support two modes. They nn,
1. Application mode 2. Tunneling mode
1• Application mode
Jn the application mode; the GPRS phone user cnn use the nppllcntlon~ running on the device. Such thnt the OPRS
phone used behaves as the end user devices.
Every GPRS enabled phone comprises of a WAP browser thnt en11blc11 of brow11ing <if the WAP nctivitic11:
Few of the GPRS phones support mobile execution environment. (MExE clussmnrk 3) to fncllute client nppllcutlon~ to
be executed on the phone itself. J2ME and symbinn arc examples.
Java or CJC++ arc used for developing applications.
2. Tunneling mode
The tunneling mode is well suited for mobile computing applications such that GPRS interfoce cnn be utilized by the
user to access the GPRS network.
The GPRS phones will be connected to large/small footprint devices like laptops, PDAs, tablets etc. The GPRS phones
will serve as moderns for providing access lo wireless data network. A serial cubic or PCMCI card can be used for
obtained access. However these devices do not use the keypad, display, voice accessories etc. similar to standard
mobile phones.
a 7.22.1 GPRS Handsets
A GRPS handset is one of the three classes A, D, or C.
Chw Description
Class A It supports (i) GPRS data (ii) GSM services like voice, SMS
A GPRS handset supporting class A terminal can receive SMS even if a .data or voice call is ongoing.
The GPRS handset can receive/do calls simultaneously on two services.

,
Class B GPRS handset with class B terminals can support only one service at once. It cau monitor the GPRS channels
simultaneous! y.
When circuit swit.chcd traffic exists the GPRS virtual circuits will be switched to held mode or busy mode.
A GPRS handsets can make/receive calls either using switched call or packet call byte.
A class B terminal GPRS handset can receive SMS even if a data or voice call is ongoing.
Class C A GPRS class C terminal handset can be used lo make/receive calls manually through the selected service.
SMS features is optional for class C terminal devices.
It only supports non-simultaneous attach.
Tedt-Neo Publications....- - JJl/u:/'f! Author, in,fJ>ire innoyation ""'A SAC/JINSI/All rcntun,
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a 7.22.2 Device Typos
, d umcric keypad whereas the other lllob'
Every GPRS mobile hnndset hns n unique form fnctor wilh srnnll d1sp1ny nn n lie
hundse1s huvo different colour dlspluys, form fuclors und cnmcrns e.g. smart phones.
a 7.22.3 Bearers In GPRS

• • • . · f GPRS The Point to Point (PTP) scrv·
EmI lo End pnckel switched d11111 transfer cun be obtu111ed hy benrcr services O • ice
· . . rt rvices to transfer the data packets t0 th
nnd Point to Multipoint (PTM) service nrc commonly used dntn trnnspo sc · c
differcl)t users.
The types of datu services supported by GPRS arc

(I) SMS (Short Mes!m,.te Service) : It is u dnln bearers service.
(II) MMS (Mulllm<.'<lltl Messuglng Service)
(Ill) WAP (Wlrclcs.-. Appllcutlon Protocol) : It is u data bearer service over HTTP protocol.
:) 7.23 Advantages of GPRS
The GPRS provides lhc following advantages :

-
I. For providing high speed dnia service, the GPRS systems arc deployed on GSM systems.
2. They support bursty npplicalions like, traffic telemetric, telemetry, broadcast services, emails and web browsing.
3. The GPRS bused networks have high bundwidth.

I 1I
I
:) 7.24 Disadvantages of GPRS
I. Lower Speed
2. Limited Cell Capacity for Users

3. When GPRS packets arc sent 10 a destination !hey arc sent in all different directions some of them are received
properly, some arc conuptcd or some arc lost al the time of transmission over the wireless link. This results in
polcnlial transit delays.
4. Increase in the number of users will slow down the service provided to them.
5. During an active call, network related functions cannot be used .
6. It docs not support store and forward mechanism required for SMS .
7. GPRS internet access is slow as compared to traditional Internet.
:) 7.25 Applications of GPRS
GPRS provides many new services to the wireless mobile subscriber.
Tech-Neo Publication~..m,,.... Whcn: A11thon in.pin: innoration .....A SACIIINS/IAII Pcnture

Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 7-48 2G Technologies
The applkatJons arc like
(a) Infonnation services (b) Email
(c) Internet access (d) Web browsing
(e) lnfonnation about sports scores (f) News headlines
(g) Weather flight information (h) Horoscopes
(i) Lottery results (j) Jokes-
(k) Mobile commerce (I) Banking 1

I
(m) Virtual Private Network {n) Chat
(o) Multimedia Service (p) Personal Information Management
(q) Unified Messaging (r) Vehicle Positioning
(s) Location based services (t) Telcmatics.
(I) Internet Access : For accessing the corporate data, educational data and service infonnation the Internet is an
effective tool that has a number of applications for users.
In large companies Internet is used for managing the company's business through ecomµierce.
Intranet Access : The users can maintain contact with their offices is through applications like email. fax and voice
mail using unified messaging systems. The corporate intranets that are protected by firewalls NPNs can be used for
viewing the corporate files .
E-mail and Fax : Emails can be sent to different users across the network. On reception of the email the mobile user
screen shows a notification about the email received with the details like address and name of sender , subject and
date and time.
Fax attachments can also accompany emails.
E-commerce : E-commerce is defined as business conducted on the Internet or data service. e.g..offices, tianks
Banking : Electronic banking over a wireless connection is introduced which supports features like checking the
balance, transferring money to an account, paying the bills, overdraft alert, creating Recurring deposits, creating fixed
deposits, book tickets etc.
(vi) Financial Trading : It supports buying and selling stocks and commodities from the Stock Exchange over the
internet instantly.
(vii) Advertising : Advertising services are offered as a push information service for buying or selling different
consumer products.
(viii) Location Based Senices and Telematlcs : Location based services provide the services that can be used by the user
within his location like finding nearby hotels and restmlrants , find shops ,get roadside assistance, find news rel.a.t.ed to
a city. It includes vertical applications such as vehicle tracking , workforce management, fleet management, sales
II
support etc. t
(ix) Unified Messaging : Unified messaging enables the user with a single mailbox for all messages including voice mail,
faxes, email, Short Message Service (SMS), and pager messages.
Tedi-Nee Puhlialion,_ When: AutiMn inspi~ inn<waLMn .-4 SAlll/NSllA/1 Ytt1turr,

llf:..] Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 7-49 2GT~
(x) Vehicle Positioning: it does the GPS and navigation and informs the user about his location· GPS is global netwOrk
that can be freely accessed . GPS comprises of 24 satellites that are run by US Department of defen.se. lbe vehicle
positioning applications can offer services like tracking stolen vehicles , remote vehicle diagnoSlics, wiffs for renting
a car.
(xj) Chat: Chat is a basic feature used in Internet and GSM. Generally people use different chat services through In1ernct
(offered by Yahoo, ICQ, Rediff, Google etc.) and through SMS (offered by mobile operators). GPRS provides chat by
integrating Internet chat and wireless chat through SMS and WAP.
(xii) Multimedia Service : Multimedia objects like images, postcards, presentations, advertisements, greeting cards can be
sent and received over the mobile network with the help of Multimedia service.
(xiii) Virtual Private Network (VPN) : GPRS network can be used to offer VPN services for ensuring secure d.:ta
transfer.
(xiv) Personal Information Management : A users personal infonnation can be stored in the address book , peTSOnaJ
diary, appointments, meetings ,engagements etc.
:> 7.26 Billing and Charging in GPRS
For mobile systems employing packet switching data technology the manner in which the services should be filled has
always been a challenge to the developers of the wireless networks.
Usually for voice calls the charges are dependent on the time and distance. i.e. users need to pay more for the long
distance calls or international calls and also if the call is a long duration call.
However for data services, charging a user for the distance travelled by packet is absurd. The packet may travel long
distance because of congestion in the network.
Hence, for the developer the main task is to charge the customer considering data along with voice.
GPRS may consider the following parameter for tariffing :

~
I. · Number of packets transmitted 2. Value of the content
I I
3. The nature of the content 4. The number of messages
5. Size of mailbox 6. Number of mails sent and received

I '
7. Time during which the message are sent 8. Uplink/downlink volume
9. The number of web pages opened by the user. IO. Quality of service (QoS).
GPRS provides users connectionless service. Hence, the GPRS users can't be charged depending on the duration oftbe
connection.
The SGSN and GGSN keep a record of the user's access to the GPRS network and accordingly generate the billing
information.
J'he billing information is collected in Charging Data Records (CDRs) and sent to Charging Gateway
Functionality (CGF).
The function of CGF is to send the charging information from SGSN and CGSN nodes to the billing system of the
network operator.
Tecb-Neo Puhlicatiom....-- Where Au1hon inspire innovation .-4 S.4GlltV Sllill ltttllle

~ ~ eomm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 7-50 2G Technologies
;;,,.a pepending on the datA transactions the GPRS subscriber arc billed. During one data session of a GPRS subscribe many
' Cl)RS can bc gcnc-nted and processed to the billing system. All these CDRs have a unique code and connection
;dcJllifact 10 recognise.
f,or usns!crring the dau records bclwccn the charging glllcway and GSN a GTP protocol is used.
The ~ing for GPRS scn'>CC is dtpcndent on following parameters..
(1) l)uraOon : The duration of a PDP contut i.ession.
(U) nmr: Data time of the d ll)', d:1y of week. (low tariffs for happy hours and at night).
(UI) Volunw: The :tn uni of dnui b )1CS M"OI :ind rccch·cJ.
(h) (,oa1Uon : TIK' location of the ~uhl-Crihcr.
(,) tbl nil' : A fo.t"J montllly ch:tnb'C a f'('fltnl.
(,i) t·rtt ch•~ : D.1t1 ~uh!oenl'<"d i.hould hc f rtt for chM&c,

(, It) Quality or sc-nk't' : Mof'(' chrui:c for hir.h tlC'twor~ pt1on 1y ond d.1t.l r.itc.
(,iii) S~tS : Spmfic CDR · " ill hc r cncr.itc-d hy . G N for S~t .
lh ) l{c, t1'W c-h•~lni: : llK' ~uhl-Cnl'l('r '('nJ sn~ the J .11:i , , clurt cd, TilC ub-.cnbcr receiving the dau is not charged
for the lht .1 rt"C'C i\'cd.
~ 7.27 Difference between GPRS and GSM

-
Panfflf'ttr GSM GPRS - .• .
Trc-h"'-1k1g) u~J :G 2.5G
8.1...c ) ~m TD~tA GS ~t
Carner tunr.eh 2 lllz 200 Ulz
!,("l"S ('CI h:i.nncl 8
Type of conoecti n Circ-u11 ~ 11 hed tc- hnology P;id:et switched technology and
circuit s" itched tc:chnology
M ultiple actts.s m MA mMA
Dwn~~ 9.6 I.bps 14.4 - 171.2 kbps
SIM card Yes Yes
Frt-qllC'OC)' SC'parution 45 Milz 45 MHz
Modulation 0.3 GMSK GMSK
Uplink frequency (Mobile 890- 9 15 Mill 890-915 MHz
Suhscrihc-1 10 Oa..'-C Station)
Do~-nhnk ftTqucncy (Bll<.c station 935 - 960 MHz 935-960MHz
10 mobile suhscrihcr )
Show frcqixncy hOrJ)ing 2 17 hops/~ond 217 hops/second

mme ix-noo 4.6 15 ms 4.615 ms
Time slot period 576.92 ~ 576.92 ~

Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) .
7 51
'· Paramdu . GSM GPRS -

BiJling Connccrion durnrion Amount of data transferred ----.....
Short message service 160 charnclers of lexl support It i11 used a.1 a bearer ~ice ----....
AppHcations Mobile rclcphony, value added services, EmaJI, tclomcrcs, web
bro'
1clcmc1ry sysrems for loll collcclion. broodcasl services
Telemalics ccomrncrcc VPN ---.....
:> 7.28 University Questions ---
~
1
• Dec. 2010
a. 1(c) How is FACCH used for carrying urgent messages? (Ans. : Refer section 7.9.2{C)(iilj)
a. 4{b) Give a complete functional account on NSS. (Ans. : Refer section 7.5.3)
a. S(b) The channel data rate is 270.33 kbps in. GSM standard that is 40% (say) of theoretical maximum data
· rate that can be supported in a 200 KHz channel bandwidth. Calculate the corresponding theoretical s,,,-
1
required. (Ans. : Refer Ex. 7.10.1) (10 Manca)
11
• May2011
a. 1(c) Explain security algorithm in GSM. (Ans. : Refer section 7.12} (5 Marte,)
Q, 2(b) List and explain specifications of radio transmission in GSM system.(Ans.: Refer section 7.6) (10 Ma,b)
Q. 3(a) Give a complete functional account on NSS. (Ans. : Refer section 7.5.3)
(10 Marks)
a. 6(a) Discuss -GPAS technology. (Ans. : Refer section 7.16, 7.17 and 7.18)
(10 Marks)
a. 7(a) Write shor.t note on : Authentication in GSM. (Ans. : Refer section 7.12)
(5 Marks)
11
• Dec. 2011
Q. 1{d) What is meaning of traffic channel, signaling channel, broadcast channels and common Control channel
w.r.t. G. S . M. (Ans. : Refer section 7.9. 1, 7.9.2, 7.9.2(A) and 7.9.2(8)) (5 Marks)
a. 3{a} Draw the block diagram and explain GSM architecture in details indicating all the interfaces. ·
(Ans. : Refer section 7.5) {10 Marks)
a. 6(a) Explain in detail signaling protocol architecture used in GSM. (Ans. : Refer section 7. 7) (1 oMarks)
Q, 7(b) Write short note on : Security algorithms in GSM. (Ans. : Refer section 7.12) (5 Marks)
11
• May2012
a. 1{a} Explain security algorithm in GSM. (Ans. : Refer section 7. 12)

(5 Marks)
0 . 2(b) Explain GSM Network architecture in detail. (Ans. : Refer section 7.5)
{10 Marks)
a. 4(b} Discuss GPRS technology. (Ans.: Refer sections 7. 16, 7. 17 and 7.18)
(10 Marks)
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,. 2(b) explain frame structure used in GSM. (Ans. : Refer section 7.10) (10 Marks)
l. 3(b) Explain GSM speech processing in detail. (Ans.: Refer section 7.11.1) (10 Marks)
1t May2013
J. i(b} Explain fast associated and slow associated control channels in GSM.
(Ans. : Refer sections 7.9.2(C)(ii) and 7.9.2(C)(iii)) (5 Marks)
a. 3(a) Draw and explain GPRS architecture. (Ans. : Refer section 7.18) (10 _Marks)
a. 4(a} Explain signal processing in GSM. What is the use of interleaver?
(Ans. : Refer sections 7.11 and 7.11.3) (10 Marks)
lilt Oec.2013
a. 2(a) Explain GSM protocol architecture in detail. (Ans.: [1efer section 7.7) (10 Marks)
a. 2(b) Explain signal processing in GSM. (Ans.: Refer section 7.11.1) (10 Marks)
a. 7(b) Write short note on : Security and authentication in GSM. (Ans. : Refer section 7.12) (10 Marks)
a. 7(c) Write short note on: Discuss GPRS technology. (Ans.: Refer sections 7.16, 7.17 and 7.18) {10 Marks)
11
• May 2014
0.1(b) Explain GSM services and features. (Ans. : Refer sections 7.2 and 7.3) (5 Marks)
a. 3(a) Explain signal processing in GSM. What is use of interleaver?
(Ans. : Refer sections 7.11.1 and 7. 11.3) (10 Marks)
Q. 3(b) Explain frame structure used in GSM. (Ans. : Refer section 7.10) (10 Marks)
Q. 4(a) Explain traffic channel, control channel, broadcast channel and common control channel in GSM.
(Ans.: Refer sections 7.9.1, 7.9.2, 7.9.2(A) and 7.9.2(8)) (10 Marks)
0. 4{b) Give a complete functional account on NSS. (Ans. : Refer section 7.5.3) (10Marks)
0. 7(b) Write short note on: GPRS technology. (Ans. : Refer sections 7.16, 7.17 and 7.18) (10 Marks)
- Dec.2014
0. 1(c) Explain authentication in GSM. (Ans. : Refer section 7.12) (5 Marks)
Q, 2{a) Discuss in detail GSM logical channels. (Ans. : Refer section Z9) (10Marks)
Q, 4{a) Explain GSM services and features. (Ans. : Refer sections 7.2 and 7.3) (10 Marks)
Q. S{a) Explain signal processing in GSM. (Ans.: Refer section 7.11.1) (10 Marks)
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~ Mobile Comm. . tom MU-Som.7-E&TC 7.53 20Toc
0 . 6(a) Explain GSM system nrchltocturo. (Ans. : Rotor soctlon 7.5)
0. 7(c) Write short note on : GPRS tochnology. (Ans. : Rotor soct/0110 7, 16, 7. 17 and 7._IB)
11
• May2015
0. 2(b) Explain In detail GSM network architecture. (Ans. : Rotor soctlon 7.5)
(10M~
0. 3(a) What is meaning of traffic channel, signaling channel, broadcast channels and common control Cha
w.r.t. GSM. (Ans. : Refer sections 7.9.1, 7.9.2, 7.9.2(A) and 7.9.2(8)) (10 M~
Q. S{b) Draw and explain GPRS architecture. (Ans. : Refer section 7. 18) (10 Mirta)
0 . 7(d) Write short note on : Hand off In GSM. (Ans. : Refer section 7. 14) . (5 Mart&)
11
• May2016
Q. 1(a) What is the role of GPRS in enhancing 2G GSM systems.(Ans.: Refer Sections 7.16 and 7.17) (5 Ma.1&)
a. 3(a) Explain GSM architecture and elaborate function of each block. (Ans. : Refer Section 7.5) (10 Marta)
0. 6(a) Write note on EDGE architecture. (Ans. : Refer Sections 7.15.1 and 7. 18) (10 Marta)
0. 6(b) Write note on : Call procedures in GSM; (Ans. : Refer Section 7.13) (10 Marta)
I.. Dec. 2016
a. 3(a) Describe GSM frame structure. (Ans. : Refer section 7. 10) (10 Marb)
1
• May2017
a. 3(b) Explain how GPRS architecture handles data call. (Ans. : Refer section 7.21) (10 Marb)
Q. 4(a) Why are so many logical channels used in the GSM? Explain GSM channel Structure.
(Ans.: Refer section 7.9) (10 Marb)
Q. S(a) Explain RPE-LTP speech coder as used in GSM. (Ans. : Refer section 7. 11) (10 Marts)
11
• Dec. 2017
Q. 2(8) Draw neatly and explain the role played by various entities in the GSM architecture.
(Ans. : Refer section 7.5) (10 Marb)
Q. 6(d) GSM authentication and security (Ans. : Refer section 7.12) (10 Marks)
1
• May2018
a. 3(a) Describe algorithms used for authentication and security in GSM with diagrams.
(Ans.: Refer section 7. 12) (10 Markt)
0. 3(b) Draw reference architecture in GPRS and explain role of GGSN and SGSN.
(Ans. : Refer section 7.18) (10 Marks)
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,. . Dec. 2018
7-54 2G Technologies
Q. 1(b} Calculate gross data rate of GSM. (Ans. : Refer Ex. 7.10.1) (5 Marks}
Q. 3(b) GSM provides 'on the air privacy' security features during voice calls Justify.
(Ans. : Refer section 7.2(iv)) (10 Marks)
a. 4(a) What are the reasons for intra-ceU handover? Discuss different possible handover scenarios in GSM?
Q, 4(b) Compare GPRS and EDGE with technical and functional differences. How higher data rates are achieved
in EDGE? (Ans.: Refer sections 7.15.1 and 7.15.2) (10 Marks)
Chapter Ends....
ODD

CDMA (IS-95 A&B)
8.1 COMA (IS•95 A&B) ...................................................................................................................................................._a,.

1
8.2 Footuros of CDMA .................................................................................................................................................,._¼
UQ. 8.2.1 Explain features of CDMA. .. ............................................ ·- ··-··•- ....- ......, ¼
8.3 Architocture of lS·95 CDMA System ......................................................................................................................... _.1,.3
8.4 Frequency Specifications .........................................................................................................................................~
ua. 8.4.1 Explain the frequency specification of 15-95.
a. 3(b). Dec. 11. s Marks a. S(b). Dec. 13. s Marks ................................................................. ~
UC. 8.4.2 Describe the frequency specifications of forward channels In CDMAl. -8--5
8.5 Channel Specifications of Forward and Reverse CDMA Channels .........................................................................._..a,7
UC. 8.5.1 Explain the frequency and channel specification of IS-95.
a. 3(b). Dec. 11. 10 Marks. a. S(b. Dec. 13. 10 Marks ................................................................_8,7
ua. 8.5.2 Explain IS·95 forward and reverse channel structure in detail.
a. 2(b). Ma 16, 10 Marks ..................................... ............. ........................................................_ _8,7
ua. 8.5.3 Discuss IS 95 CDMA forward channels. 0 . 1 c). Dec. 18. 5 Marks ·································-----B-7
8.5.1 Forward CDMA Channels .....................................................................................................................9-!
ua. 8.5.4 Elaborate on forward W-CDMA channel. ................................................9-!
UC.8.5.5 With a neat diagram, explain forward CDMA channel. ......................... _a.a
8.5.1(A) Pilol Channel ....................................................................................................................................._ S,8
8.5.1(8) Sync Channel ............................................................. ..........................................................................s.a
8.5.1(C) Paging Channel (PCH # 1 - PCH # 7) ........................................... ....................................................._U
8.5.1(D) Forward Traffic Channels ............................................................................... ..................................-8-9
8.5.2 Reverse CDMA Channels ............................... .. ......................................................., .......................-&-9
ua. 8.5.6 With a neat block diagram, explain reverse CDMA channel.
a. 3(b). Ma 12, 5 Marks, a. 2(b), Ma 13, 5 Marks ., ................................. - ......____.__a.9
8.5.2(A) Access Channels ................................................................................................................................8-tO
8.5.2(8) Reverse Traffic Channel .....................................................................................................................8-10
ua. 8.5.7 Explain IS-95 reverse traffic channel. ................................................8-10
8.6 CDMA Forward Channels ...........................................................................................................................................8-tO
UC. 8.6.1 Elaborate on forward W-CDMA channel. a. 2(a). Dec. 1o. 5 Marks .............................................8-10
ua. 8.6.2 With a neat diagram, explain forward CDMA channel.
a. 6(a), Dec. 12, 5 Marks, a. 2 b. Ma 16, 5 Marks ········· ······ ································· .....................8-10
ua. 8.6.3 Discuss IS·95 CDMA forward channels. Dec. 18, 5 Marks ............................................................8-10
8.6.1 Forward Channel Traffic Modulation...................................................................................................8-11
8.6.1(A) Convolulional Encodor and Repetition Unit.................................................................... ,,_.. J\2
8.6.1(8) Block Interleaver .................................................................................................................................&- t2
8.6.1(C) Long PN Soquonco ............................................................................................................................8-12
I 8.6.1(0) Data Scrambler...................................................................................................................................8-13
I. 8.6.1(E) Power Control Subchonnol ... .................................................................................... , . .............
...........8-13
ua. B.6.4 How ls powor control oppllod In lorword CDMA channol ?
a.
S(a), Doc. 10, 10 Marks, a.
5(n). Mo 12, 10 Marks .................................................................8-13

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-
Mobile Comm. System (MU·Sem.7•E&TC) 8·B COMA (IS-95 A&B)
ua. 8.6.5 How Is power control applied In forward traffic channel of IS 95? a. 5 a , Ma 15, 10 Marks ......8-13
8.6.1 (F) Orthogonal Covering ..........................................................................................................................8-14
8.6.1 (G) Quadrature Modulatlon .............................................................................................'..........................8-18
8.7 . COMA Reverse Channels ...........................................................................................................................................8· 18
ua. 8.7.1 Sketch the block diagram of reverse IS·95 channel modulation process
for a single user. Explain function of each block. a. 4(b), Ma 11, 1o Marks ................................8-16
UQ.8.7.2 With a neat block diagram, explain reverse CDMA channel.
a . 3(b). May 12. 5 Marks.a. 2(b), May 13, s Marks. a. 5(b), Ma 14, 5 Marks ...........................8-16
UQ.8.7.3 Sketch the block diagram of reverse traffic channel of IS •95.
Explain function of each block.
a. 4(b), May 15. 10 Marks, a . 2(b). Ma 16, 10 Marks ................................................................8-16
8.7.1 Convolutional Encoder and Symbol Repetition Unit ...........................................................................8-18
8.7,2 Block Interleaver.......................................................................................... ·-··········.........................8·18
8.7.3 Orthogonal Modulation .......................................................................................................................8-18
8.7.4 Variable Data Rate Transmission ............................................. :......................................................... 8-19
UQ.8.7.4 How is variable data rate transmission done in reverse CDMA channel ?
a. 7(a), Dec. 10, 10Marks .............................................................................................................. 8-19
UQ.8.7.5 Explain variable data rate transmission in CDMA. .. ............................... 8-19
8.7.5 Direct Sequence Spreading................................................................................................................ 8·20
8.7.6 Quadrature Modulation .......................................................................................................................8-21
8.8 Packet and Frame Format ..........................................................................................................................................8-21
8.9 Mobility and Radio Resource Management ................................................................ .'................................................8·22
8.9.1 Rake Receiver ....................................................................................................................................8·22
UQ. 8.9.1 Write short note on Rake receiver.
a. 7 b , Ma 11, 5 Marks, a ..7(a , Dec. 11, 5 Marks, a . 7(a), Ma 14, •1 O Marks
a. 7(c), May 15, 5 Marks; a . 6(c), Ma ·17, 10 Marks, a . 6(b), Dec. 17;'10 Marks .......................8·22
ua.a.9.2 Explain RAKE Receiver in CDMA system. a. 1(d), May·12; 5 Marks· ...........................................8-22
UQ. 8.9.3 With suitable diagram explain role of Rake Receiver. ·a . 4(a), Dec: 13; 1 o Marks ........................8·22
ua.a.9.4 Explain in detail working of RAKE receiver. -0. 6(b),-Dec: 14, 10 Marks .......................................8·22
ua. 8.9.s Explain principle of rake receiver in detail. · a:2(b), Dec: 15, 1O Marks ..........................................8-22
UQ. 8.9.6 What is Rake Receiver? a. 4(b)(i);·oec. 16; 5 Marks ...................................................................8·22
UQ. 8.9.7 How RAKE receiver improves S/N ratio in CDMA also explain why
power control on the reverse channel is essential? a. 5(a), May 1a,·10 Marks ............................8·22
8..9.2 Soft Handoff.•·-··-··....·-·-.. -·-······................_ ......................................._ .._ _...._ . _.......8·24
UQ.8.9.8 Write short note on Handoff procedure. a. 7(c), May 11, 5 Marks .. .............................................8·24
UQ. 8.9.9 Explain mobile assisted soft handoff procedures in
a CDMA based secular.system. a. 1(b), Dec. 11, 5 Marks .............................................................8·24
UQ. 8.9.10 What is soft handoff? O.-1(c), Dec. 16; 5 Marks ...........................................................................8·24
8.9.3 Power Control in CDMA .....................................................................................................................8·25
ua. 8.9.11 Describe open loop and closed loop system of power control in a CDMA system.
a. 4(b). Dec. 11, 10 Marks, a. 5(a , May 14, 10 Marks, a. 4 a). May 15;·10 Marks ....................8·25
UQ. 8.9.12 Explain concept and importance of power control in CDMA. .................8·25
8:9.4 Performance of the CDMA System..............................................................:......................................8·26
8.1 O Advantages of CDMA .................................................................................................................................................8·27
8.11 Disadvantages of CDMA .............................................................................................................................................8-28
8.12 Difference between COMA and GSM .........................................................................................................................8·28
8.13 University Questions ...................................................................................................................................................8·29
.. Chapter-Ends ............................................................................................................................................................8-31
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. ...C~D-M_A_(_IS-_9_5_A_&_B)_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _"-,,.
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A US digital cellular system based on CDMA that has increased system capacity was standardized as Interim Standard
95 (IS-95) or CDMA. It is one of the basis for many commercial 2G cellular systems around the world.
It is used in many communication systems like Personal Communication System (PCS), fixed Wireless Local loo
<WLL), Global Positioning System (GPS) and Omni TRACS satellite system for the transportation logistics. p
IS-95 allows each user within a cc11 to use the same radio channel and users in adjacent cell to -use the same radio
channel.
CDMA I IS-95 systems allow many data signals to be multiplexed and transmitted over a wireless channel at the~
I- time and in the same frequency band without interfering with each other. It is done by spreading the spectrum occupie(j
by user with high speed unique codeword to that user.
The spectrum spreading is done by multiplying the user data by identifying the code and modulating the carrier With
spread spectrum. At the receiver end the original data is recovered by correlating the demodulated waveform by the
spreading .code.
The spread spectrum was a used for enhancing the security of the data transmitted. It is used in applications where high
security is needed.
DS/SS system is generalJy used The_data signals that are to be transmitted are changed through the use of Pseudo-
Noise code (PN code). Whereas in time division systems, the channels are separated by time slot e.g. GSM. The
CDMA systems can be distinguished according to the PN code that the systems use.
The PN codes used must be orthogonal i.e. they must not correlate with the time shift versions of each other. Hence, the
·PN codes of each signal are unique.
The pseudo noise c_odc can be generated by using one or more shift registers in feedback connections. The PN
spreading code is called as chipping code.
The processing gain is,
Rcrup
G = R
data
Thus, the processing gain is proportional to the ratio of spreading code rate to the data rate.
In CDMA systems three types of PN codes are used. They are :
(I) Walsh code : It is used as 64 bit different orthogonal codes on downlink : for different users
uplink : for modulation
(il) Long PN code : It is a 42-bit code used on
downlink : for data scrambling
uplink : for identifying the mobile station (spreading)
(iil) Short PN code : It is a 16 bit code used on
/!'
downlink.: to identify.the base stations.
I upJfnk; for extra.signal robustness without offseL
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. ~ Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 8-2 CDMA (1$-95 A&B)
==-
~ 8.2 Features of CDMA
MU - a. 1(a). Dec. 12. 5 Marks

(1) It allows every subscriber within a cell to make use of a radio channel where same radio channel is used by
subscribers of adjacent cell- also.
(2) It uses speech coder Qoalcomm 9600 bps Code Exited Linear Predictive Codes (QCELP) that can detect voice
. activities and reduce the data rates upto 1200 bps during silent periods.
(3) It is compatible with the IS-41 networking standard.
(4-) It uses specific modulation and spread spectrum techniques in the forward and reverse links.
(5) Transmit rate of one channel : 192 Kbps
(6) Number of time slots in one CDMA channel: 64
(7) Average data rate for each user: 3 Kbps
(8) Two voice coding methods : 8 KB/s, 13 KB/s
(9) Vocoder rate : 1.25 Mbits/s
( t O) Power updates of mobile user : every 1.25 ms
(11) Voice and data communication: 1.25 MHz radio carrier
(12) Modulation method: QPSK I BPSK
Time slots (TS) in a frame half rate : 128
Uplink frequency : 824 - 849 MHz
Downlink frequency : 869 - 894 MHz
16) Frequency separation: 45 MHz. II

17) Short message_service (SMS) : Supports mobile tenninated and mobile originated short messages of upto 255 octets I\
on either traffic / control channel.
Asynchronous data and group3 fax.

\
Synchronous data : applications for secure telephone unit.
(20) Packet data
(21) Temporary Mobile Station Identity (TMSI) allows allocation of TMSI by serving VLRs that are used on the air
interface to reduce overall signaling traffic load across the radio interface.
(22) Supplementary services : call waiting, call forwarding, calling line ID, and services supported by GSM.
(23) Slotted paging·: allows mobile to wake up for one or two time slots (80 ms) per slotted paging cyc_le (1.28 - 1.64s) to
listen to incoming pages. It is used to conserve the mobile battery power.
(24) Over the air activation (OTA). It allows the mobile to be activated by the service provider with any third party
intervention.
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8.3 Architecture of IS-95 CDMA System
The CDMA on stnndnnl pmtocol orchirccturc is ~hown in Fig. 8.3.1.
OSI layor3
lo
OSI laye,7
,-----
1
I
'
I
I
I
I OSI layer2
I
I
I
I
I
I ______________________________ J I
.I '---------- --- --
Physical Layer OSI layer 1
Fig. 8.3.1 : Protocol architecture of IS-95 (CDMA one standard)
The lower two layers and the corresponding layers of the OSI model are shown.
The functions of layer I are :

(i) Frequency use (ii) Radio transmission
Bigtime out
The functions of layer I are related to the voice and data
packets.
In layer 2 the Medium Access Control (MAC) sublayer is
responsible for the channel management. It follows a Traffic
finite state machine of two states. Fig. 8.3.2 : MAC states In IS-95 standard
The sta.UJs of packet data in transmissions is shown as a finite state machine of two cycles. Whenever a Mobile Surion
(MS) is idle rt is considered as big time period.
In the active stale the channels are assigned to the mobile and in the dormant state the mobile units do not maintain MY
sequence of channels. As they do not maintain any sequence there is no mechanisms for transmitting user data when it
is in dormant mode.
After the idle period the mobile channels go to the dormant state. Thus, the data from various sources are multiple.,ed
initially and then handled.
Fig. 8.3.3 shows the CDMA Architecture.

Operation aupport aubay1tem
MSC
ea.. 1tatlon
1ub1y1t.m
Public network•
Olhet
VUu
IITS tine Tn.incn1n- Smion

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• 4
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M. C Mobile S"'itdung Ccntu
m111 [)..u ~ Io.,.iSt" II.ind k r
m rc Opcn1100 ~t.i.intcn..in..-e Center
JWF lnlcNOtung Function
111.R llomc Location Rcgi~cr
\'1.1{ Vi,i tor Loc.:ition Rt gistcr
AUC Aull:K'nti ation Ccntc.r
EIK Equipment Identity Register
Fig. 8.3.3: CD~IA Archlleclure
CDMA one or lS-95 uses mdi.o or I~ ! mile communication. OtJ1er l1un !he cdio interface.. Lhc remaining network is
similar to GSM.
The main elements of the urchi1ecrurc arc :
(I) Mobile Station (MS)
The mobile sc tion is the mobile unit with the user. The MS terminates the radio path on the user side. It enables the
user to gain access to ~ rvices from the network.
The Mobile Station can t>e a stand-alone device.
Mobile station can have other devices (e.g., personal compute.rs. fax machines) connected to it where it works as pass
through.
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syatorn (MU-Sorn.7•Ec\lC) O·t.l
(II) Baao Station Sub1y1tom (BSS)
11 0
' USS nmnngc., tho rnJlo l111crfoca hctwccn 1ha mohllc ~11111011~ 1111111hc MSC. II cou d ,u of HTS and USC.
(n)
llasc Tran."<'t'h•u Sratlon (IITS): It ronslr.ls of one or more 1rnn~lver1 plnc.cd 11111 single locaJlon.
(b)
Bas~ Station ConlroUrr (USC) : l:!ach DSC controls and nuu111gc1 upto M:vcraJ hundred BTSs. The Bsc
cxchnngc.-. mci:i.ngc.'I with tJ1c DTS nnd MSC. Some of 1he signaling mc5soges can paM through lhe BS(:
tninspnrcntly.
(Ill) Mobile Switching Center (MSC)
The mobile switching center is the central unit equivalent to the telephone exchnnge in a fixed networic.
11 is an automatic system that interfaces the user traffic from the wireless network with the: wireline networic or OOlf:r
wireless networks.
The functions of MSC arc :
(i) Anhor MSC : It provides radio contact ton call.

(ii) Border MSC : An MSC thnt is controlling BTSs adjacent to the location of the mobile station.
(iii) Originate MSC: dirccc the MSC to an incoming call towards the mobile station.
(iv) Candidate MSC: MSC can accept the call or a handoff.
(v) R.crootc MSC : The MSC at the other end of the intersystem trunk.
(vi) Service MSC : Provide service to a current caJI.
(vii) Tandem MSC : MSC providing only trunk connections for call where bandoff bas occurred.
(viii) Target MSC : Select MSC for handoff.
(ix) Visited MSC : MSC providing service to the mobile station.
(Iv) Home Location Register (HLR)
The Horne location register maintains all subscriber related information and is responsible for managing the mobile
subscriber.;.
This register can be collocated with the MSC as an integral part of the MSC or it can be independent of the MSC.
Multiple MSCs arc served by an HLR. They can be distributed over multiple locations.
(v) Data Message Handler (DMH)
It is responsible for collecting the billing data.
(vi) Visitor Location Register (VLR)
It is linked to one or more MSCs. It is a functional unit that dynamically stores the subscriber information obtained
from the subscriber's HLR data.
When a roaming MS enters a new service area covered by the MSC, the MSC informs the associated VLR about the
MS by querying the HLR after MS goes through a registration procedure. VLR can be considered as a cache whereas
HLR is similar to persistent storage.
Tech-Nco Publicatio111".-·- 11'/,(,,r: Author, ir11pirr, innor1rion -A S.40/liYSll4H ~

[iJ
- Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC)
(vii) AUC (Authentfcatlon Center)

8-6
Tbe AUC manages the authentication associated with individual subscriber.

COMA (IS-95 A&B)
Tbe AUC can be located within an HLR or MSC or may be located indepcndcnl of both.
(vffl) Equipment Identity Register (El R)
EIR provides information about the mobile device for record purposes. EIR can be located with the-MSC or located
independent of iL
(Ix) (OMC) Operation Maintenance Centers
1bey are response for the overall management of the wireless network.
(x) Interworking Function (IWF)
It enables the MSC to communicate with other networks.
(xi) Public Networks

These are communication networks. They can be Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), an Integrated Service
Digital Network (ISDN), a Public Land Mobile Network (Pl.MN) or a Public Switched Packet Data Network
(PSPDN).
~ 8.4 Frequency Specifications

E,cplaln the frequency specification of IS-95. MU- 0 . 3(b). Dec. 11. 5 Marks a. S(b). Dec. 13, 5 Marks
U.2 Oescrl>e the frequency specifteatlons of forward channels In COMA1. MU• a. 3(A. Dec. 17. 10 Marks
IS . 95 uses the 824 - 849 MHz band for reverse link operation and the 869 - 894 MHz band for forward link operation.
In 1800 - 2000 MHz band a PCS version of IS - 95 is designed for international use.
For cellular band operation the forward and reverse channel pair is separated by 45 MHz. The users share a common
channel for transmission.
The maximum user data rate is 9.6 Kb/s. With the help of combinational techniques the data is spread to
1.2288 Mchip/s. For both the links the spreading method is different.
The user data stream is encoded with the help of½ rate convolutional code on the forward link. The code is interleaved
and spread by one of sixty four orthogonal spreading sequences.
Every mobile in a given cell is assigned a different spreading sequence in order to provide signal separation from
different users where there are no multipath effects.
In order to reduce the interference between the mobiles that use the same spreading sequence in different cells and also
provide desired wideband spectral characteristics, all signals in a cell are scrambled with the help of a p-n sequence of
15
length 2 chips. As the signals are synchronously scrambled the orthogonality among the forward channel users within
the cell is maintained.
On the forward link a pilot channel (code) is provided so that each user can determine and react to the channel
characteristics while employing coherent detection. The pilot channel is transmitted at higher power than the ·user
channels.
Tedt-Nee Pablicaliom- ~ Autbon impirr HIIltlntitm -A SAaDNSHlll Yenture-

A d'" . · , d · n:il arrives :ii the b:ise station
iucrcnr spreading method is used on the reverse link. Each recel\e rg
lhrou&,
nL ,
a
prop:igation ~ -
= 3
• a bloc'·11. of •six encoded yrnbols i ••m:inpcd
The A-- - 1• s encod ed convolutionally al role I code. After .inter1e:ivrng . ,,
to
6-i
ary one of the 64 orthogon:il Walsh functions providing sixty • four • :iry orthogon:il signaling. A chip rate of 1.228g
MchirJs i obtained by ~ading.
lbc 005c Mation spc.cific code.-. have period of 2" chips.

lnordcr to avoid the ..near. rnr•• probltm thnt nrbcs becow.e of voryin8 received powers on the reverse link we~
tight control of the subscrihcr'. transmitter power. for achieving it a combination of open • loop ancf
dosed • loop power control is used.
RAKE ~ivers at U.loCd at the ba.\C i.tAtion and i.ubl>Cri!)cr 10 resolve and combine u,c muhip31Ja components, reducing
the degrt"C or fading. A RAKE rttcivcr c ploil the rnulripJlh time dcl:iy. in a ch:inncl.
h combine· the dd:ircd rcplic~ of 1he 1rnn mined i.igniil. ThiJ impro,c rhc linl qu:iliry. A three finger RAKE receiver
i used :u the b:ise sUtion in IS • 95.
The lS-95 :in:h.itcc1urc pro,·idc.s b:L-.e !>.tnliou ili\C.l'lil)' during " :.oft'' tundoff\.
:, 8.5 Channel Specifications of Forward and Reverse COMA Channels
UO. a.5.1 Elplain the frequency nnd channel spocificntion ol lS-95.

MU· O. 3(b). Dec. 11, 10 P.larlcs. 0 . 5 b. Dec, 13. 10 Marks
U0.-8.5.2 Ellplain IS-95 forward and rovc.rso channel structwo In dot.a.a. MU• 0 . 2(b). Ma 16. 10 Marks
UQ. 8.5.3 Discuss IS 95 COMA fOtWard channels. •~1•d•ltGl•J4¥i=IJMtiff
IS-95 ~ Frequency Di,·ision Duplcling (FOO) "ilh 25 Ml l.z. in c;ich direction.
Fig. 8..5.1 ~" the JS - 95 forw:ird and n:ven,e link clunncl ill\Jcturc.s.
Forward COMA Link (1 23MHz) BS to MS
E]
Reverse COMA Link (1.23MHz) MS to BS
channel
~§ ----• I~~ I I I
channel - - - - - Tra~ - - - - -
channel
Trattic
channel
Fig. 8.5.1 : IS· 9S Forward and Renrse Link channel slruclure

.. fl ' tia.inp ,,in,.., • fl("'/ 11Mwt "l'lf'll1 t1/wv~1lm1 t ':.I • 1, I , 111
1,111 6
t lo,nne t,
~ 8.5.1 F,orward COMA Channt-f 1

I.IA Ellboillt on kirwat12 W<Dt.&A ct~"N.
UJ Wlhlneal lf\J 1,1 "' s ,,,.. •; ; ti-,, ♦,
------- --
111( r~ l&fd d1:&11llth II •llcd '" dv• lllln\. ~ . , n '.#' I , .. <!at.AV a:f,: • ~t
t.t2'tM M10CIJY-rlT,
llicy ron 1 ~ " ' M r-h:111nd~ 1hc rrir l\'t' pnJ c :::rh ct .:.tr,rrr.:1cnJ r~wt uh 1<~'4"1 trJ •1-f 2.tn - •.f..".
i.pindinf,\ ode c:ilkd 11, orthor1mll a ,Jn o, W.l.11..~ (c;: c tW_, \\'n)
Sonic of 1he ,le-di :str-.d :.n4 mn n tml tnff,c du:·.nch 1.--r 11 foUo ., :
8.5.1(A) PIiot Chnnnef
nie pilot C.DMA ~s;rul lr.ilbJlUUt"d b)' :a b:i.c ~ n fWO \ \Jr l ,a rr.fcrcnt.c ( .a.II nuht!c \L.:.!lutlL
II Is 3) l;rl<'tl Wt1bh C w(I

~ pilot )l~n:J Incl for :..JI l~ i.WJ.olb I) Lt-pe 4 w o t!U l:.i !.ct tl lLc u~r~ t.u-.ul .. it1 a ,.;ul;,I to.i: • ~ --
Thi) is ht-(-:iu\C Lil<' muh1 k t.21100 .,1 the di I ~ n rn:wtoe !.c 1.i, ,~c,,t 11.c p. t, t fr•.(j, t!:a: c~ t -..-;-r! t . ,
~ 1t1c v. l1<'11 10 pcrfon11 h:inJolf.
lllC ptlot i.i;;n.1I"' (nun all tll<' b.:t~ =J.:1uo1h ui-c i,.llrc P~ ~:JcCLn,. o..h wtJut1 Lt IJaJ.:Jc.J , .,
off:.ct. 11,c \)f'f:,e-t:. :ill" in iti.7l'mclll o( M tu~ 10 JYO' 1& 12 c.. x otf~)
~ 8.5.1(8) Sync Channel
1J i, '111 oplion11 1\mnc-1 u!tC'J to ~nJ ) odm: ·z.&l :ti ,.,.,.n,.!.'Cft.n lo 1±,c I x ~Lll!i,
Ir i, lhs.igoed W~h.h c\Je ):? ( \\'1:l w,~ us l p..!!trn J2
{)'lldltOJlWIU n.
Tilt •)'DC lwmcl 111".J.i. i;c Jl:1.n1..nr\c-rs :ur •~~c-!:l ,jro~fi:-.!l~ (~!Ol. .S...-1-..~ i: f .: t ~ID :.i.." :.'lu:l ""S
&t"qUl"nCt' offi<t inJa. l,41n • xk 1o.l ::1tc. >Y~t-m tu:.'lr. >C'C ~! I. -.J ur:c . ' >t .J. , i,.u t-.; L - ~ 1!.1..•llc.•' a:m.t 11,:11l!l
rfa.nod d::at.1 nitt (-4 .H U•p) or 9 6 Up))
a 8.5.1(C) Paging Channel (PCH I 1 - PCH I 7)
Piiint dumnd l, Ill opdonll d.111.nnd ' flirit' aJt' 1 >,('\,eli 14 ' t• ·t, l!..u u > ~
lt'nniruds 111111 do nut Im c l'a.lh in p•vg,ri., 1l;c-)' Of"' :.\I' .a.i rt .!1.ta Ill.'.~ 11!.i.f !, -t_ J .., .'-, , i lii . 'I!,
1llt' pag.i11g chlil111el, 1t1e ll!.~ittit'd Wal 1 fucr,1 •1• W1 ti.I \ 1
Some o ( the naca.~lltt'• e11.ni eJ hy p;oi,:l ot du,nnd 10d1 ,k •
(I) s,•i.lrrn panamrlrr llk'!>Mlft' I Ill" h.t)I(' tch.U(.1(1 l I.till <I, u-., l.t '/.)(f vl' '"'' -~ ~',JI• . ·I t ~rnJ t!I~ r"G(' ,:~.m r..:f
number.
·-' WJtll,1\Jl,J/~

[i] Mobllo Coo,m, sr'"" !"U !,om ! •I '1C/ AO C.ll'IA {I" o-, A-11,l
01) N.-tahhor lht nM"'IRf I '11118 tl"p1.nJit11 ti~ ft( ,~,,, ....!41nf 1,,.Cll' t1~j,M1 r•t ,,,-,,,,,. li ~e fYH dTttC
(lll) An'"' ru•mrtc-,.. mt•Uit• t 1111111nlfl( I- ,V'('ilr,J h o-- m,i,,111 ,,, 1,m, ,,-.t I '1 ,"11 fl(rf<i < vuf
(h} ,,.._,n, """~ I ft J'lr!\ i<1c, 11 r~i:r '" 1hr n•"""' tJ•11'11 f ,.,,
(\) l."h•nnc-1 .,,lvu,w-nt mn"ll,r• I II nf1'1rtl\ 11,r rr1<A•1k 11,lltl n Ill 1-qtit "'a,., ... ,.u,vt f,rrr.rr~1
(\ IJ n.,. hur,4 ttlNi'91?f' I 11 1, lot'nl h the tul.C ~.1ti(IO II) the mr'!l"<llc
(,ll) A11thm1lt-a16on I A111hrnt1catlon kllov. the luw: 1.uhon to , 11kil:c 11,c tn 1h1lr tdt'n11 f,
'tt. 8.5.1(0) Forward Trntflc Channel•
111<'. chanO('I, that ~ 11(1( Ut,('d fo l r f lng Of' •)'OC an he u~ few uaff,c. Thu • the t(l(.al nut~'(( u ( ,urr.. : di,111r,dt;. f,l
mlnu~ the numl'C'r or p:i ing rind ~yr Lhanncl, in opcnllon o( lhc b~I.C \Ul100.
I "The info1nu11on on the for,,. ard truffic channel rnclude, prim.uy traffic (H>icc
t.iplahn~.
When fC\No ant link i, u-"Cd )()me of the mc~l.a£C' ""'ill be,
r iuu). ~ l1'2ffK (t4!.a) a.7J
(I) Ordt-r me,....~

(ll) AutlM'nUcatlon rM~Jte : It 111, u'-CCI 10 pro,c 1hc identity or lhc roobilc ~ hen the b.l.\C i.u.ti
, ;uid11y.
OU) Ale-rt '41th lnfonnallon ~,aJtt: This ~~age allo~ lhc b:i.se ~llltion 10 ,•alid.itc the mobile idcn1,1y.
o,) llrandoff dlr«tlon mts\aJ!e : It provide the mobile ~·ith dau requirro to ini1in1e tJ1e hnndoff me tuniun.
Cl') Anal<>s: handoff d)1Tctlon mtM:&gt : II informs lhc mobile lo ~witch 10 tJ,e nruJog mode and inill:ilc the
h~ ff.
(,1) la - lrafflc •ys.tc-m pan&llklt-n mcsui:c : II upd.it.ts i;ome of lhc p:inmclcrs i.ct by ltic ,y~tcm par"-ITlctcr
mc~!lj,'.e ,n the p.,ging channel.
(,il) !'-n,thhor lbl upd11lt' n~\llJ!r : It updat~ tJ\C neighbor ba\C !>Wion p:iramct.cn. ~ t by Nei ghbor Ii" mcn.1 !I: in
the p:igi ng ch!l1lncl.
(,,W) Dau bunt ftlibSllgr : h i, Lhc J:itu ~ g e ~ by llx: b:ue ~ 100 Lo lhc roobilc..
(lx) Moblk ~btnatloo ~ i : c : It inform~ the mobile th.JI i1 i) rcgi~1.crcd .ind wpplici the r1ettU:ir) i ) ~
paramcta~.
(r) f.11mdtd handClff dln-cllon ~ .\.\lll:t' : II ii one of tJ'IC tun ff mc~~ gc ~nt by the b~ M.uion.
a 8.5.2 Reverae COMA Channels
ua. ,.a., WIJh • neat blod< diagram, o~aln rO"ICt~ COMA chaMel
Trdi-Nro f'11Ulnr1ion,_ 11l1rrr fut/.i,n /mp/rr Jn,.,,••,1,,,,

Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 8-10 CDMA (IS-.95 A&BJ
~ S.5.2(A) Access Channels
A terminal that docs not have a call in progress can use the Access channel to send messages to the base station for
three functions. The three functions ~ :
(i) to respond to a paging message
(ii) to originate·the call and
(iii) to register the location
Up to 32 access channels can be operated by each base station. They operate at a 'rate of 4.8 kbps.
The messages carried by the access channel include :
(i) Order. message : It transmits information. like base station challenge. mobile station acknowledgement. local
control response and mobile station reject.
(ii) Data burst ~ g e : It is a user generated data message sent by-the mobile station to the base station.
(iii) Origination message : It allows the mobile station to place a call sending dialed in digits.
(iv) Registration message : It sends to the base station data needed to page the mobile like status. location and
identification.
(v) Authentication response message : It comprises data essential to validate the mobile stations identity.
a 8.5.2(8) Reverse Traffic Channel
It can multiplex primary (voice) and secondary (data) or signaling traffic.
The typical messages that the reverse traffic channel carries arc :
(i) Order messages : They include base station channel, parameter update confirmation, mobile station
acknowledgement, service option request and response. release, connect, DTMF etc.
(ii) Authentication challenge response message: It consists data to validate the mobile-station.
(iii) Pilot strength measurement message : It contains information about the strength of other pilot signals that are
-not associated with the serving base station.
(iv) Data burst message : It is a user generated data message sent by the mobile to a base station.
(v) Handoff completion message : It is a mobile response to a handoff direction message.
(vi) Parameter response message : It is a mobile resJ)Onse to the base station to retrieve parameters message.
:> 8.6 CDMA Forward Channels
MU - a. 2(a). Dec. 10. 5 Marks
The forward channel (downlink) refers to transmission from the mobile station to the base station.
Tedi-Neo Publitations--Where Aathttrs irLpire irmoration _,4 S4CHI!fSIMHY ~·
►
[i] Mobile Comm. System (MlJ.S&m.7-E&TC) 8-11
CDMA (1S-95 A&.21
The PN l~cs U$t'\l on d\)\\nlink are as follows :

(i) W:\lsh C(Xks t\, lliffcn-ntinto users (spn::uling)
(ii) Short PN cooc to identify cell (b:l-.c st:1tion)
(iii) long PN C\Xie for scrnmhling d:11:\.
The fo,w:ml CDMA chnnnd consists l'f pill,t channd . synchronizution chunncl, pnging chnn ncl and speech channels.
The dirc.-ct sc-quem.-e fonn is cn::\t«I tty multiplexing these signals with different pseudo - mndom noise (PN) sequence.
The orthl,gt,nnl PN Sl'q\lcncl~S c:m h¢ l'\.'\.'\,wred with0ut :lily interference. If tlll: PN St."<)Ucnces nrc not orthogonal, then
there will he some mutual interference hct\\ttn the sign:tls.
A W:th,h code PN se-quencc is used hy the hose stations. The Walsh function consist of 64 orthogonal binary sequences,
c:\ch of length 64 bits. It cnn proYidc 64 independent k,gicnl channels for nil users on the forwll!'d link.
In Walsh code chnnnc:1 ·o• is ns_-.igncd to the pilot chnnncl to kt-cp tlie mobile receivers phase aligned with the base
Sl:ltion.
A short code is used for synchronizing n Jong C\1de for encryption of voice nnd control dntn.
~ 8.6.1 Forward Channel Traffic Modulatlon
I channel pilot
PN aequence
Power
control
bit Walsh output
User data code
from base
statlon(BS) '.. . ,
-~ 19.2 1.2288
Mcps
9eo0bps In
4800 bps · un ,,
2400 bps '"
cover
1200 bps output
4
a channel pilot
PN sequence
Long code
from
th
n user
1.2268
Mcps
Fig. 8.6.1 : Fonrnrd CDl\tA chnnnel modulation process
Fig. 8.6.1 shows forward traffic channel modulation.

The data is grouped ns 20 msec frames on the forward traffic channel. The user dnta has to be coded com·olutionally
and formatted. This process must be followed by interleaving for ndjusting the user dnta mtc thnl will change.
The interleaved signal is spread with a Walsh code nnd a long PN sequence nt n rate of 1.2288 Mcps.
The data rate of speech signal npplied to transmitter is in the mnge or 1.2 Kbps to 9.6 Kbps.
I
I Tobie 8.6.1 lists the IS - 95 forward traffic channel modulntion parameters.
Ir
j
II
Tedi-Neo Puhliationsou ___ JF/rr.rt! Authon in.pin: inno,11tion _,4.'i.4(111,VSJl.-411 frntatr
,,,,,i
r
[§]
~
Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) . _
8 12 CDMA (IS-95 A&B)
Table 8..6.1 : IS - 9S Forward .traflk channel modulation parameters
Parameter ~----,
.. .. ,...,
:,
'•.
...... ;,",r.7;,:;:.~~~:rt":Data
.~:~;,•::.·~: ;.. ,.~·~ .,..
,·--!-
,•.
~ ..... ., ~ \;.
Rate (l{biis)~~~~-·~~:~!?1;~
e"'
f .. ...~
User data rate 9.6 4.8 2.4 1.2
Coding rate I I I
I
I
2 2 2 2
User data repetition period 1 2 4 '8
\ .
Baseband roded data rate
PN chips / coded data bit
19.2 kbps
64
19.2 kbps
64
19.2 kbps
64
19.2 kbps
64
I.
PN chip Rate (Mcps)
PN chips / bit
1.2288
128
1.2288 1.2288 1.2288
1024
I
256 512
The processing gain is,
~
RF bandwidth 1.2288 X 10 _
6
Gp = B88 = baseband bandwidth Gp = 19.2 x 103 - 64
G, = 18.06 dB
The total spreading gain,

1.2288 X 106
Gp = 89 _6 x l03 = 128 = 21.1 dB
8.6.1(A) Convolutlonal Encoder and Repetition Unit
The user data is encoded in this unit with the help of a half rate convolutional encoder with constraint length k = 9.
The encoding process is representated by generator vectors G 1 and G0 that is 561 (octal) and 753 (octal).
The constant baseband symbol rate is I 9.2 Kbps.To maintain it, when the user data rate is less than 960 bps the symbol
arriving from the convolutional encoder is repeated before the interleaving process.
If the information rate is 4800 bps then each code symbol is repeated one time.
If the information rate is 2400 bps or 2.4 Kbps then each code symbol is repeated three times.
If the information rate is 1200 bps then each code symbol is repeated seven times.
- This repetition will result in constant rate of I 9,200 symbols/sec for all the possible information rates.
a 8.6.1(8) Block Interleaver
Block interleaving is done after convolutional encoding and repetition process. The symbols are sent to a 20 ms block
interleaver. It is a 24 by J6 array.
a 8.6.1(C) Long PN Sequence

In forward channel for data scrambling, direct sequence is being used. For each user a long PN sequence is assigned. It
is a long time with time period 242 - J chips. This long PN code is representated by a polynomial. It is denoted as P(x)
35 33 T1 26 :ZS 22 21 19 18 17 16 10 7 6 5 3 2 l
P(.x) : .x42 + .x + X + X +X + X + X +.X + X + X + X + X + X + X + X + X + .x + x + X + J.
- In this assignment of a Jong sequence to each user., each EN chip of .this long sequence produced using moduJo 2 inner
product of the 42 bit mask and state vector of the PN sequence generator.
Ttai-Neo Publicatio~ 111,ere Aathon m.~ irworation ..-4 SAGONSHAH reatw-e·

~ COMA (IS-95 A&l3)
Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) B-13 ~
f the sequence generator.bec?mcs I followin
1ne first of the generator is defined mainly wherever the output O
stat.e g
the 41 consecutive •o• output !,;ts. The MSBs have bit I.
- In the long code generator two types of masks are used. They are :
I (i) Public mask (ii) Private mask. )
PubDc mask is used for the mobile station's electronic serial number (ESN).
Private mask is used for mobile station's identification number (MIN).
th th
It is important to note that all the CDMA calls are initiated with the help of the public mask. After e au entication
is done there will be transition from public to private mask.
The public long code mask is specified as,
M41 M40 M39 ••••• M32 = J 10001 JOOO and
M 3J M 30 M29 M21 •• u.M
0
= set to a permutation of JTK>bile station's ESN bits.
ESN = (E31 E30 fi9fia.... •..... E4 E3 fi E, Eo)

Pcrrnuttcd ESN = (E00 E31, En, E , E4, Ei , E17 , Ea, E:io, E.i,, E12 , E:J, fis, E16, E,, Ei9. fio- E, 1• f½, f½4, E,5, E6• f½s, E,11t
13 6
E,o- E,, E.i1, E,4, E, , fi1 , E,a, E,9)
The private long code mask is specified a~ M41 and M40 set ofOI and M39 M38....... M, Mo set by private method,
Fig. 8.6.2 shows the two masks.

M41 M40 M:,, M38 M37 M38 M35 M34 M33 M32 M31 Mo
I I 1Io fo IIII
o 1 o IoIo I Poon~ed ESN ~~ · I
(a) Public Lon,: Code Mask
Prlvalo mothod
J
(b) Priv11te Lon,: Code Mask
Fig. 8.6.2 : Long code masks for IS - 95 standard
a 8.6.1(0) Data Scrambler

The data scrambling is done after the interleaving process.
The PN sequence of I .2288 MHz is sent to the decimator unit. The decimator units keeps only the first chip out of
every sixty four consecutive PN chips.
For performing data scrambling operation, modulo 2 addition of the interleaver output and decimator output is done as
shown in Fig. 8.6. I. The symbol rate of decimator is 19.2 Ksps.
a 8.6.1 (E) Power Control Subchannel
UQ. 4.8.A How ls power control appD~ In forward COMA channel ?

,. a. S(a). Dec. 10. 10 Marks. a. S(a). May 12. 10 Marks
MU -
ua. a.e.5.. How Is i,ower"confiol applied intoiward fraffic charinerons 95'? - ·-' ~.;.:..,;, · ··::-" ..
Tedi-Nee Publimions- ~ Authors impirt: inntwation .-A SAaDNSHAII Y~

-[jiJ Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC)
. receiver
At the base station . for each u Of 1
ser
.
8-14 CDMA (1S-95 A&B}
·be so
S • 95, a umque power level must be maintained for all the subscn rs
as to reduce the average BER (Bit Error Rate). '
for each mo~ile s~tion the signal strength and interference are measured. It is estimated by base station reverse traffic
channel receiver umt.
Pow~r control updates are sent at about every L25 ms because the signal strength and interference arc continuously
varying.
The essential power control commands are transmitted to each user on the forward control subchannel. The commands
instruct the mobile ~nit to !ncrease or decrease its power level in steps of l dB e.g., a 'O' will be sent over power
control subchannel, mSlructmg the mobile station to increase its mean output power level. A 'l' will be sent over lhe
power control subchannel to instruct the mobile station to decrease its power level.
The power control bits are inserted after scrambling.
1'
Fig. 8.6.3 shows an example of Iandom power control bit position in IS • 95 forward traffic channel. J
1
r--C = =
Value 11 power
control bit position
Power control bits
-!--!:' l>l· :t
I
1 0 1 ·I (2 modulation symbols
transmitted)
f'7'TJ~7'>1
Long code:
bits used !'"
1
-t---t--1'-+---+-~f--+---+-t--+---+-t---+---1-=~'4---t-+--+-t---+---t-+--+---1
for data I O 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 9 1o 11 12 13 14 15 :
scrambling: not used _I
: i.--torpower--,
1 control bits 1
·I
1.25ms = 24 modulation symbols - - - - - - - - - - - - 9 1
Fig. 8.63 : Example of random control bit positions in IS - 95 ~orward traffic channel
Puncturing methods are used for transmitting the power control bits.
In the period of 1.25 ms, twenty four 24 data symbols are transmitted. Sixteen possible positions are specified for
power control bit according to IS - 95 standard.
Each position corresponds to one symbol.
24 bits'from the Jong code decimator unit are used for data scrambling in a period of 1.25 ~ - Onl_y the last 4 bits are
used to determine the position of the power control bit.
In Fig. 8.6.3 the last four bits are I 011 i.e. decimal 11. The power control bit starts at position 11.
a. 8.6.1 (F} Orthogonal Covering
Afterthe data scrambHng, orthogonal covering is done.
The channels transmitted on the forward CDMA channel a,re spread with a Walsh function at a chip rate of t.2288
Mcps.
The length of the binary sequence.in Walsh functions is 64. The sequences are orthogonal to each other. They provide
orthogonal channelization to all users on the forward link.
Charmel numbern (n =Oto 63) is -assigned to -a user that is -spread using Walsh function n. The Walsh sequence gets
repeated every 52.083 µsec. It is equal to single coded data symbol. It can be said that " the data symbol is spread by 64
Walsh chips".
Tecb-Neo Puhlicatiooa.:-•H-H lf'here Authors inspire innon,tk,n ·-.A SAO/INSHAH Yeoture

[ ~ Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 8-15 CDMA (IS-95 A~
er Walsh Hadamard Transfonn
The Walsh matrix is also called as Hadamard matrix (H). The 64 by 64 Walsh function matrix is gener~d by a
m=ursn-e matrix.
The ID dimensional Walsh Hadamard transform can be
n-1
(N-1) l: b;(x)b1 (a)
H(u) = ~ L f(x)(-J)i=O
x=O
where N = 2° and u will take values between Oto N - 1
In 2D case the Walsh Hadamard transform will be,
n-1
(N-1) (N-1) l: [~(x)b;(u)+b;(y)b;(v)]
H (a• v) = ~ L L f (x, y)(- l)i = 0
x=O y=O
The Hadamard matrix is of lowest order.
H1 = 0
If~.. represents the matrix of order N then it can be denoted as H2N. It is given as,
HL-, = [ : : _H;N]
For N x N case, the matrices are related with each other by,
A = ~ HN where N = matrix order
Summarizing Walsh function or Hadamard matrix,

H1 =o·
H2 = [~ ~J
H4 -
[0000]
0 1 0 I
0 0 I 1
0 l 1 0
Each row in the matrix corresponds to a channel number 'n'. For channel number n, the symbols in the transmitter·are
spread by sixty four Walsh chips in the nth row of Walsh function matrix.
Channel number Ocorresponds to pilot channel and represents W0 and consists only quadrature PN spreading code.
Sync channel is assigned channel number 32.
If paging channels are present, they are assigned to the lowest code channel numbers.
The remaining channels are available for forward traffic channels.
Tedi-Neo Pobliations_ When! Autoors iospi~ OIJHmltioo .-A £4011/YSI/All Yeotore

8-16 CDMA (IS-95 A&B)
-zs.. 8.6.1(G) Quadrature Modulation I channel PN sequence
QUlldrnturc unit considers quadrature (Q channel) and in phase

(1 channel) rclatcd modulation. ----1 Baseband
finer
Output
A sim~le ~d &h~n binary PN sequence with n time period of 2"

- 1 ~hips as_applied fo~ acquisition nnd synchronization nt every
mobile rcccJvcr end. It 1s then us.cd for modulation process. Baseband Output
1-----1 ftlter
Such a shorter sprcniling bit sequence is called ns pilot PN
, ~uffl~. It is based on the following characteristic Q channel PN 88QU8noe
polynomials. f1g. 8.6.4 : Quadrature modulation
P1 (x) = xU +x ll +x+x+x+x+I
9 I 7 S
For in - phase (n modulation.

( ) = x U +x ll +x II +x 10 +x9 +x6 +xS +x4 +xl +I
Pox
For the qu3dr:Jturc (Q) modul:ltion

Dcprnding on the ch:u-xtC'ristk polynomials, t.hc pilot PN !-cquences i(n) :ind q(n) arc generated by following linear
recursions.
i(n) = i(n- 15) © i(n - 10) © i(n - 8) (l) i(n - 7) (D i(n - 6) ED i(n - 2)
o.nd q (n) = q(n - 15) (l) q(n - 13) © q(n - II ) (B q(n - I 0) © q(n - 9) 9 q(n - 5) 9 q(n - 4) © q(n - 3)
(D represents modulo 2 addition.
A •o• is inserted in each sequence after succcs~ive fourteen 'O's to generate pilot PN sequences of length 2 1s.
The initi:i.l state of both the I and Q pilot PN ~quenccs is defined as the state in which the output of pilot PN
sequence generator is fi rst · t • output following fifteen consecutive ·o· outputs.
The chip rates for PN sequence are 1.2288 Mcps.
Table 8.6.2 gives forward channel I and Q mapping.
Table 8.6.2 : ForwnnJ CDMA channel I und Q Mapplng .
I Q Phase
0 0 7t/4
I 0 37t/4
I I - 37t/4
0 I - 7t/4
:> 8.7 CDMA Reverse Channels
ua. 8.7.1 Sketch the block diagram of reverse IS-95 channel modulation process for a single user. Explain function of
each block. MU-Q.4b.Ma 11.10Marks
UO. 8.7.2 With a neat block diagram, explaln reverse CDMA channel. MU· a. 3(b. Ma 12. 5 Marks.
a. 2 b). Ma 13. 5 Marks, a. S(b • Ma 14. s Marks
UO. 8.7.3 Sketch the block diagram of reverse traffic channel of IS -95. Explain function of each block.
MU - a. 4 b. Ma 15. 10 Marks. a. 2 b). Ma 16. 10 Marks
Teclt-Ne. Publiailioaa- llae- Authon m.y,ire UUH1t11tioa -A SACBJNSll4B Yeature

FlJ. 8.7. 1 \J•o" ·i, the: rc\·c-n.c OMA ch11n ncl modulation.
.,.,...
L-, I Z'IIII ~
....-- Plld-ci
.........
.....
C...
~"""
t d e"\11!1
_. o,..,.
"!"ft'"' M«y
... W,ool... _ _ _., 091a
fk,raJ
.... !lo
.............
..... , . v,
.......... • mrlt ht W AW\
tJ-,/fl
..,.....,,_,
)-"111. M.7, I : Hr, rf'C' durnnd modulutlQ11 procr"',
n-.c ~UCnt'C' t1f l J'<TJ U n, r:unrd :1, thr 11:!111 1, 11.t11'rt111tn l 1>11 th<"' rr,n~c ch.urncl Jf1: co11volu11ona.l c:ncoding, blllt'k;
1111rr k:1, 111f• .1ppl ~tn • M - :ti') v 11h1' f 1\11:t l 11"11\J11lnt11'1t :tt1t-l •p1r :id 111 i: 1-c fo rr 11.tllHlll) 1011
P•nrntlrr l),jtJ r.i lt- Khp,

.,- ...
l 1 -.('I ih1.1 r:1lt' 9 (1 .j •
I I :!
Co.Jc: r -1tc: w lfJ 1/J 1/3
r, d ut~ cyd r (~ I I 0
, 12 5
Ct,.kd d:11-1 r Jlc ( K r, '.! ' X 2 ..♦ S ').
- ' :! '
81b J'CI \\':il~I ) rnbol l) 6 b C,
W:J I yrnl I rJ lt' -18 ' .j ' .J ' ' .1:

\' :1hh ,yrntxil dur:11w 11 (µ\l w J.1 ZO.'< -' JJ ~o:s J J
PN dllfl'I / w dr ') rnbol ·12 67
"
-12 o7 -1 2 67 .J2.o7
PN clnp, / W:il.J1 ~y111bol 256 256 _5(, .!56
W,11.Jl dup r -1l r ( Kcp,) 07.2 307.2 307.2 307.2
P1' cluJ"' / W1.1 l, li cl11p .i ., ., .j
P, chip r:ilc (Mcp,) 1.2288 1._288 1.21, 1.12 8

Titc rc,·c:n..c COMA chunncl, con,i,1of two type, of r h:11111ch :
2. Rcvcn.c Lmffic ch:tnnch (RTC,).
Both lhc channel~ hn\'c the ~umc: rn::quc:ncy ns,ignmcnt. ·me channel can be identified by a user long code.
TCTI.-Sro Puhlirati11n.•- - lnrrr Authr!I', iny1irr im,.,,11tion _ , S.IOIIJVSIUH Yr,m,rt
Scanned with CarnScanner

~ Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7•E&TC)
..,...: B-18 COMA (IS-95 A&Bl
Ac~ channel (AC) initiates the comm • . . · • • -
. used by the mobile d unication with the base station and responds to the paging channel messages. It
15 an Operates at a fixed data · 32
ACS for a paging channel. rate of 4.8 Kbps. A reverse CDMA channel can compnse upto
Reverse traffic channel (RTC) is intend .

. ble t ed for having reverse traffic to carry signals in these channels. It operates a1 a
vana rae.
"- s.1.1 Convolutlonai Encoder and Symbol Repetition Unit

The convolutional encoder has a rate 0 r l/3 dG
and constraint length Ck.= 9). It uses three generator vectors Go, G, an 2
that have values 557 (octal), 663 (octal) and 771 (octal).
!s
Initially ~e signal convolutionally encoded and then symbol repetition take place. The repetition is done before the
interleaving operation when the data rate is less than 9.6 Kbps. After repetition the output symbol rate of coder block is
kept fixed at 28.8 Kbps.
It is followed by interleaving operation.

Having characteristic polynomials P1(x) and pQ(x), the pilot pseudo noi~ (PN) sequences l(n) and Q(n) can be
produced by linear recursion operations.
A modulo - 2 addition is applied in determining l(n) and Q(n) sequences. The rate of PN sequences is 1.2288
Mchips/sec.
a 8.7.2 Block Interleaver

'
The block interleaving is done in reverse CDMA channel. This process follows the encoding and repetition operations.
The time span of the block interleaver is 20 msec and it is an array comprising 32 x 18 matrix with 32 rows and 18
columns.
_ . In this matrix the code symbols are being written by columns and they are read out by the matrix rows respectively.
a 8.7.3 Orthogonal Modulation

64 ary orthogonal modulation is used for the reverse CDMA channel. For each group of s\x coded bits a Walsh
function is transmitted. In the Walsh function totally 64 Walsh chips are sent.
The Walsh function number can be chosen by applying a formula that relates the six coded bits. It is given as,
Walsh function number =- C0 + 2C1 + 4(; + 8<; + l 6C4 + 32C5
where, Co, C,, <;, C3, C4, C 5 : 6 coded bits.
First coded bit Second coded bit
Third coded bit Fourth coded bit
Fifth coded bit Sixth or last coded bit
28.8 Kbps x 64 Walsh chips
Walsh chip transmission rate = 6 coded bits
Walsh chip transmission rate = 307.2 Kbps ... (8.7.l)

,· '
;.)J..~:~~·t~"tt?;;2~{f;4-:,4~;1~;~f~~~:~(
"-"i:§'f ~V'ttJ~,?hf·/ ....?:(•~: r., \~~~.: j:~: <: ;:..; · ~
1 - _. . l !-f
1
--<• •
:channels.i!ui'Waisti:Jun . . ; re apj:!lied fo~ tll , . . ofdata)Tlodtilatio
'.,• •' •• . I .• • •
:..~~x . .
Tedi-Nto Pul,limioru-..-- rniert AulbfJrs inspire ionoration ,._A SACHINSIWI Yen,~

Vnrlablo Dntn Rnto Trnn1ml11fon
-.
UQ. ..,... How fa Vlrtable data nllo tm111Mnl111of1 OMOIn filVllflfJ COMA flhllnfltl 1
,., In valfable dlata t• la tranamlNlof1ltl COMA.
In lhc rc\'cnc CDMA chn1111cl~ dllfr r~nf J 11111 rnrc, 11111 bclnfJ 110111ml11cd.
•bli■luidiiii◄Yi¢Qta.
f,111 · fJ 1/11/ f,l11·1 I r ,, 1., .,, .
Whenever the t.lnru 01 10 Is uppn).xiruarcly nhour 'J.(, Kbp\ rhc Jnrcdcavcr outpul hlL, will be 11.m o nltled. 'lllli!;n !1'-t. d~
rnto Is less lhnn 9.ti Kbps, the code i,yrnhnl rcpc1l1in11 proccl.\ wlll produce rcdunil1111cy.
When the ll nln rnrc ls if.R Kbp.~. only luilr of rhc ln1crlc11vcr ourpur hlrs nrc 1rn11srrrl11cd.
The proccs.s thur Invo lves vurious 11nm mies is 11hown in Flg. R.7.2. for rcvcrlie COMA clrunncl.
102 blto i:: 570 oodo uym bolo

20 mn =: 90 W11lat1 aymbolu =
10 Powor Control Group
I 2 bile = 30 ood o :,ymbolo er
- I
I
I
I
I
~ I .25 mn =:6 Wnltll ,,ymholn ::i I
I
, I Powor Control Group I
0000 bpo
Pmvlouo Fmmo lmmo
11 12 13 14 15 , I 2 3 4 5 0 7 6 9 10 11 12 13 14 15,
I I
I
) Codo Symbols Transmlllod I
I I
I I
I I
I I 4600 bpo
Provloua Fmmo lramo
11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 :
I
Codo Symbols Tronsm lltod I
I
I
I
I
I
2400 bps
Provlous Fromo framo
11 12 13 14 15 0 I 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 131415
1 I
I I
I Coda Symbols T ransmitted I
I I
I I
I
I
I
I
I
I 1200 bps
fram e
11 12 13 14 15
''
''
''
'' Sample masking streams shown
'' aro tor the 14-blt PN sequence
PN bits used',, (b0,b 1, ......... ,b 1:i) = 0 0 101 101 IO O 100
for scmmbllng ',
l ':
bbb
111
I23
PCG 14 PCG 15
Fig. 8.7.2: Reverse cJumncl vurluble d11lJl rate tnuumd.-.slon exurnplc

-' .1t'Jr.Jll1'1.W.IH ~

~ Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) COMA (IS-95. ME!}
-- 8-20
In this example, data is sent for every 20 m.~ frame duration. It is s~bdividcd inlO 16 power control group,. Each
power control group is of period t .25 ms.
The power control group can be gated on or gated off depending on the transmission requirement. Generally every
repeated code symbol has to be transmitted only once.
The mobile st~tion will reduce the EIRP by 20 dB with respect to the power of the current gate on period or with
respect to the transmitter noise floor, whichever is greater. This can lead to reduction in interfcrcncc to other mobile
stations that are operating on the same reverse CDMA channel.
Data Burst Randomizer unit is used to produce a masking pattern that consists O's and I's that will mask the redu ndant
data in random generated code repetition procedure.
A block of 14 bits taken from the long code will decide the masking pattern. Last 14 bits of long code arc used for
spreading in the second to last power control group of previous frame are used to determine the random mask for
gating.
The 14 bits are representated as,
b13 b 12 b 11 b10 b9 b8 b7 b6 b5 b4 b3 b2 b1 b0
where, b13 latest bit
bo first bit
The data randomizer algorithm is as follows :

(i) Jfthe user data rate is 9.6 Kbps, then transmission occurs on all sixteen power control groups.
(ii) If the user data rate is 4.8 Kbps, then transmission occurs on eight power control groups. It is given as,
bo, 2+ b1,4 + bz, 6 +b3, 8 + b4, 10+ b5, 12 + b6, 14+ b7
(iii) If the user data rate is 2.4 Kbps, then transmis~ion occurs on four power control groups numbered.
(a) b0 if b8 = 0 or 2 + b1 if b8 = 1
(b) 4 + b2 if b9 = 0 or 6 + b3 if b9 = 1
(c) 8+b4 ifb 10 = 0 or 10 + b5 if b 10 = I
(d)· 12 + b6 ifb 11 = Oor14+b7 ifb 11 =1
(iv) . If the user data rate is 1.2 Kbps, then transmission occurs on two power control groups numbered.
(a) b0 if(b8 =0 and b12 = 0) or2+ b1 if(b8 = 1 and b12 =0)
or 4 + b2 if (b9 = 0 and b12 = 1) or 6 + b3 if (b9 = 1 and b 12 = 1)
(b) 8 + b4 if(b 10 =0 and b13 =O)or 10+ b5 if(b 10 =1 and b13 =0),
orl2 + b6 if (b 11 = 0 and b13 = 1) or 14+ b7 if(b 11 = I and b13 = 1)
'5. 8.7.5 Direct Sequence Spreading
In IS • 95 standard the reverse CDMA channel is spread by long code pseudo noise (PN) sequence. lt operates at a rate
of 1.2288 Mchips/sec.
The long code mask format discussed earlier for generation of long codes is applied and long codes are obtained.
Tedi-Nee Publications'"_ _ J1!kre Author, inspire ianoration •.--4 SACRINSll,4/1 Yemure

l!iw:h W11l11h hip I~ Hflr<'n,I hy 11~1 1111 f11ur h11111 co,lc 11M"111lo nol.e dilr>~.
'll1b pn-.rc,~• I~ followr,I hy 1i11n1lrn111rr 1111)tl11lnlhlll.
'ts. 8.7.8 Qundmtura Modufntlon
llcforc lr,m•ml••lon of •lw111I In IS • 95 rcvcnc COMA cluinncl tJic 1r11ffic chamicl ls ,prc.w by lnphue and qu.liJutiuc
rl1n11nd• pllot r•N ll<'(jllrllrrs.
TI1cr.c rN M'1111rn1.·rs uro •lmllnr 10 rhe Ml<Jucrices applied In 1he forwnn:l CDMA channel procedures. TiliC P'JTJ>Of,c ,A
pilot M'<j11r11cc11 Is 10 pmvldo 11y11chmnl1.111lon.
TI1e lypc of 111od11io1lo11 In rcvcn.c CDMA chnnncl I~ offsci quadrnlUrc pha..c shift keying (OQPSK). A delay of 406.9
ns Is lntrocluccd in tlnln ~prend hy qundru1ure (Q) pilol pseudo noi~ sequence corresponding lo inph45C (I) pilot PN
M'tflll'nCC,
Dclnyli ure lnrroduccd for Improving 11yr1chronlza1ion and spectral shape.
INace , A variAb~ rate 1pc.cdl coder (QCELP) Ls used in the IS - 9S standard. J

~ 8.8 Packet and Frame Format
In rule i.el I lhe forwunJ lrnflic channel curric.~dal:I 111 1200, 2400, 4800 or 9600 bps and in rate sci 2 the forward traffic
channel cnrrles data al J 800, 3600, 7200 or J 44<XJ hps.
Tiie frume durarion of o frame is forwnrd traffic channel is 20 m~.
'J'uhle H.8.1 : Forwurd frame clrnnncl frume contents
Rute set l
Dalu nate lntormatJon bits Tall bits CRC bits
1200 bps 16 8 0
I
2400 bps 40 8 0
4800 hp.~ 80 8 8
l 9600 bps 1
172 8 12
Rate set 2
Data rate lnforma1Jon bUs TaJl and reserved bits CRC bits
1800 bp.~ 21 9 6
3600 bp~ 55 9 8
7200 hps 125 9 10
14400 bps 267 9 12
The .data about lhe system idcnrificarion (SID), PN !,CCJUence offset, PN long code state, Network ID (NID) etc are
provided by the sync channel.
Pig. 8·8•1 wows tJJC framing In JS-95 forwllfd channels,

Three 11ync channel frames compm.c
• uync channel 11upcrfra111e made up of 96 hits.
Zeros arc padded to sw;ure lh'a1every n1e111111ge begin,;
, in a new superframe.
- - - - -- - -- -

~ IYKJU11" ...,,,.,.., ... ~, ..,.,,., \mu-~a111.1•t:0tll..iJ 8-22
-:' The paging channel has the subscribers temporary mobile subscriber identity, parameters and lists of nearby base
stations.
raging can be slotted or unslottcd.
SCI (Synctuonizatiou Capsule Indicator) is similar to SOM bit (Start Of Message) bit. Message can begin anywhere. A
paging half framc is of 1Oms. A zero SCI shows that the paging message is over and wait for the 0ther half of lhe
frame, 8 frames are combined of paging frame of so ms.
The frame length of access channel is 96 bits with a duration of 20 ms.
The reverse channel comprises of 20 ms traffic channel frames similar to the forward traffic channel.
Paging message _'f "j

..,,, ·1
Superframe Sync channel Paging chamel bit

9\lperframe
I
I
I
I
I
l
I
SOM SOM SOM

Start of Start of Slart of
message
Data
mess&ge
Data
message
Data SCI Frame~ ... 1
32blls 10 ms
I• •I 96 bits
(a) Sync channel framing (b) Paging channel framing

Fig. 8.8.1 : IS-95 forward channel framing
~ a.9 Mobility and Radio Resource Management
IS-95 uses spread spectrum technology. This makes the standard a bit complex.
a. 8.9.1 Rake Receiver
UQ. U.t Wnte-Sbod note on Rake receiver.

MU. a. 7(b). May 11. 5 Marks. a. 7(a). Dec. 11. 5 Marks. a. 7(a). May 14. 1O Marks t
,.,.,. r ~ " ~ A 1
~ ,_,.;:1;; ~;:c... c-•..--,,.1/ ~d.-'l ) ~..~~~~i '
a. 7(c). May 15. 5 Marks. a. 6(c). May 17. 10 Marks. a. 6(b). Dec. 17. 10 Marks i
I .
• ·- •• ➔ ... -" ·~-"' .:-~~~.,,,.......~,c.•,·"'.f-t"",t.'N..,.{-;,'~-...... ,.J· ~~..
· ElcplaJn RAKE'Receiver in CDMA system. ·-· ~ - ,
•. .._ • • •, ., • ' • .... ••."' :• • ,- ~ ~~ -vav.,.,
":,.-':'? W~.-:~ ,..~..,.,o/.lf'~ 1fi'..,,;y/,.~,.... ~; •.
. Wilhsuitabfe'ctiagiam eiq,tain role-at Rake · ;

'\ ,: • ... • .. • • • - ; ~ .,.i'Cc.:~........~'':;'I(• ~~ ........... .. ~--~~-•~..(..,.,.:,~~*~:-t
~ ~ In detall working of RAKE ., . '
.... ,, _\ ~ · ~ . ' • • • ~ ~ '"' .- '
I •MWilHMft\l
',"'...{l<"'l-~itJ'~~3/&\__.::.~..f'~,
-~prioclpleot~recei¥er~~-- }· "
··,-~ .. -- .............,-- ...... .,, . ,..,,..._.:,_.....
WhaflsRakeAecelver,? · .• -::- .: ' ·
·--~ ~·~ {~ ~ ..\-::.<•.Y·\:_. .,, . ~
. ·-•nWt _-. : ; ;~,j ~.,:, ~- ..::l,, ~-~
-4-SAa/JNSllMI Yentr--

Ii] MObllo Comm. Sl"•m (MU·Som.7-E&TC) 0·23 COW. (l!Ht ~
In CDMA liystcm, the mulllpnlh lnlcrforenco It rctlumJ by combining direct nrl<l rerlcclCAI slgnal., In a rc.celvcr.
or
In 1958 J>rico nnd 01\"rn pmposcd n 111c1hod rcM>lvlns 111ul1lp111h prohlc111 In CrJMt\. ·nl<l rime shifted veulon (J( '""
snme sign:il nppc:u~ liken noi:1e nnd Iii nlrnost uncorrdntcd In Cl)MA.
A liignnl th:\l prop:tgntcs from rho trnnsmittcr to the receiver cnn be rc-.olved Into ~p:irately focflng slgnnh by cr0\1,.
C01TClnting the received signnl with multiple timo shifted version of the 11111110 hC<IUencc:.
In the received signals with maximum power are time shifted and added. The hlock dlugram of th1 ' mcr hod look like a
garden rake nnd is called as a RAKE Receiver.
The CDMA receivers can combine all tho delayed versions of the transmitted signal nnd provide better tlgn~l lo noi"
ratio at the destination side.
By using a specific correlation receiver unit the RAKE receiver collects all the delay versions I shifted veniom of ~.e
original signal.
Each and every correlator unit is capable of searching a particular range of Lime delays. fl is called u M~
window". Fig. 8.9.1 shows a RAKE receiver.
Correlator
1
Input
signal Correlator
Adder
with 2
multlpath
Integrator Threshold
comparator
Correlator <Xrri
N
Fig. 8.9.1 : RAKE Receiver
The RAKE receiver is also called as "diversity receiver". It is designed particularly for CDMA technique. The
diversity of the signals is achieved by using the uncorrelated multipath components with another whenever the rclatht
propagation delay values are greater than the chip time period.
Hence, the 'RAKE Receiver' mainly uses multiple correlations for signal reception in mobile communication.
In this example 'N' number of correlators are used to detect N strongest multipath components. For obtaining 111
accurate estimate of the transmitted signal as a whole rather than single component. the multipath components arc
weighted after 'N' correlator units.
Depending on the output signal values the detection and bit decisions are done. A weighting network provides a linear
combination of outputs from correlator for bit detection.
Correlator 1 is synchronized to the strongest multipath n1• Multipath component n2 arrives t 1 later than component Di
where ti - t 1 is assumed to be greater than a chip duration.
The correlator 2 is synchronized to strongest multipath n2• It has low correlation with n1•
It should be noted that if a single correlator is used in the receiver, then once the correlator output is conupted by
fading Lhe receiver cannot correct it Thus, if bit decisions are done with respect Lo single correlator then the probability
of bit error rate is higher. ....
Tedi-Neo Puhliaitione ....",_" Where Autl,on in.pirt innor1tion _,4 S.4allNSHm J'tlrhl't

~ Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.l-E&TC) --
-- 8-24 CDMA (IS-95 A&B)
_ 1be decisions that arc based on the comb· . . ·d
f di • th · ination of N separate decision statistics offered by the RAKE receiver provi e
a form o vers1ty at can oven:omc fading and . th .
improve c CDMA reception.
A5Sume that the outputs of N corrclato Th
- . • rs are A,. A2, A3, ••••• As. They arc weighted by cx1, Cli, CI:i, cx,....a.. e
we1ghung components arc based on th · , • -~•1 l'.
. . c power or the SNR from each correlator output. If the SNR power 1s SuMU er ,or
a particular correlator then us weighting fact . al
or w1 11 so be a smaller value.
_ Toe general overall signal can be ~prcscntated as A'. 1t 1s. .
given by,
N
A' = L a.~
n=l
where, a. weighting coeffitct~nts

· that arc normalized to the output signal power of correlator such that the
coefficients sum to unity.
Al
a. N
L A1•
n=l
- There arc many methods to generate the weighting coefficients. However, because of mulLiple access interference,
RAKE fingers with strong multipath may not provide strong output after correlation.
For having a bett.cr performance to produ~ efficient signal reception. the selection of weighting coefficients that is
based on the ourput values of com:lator is an important criteria in the ~RAKE" receivers.
£9.. 8.9.2 Soft Handoff
Write short note on Handoff proc1!dure. MU - a. 7(c). May 11 . 5 Marks

Explain mobile assisted soft handoff procedures In a CDMA based secular system.
MU - a. 1(b). Dec. 11 . 5 Marks
UQ. U.10 What is soft handoff ? MU - a. 1(c . Dec. 16. 5 Marks
- With CDMA all the frequency bands can be used in all cells. In CDMA an RF channel uses earner of 1.2288 Mcps
with QPSK modulation.
- The bandwidth of channel is 1.25 MHz. Because of this system capacity is increased many fold.
- In CDMA the spread spectrum method used frequency diversity is useful in mobile environment with multipath fading.
The CDMA system uses complete 1.25 MHz bandwidth for voice transmission.
- As the frequency is not changing when mobile is crossing the cell, handoff is not required. Instead the CDMA system
uses soft-handofl'.
- In soft handoff mobile communicates with two cells simultaneously instead of switching from one cell to the other.
- This gives space diversity of antennas. It avoids dropping of calls. Fig. 8.9.2 (a) and (b) shows hard handoff and soft -
handoff.
(a) Hard handoff

(b) Soft handoff
-4 SAaJINSIM/I l'et11ure-

CDMA (IS-95 A&8)
8-25 :z..
T\me-1 Tlme-3
Tlme ·2
Short blanking tones as mobile moves to cell

(a) Hard bandolT
Time -1 Time -2 Time -3
Mobile communicates "'llh t"·o base stations slmultanoously, hence no data is lost
(b) Son baodolT
Fig. 8.9.2 : CDMA hard and soft bandoff
The only disadvantage of soft handoff is increased load

in the switching station.
In CDMA system soft handoff results from the system's
capability to dcli,·cr signals to a mobile through more
than one cell. Thus, the handoff sequence deals with the -5Cl
C
transition from the donor cell to both the donor and the ~Ill
receiving cell and finally to the receiving cell. This
make • before • break process reduces the probability
of dropped calls during handoff.
distance
Fig. 8.9.3 shows the soft handoff process in the CDMA
system. Fig. 8.9.3 : Son handoff process ln the CD!\{A system
The handoff is mobile assisted. The mobile with call in progress continues to observe the signal strength from the
neighbouring cells. Handoff is initiated if the signal from a cell is comparable to that of the original cell. Handoff is
initiated by sending control message to the MSC.
The MSC responds by establishing a link to the mobile station through the new cell while maintaining the old link.
lf the Mobile Station (MS) is located in the transition region between two successive cells, the call can be supported by
signals through both cells. It eliminates the border cell problems of back and forth hand-off between the two cells.
The original cell with hand-off the call only when the mobile station has been established in the new cell.
a 8.9.3 Power Control In CDMA
UQ. 8.9.11 Oesai>e open loop and closed loop system of power control in a CDMA system.
MU - a. 4(b). Dec. 11. 10 Marks. a. 5(a). May 14. 10 Marks. a. 4(a). May 15. 10 Marks
UQ. U.12 Explain coucept and Importance of power control in CDMA.
-A SAC/ON SHAH J'eat~

In 1h( (l)MA • ·•ten, lhc tt'I! tiilr In t-•■w 1,1.111 n 1,, \ u , Ayo .,, ~.. ,..~ ,,., ,.,~. t 1 ttli'I\. 4,,,.,.,;,•,M ,f ,.,
("OfU,it1cft'J '""I lhl' n,,:-t~llc llldlon h cll"III( l~i(: t,,11( I • ' .-,1 ,111 a ' ".."' r~ •jt◄ ...,ti\, - ll'tl' ~.,;... ~ ... -
rTn \T,J frn m thr haliC',
H all the ~ t-1lc •1:Jll n, t111.m.rtt11 t.m1e rc:,•-n. r .c n ar lo i.~ .wt,~ lot Ill ttc <&.1,1t ,uc,'," ,.,!l "" ,,, ••L""N ,.,.,,.,,
1hc m.~,~ 1h01 NT f11,1 11•·11y fr,n,n the t..1111C '-LAl1Yif\
H('11('(', (, r • Cl>MA •)''1cm lo l"'('Crul.c cfli K"tll.l)', !he R F ~ rttdt to t-.c c~ "f
1nc ro•o rontrol h11~ I "''O n:qu,rcnw:nh :

{I) 1nc pown l"t"Cdvcd Ill lhc baw: ua!ton from the mobix oniu rTIJU N • l1ll.n I drt "'C' ""'.Jrr ems!!•- ,.; 1
mul1ipuU1 fad ing,
(ii) To nu,.imiu the number of ui.cn ..twing a ~11. only rrururTJJm Rf ro•ct rcqu1tt:J ( ~11..,.blic u 1cr,~,ut. _.,.
mui.t he allowed from the ba-.c: ..~ on t.n.n~rrutla'.
To b.Uli~fy the lin.t requirement CDMA 1,yi.~m\ UP< open loop and c~J loop cootrol
As the mobile turn~ it fir t mcu,u,e~ the power rccdvcd from the~ t~tion anJ then ,cl\ tr.unrruti.rr f"",..c, •-"or--_Jn,
c.qual lo~M'.~ on the rcvcn.c ch:umcl. II i~ c:illcd llS Opt"D loop ronlrol h h wed to «iuntct the cffC'\."t " ' ,. i..k J1r-~
r.u,f c of palll lo>> 1l1at i) of the order of 80 dB.
TI1e tnn)mitted :ind reccivi:d pov.cr nrt :
transmitted pov.·cr in dBm
rcuivcd poVo<cr in dBm
Jn open loop power ontml 1Jic mobile t'~ nw1.e s the p.:itl1 lo by me3.ruring the re-ain~J ,ig,uj k\tl.
If the mobile Joell not 1l"Ce-h•<" !lf1 ~nov. lC'<lgcnx-nt fiom the~ ~jon_ it iOl.-re.nc:~ ttic P.:,"-Cf. The upcn ~>,p pe1Wc1
sc-uing is iocrc~J C\C I)' 1.2:'i ms. It is aJlrd a clost-d loop po" tt ronlrol
1lle closed loop powcr ntrol nlt':burrs the S~R :it lhc «II )itc rccc1\cr ll.lld b-J.icJ on a p r ~ ~ui.,_u_
ini;tJ\!Cts tl1e n hik 10 ndJU)t it tnuhrnit p.,-. a .
If the rec_c_i,cJ SNR IS 100 high 111.k,~r(":t-.C p ,) ~('1 roJWru.0J h lCOl LO t},c IDJbik n..r •Cf evwul n,
cvrry 1.25 nu pnwiJing w1 ) tv roucr rontrol Ric. Moblk rt". ;Js liJ lb: f'J'"'t't mctrvl b
il.dju).fjJit:JtL> of 2.0 dB io tht RF ('0\1 t'I outpUI ull the rctthai S.NR <>1 ~u Y!.e L~ .,. l1hin th: &,xpuhlc l!.:co.
To med tl~ ~nd pov. er nu-ol rrquirrIDCJll the ~se ~ ~ . . ! ) J)· l.o'tltcn 11> ~ 1:::a tio<t ,., ~~ )!.: .- c.r
the rc!ip()nding 11 1bik bign!tls the h s.c Mati fl for rroic -.~,. lt,c re,: i~c:,Jn i J;ill) di.:>oe f.,y u .. h ti I.!.:' t '-l\
chim_r\th on the fort11111\1 linL
TIie optimum power rontrol 11.ho rnlut n d.r.Linini; of ~:incry in ux n: k- eo:.n
a 8.9.4 Performance of the CDMA System
·n.e Plll1lf1C lcl th111 dclunlint' the pcffOIJIW\C't of I CDM A ilii1W ,-cu~ \)~CW QI_'(
(i) Procc,sing tltin (ni1io of bprr nding cod~ to infvmu1io111hu, s.ir ; )

[iJ ~'oollo ~""'· S tom MU•!lnm.7•1: &lC
(Iii) Rntlo ,,r C'n<'rtt>• l'<'r hit 11111,,1,r I~"',., (~J

(M ll'l\'\llK'I\\')' l't'U1-C' tllklc-rl\')'
(\') N11mt'("r ,,r M'\' t,,~ In lhl' ('<'11 -~ltr n111rnllll.
The \' :l(\'¾' hy ,,r n COM,\ ll)'~IC'III 1,.
(\\1/R) v S
N
r • (EJN0) F
Ca(\1City in tC'ml~ of numhcr of cnlls / 1.25 MIiz channel cell.
· rate (9.6 kbps)
rntio of spreading code ( J .2288 Mcp5) to maximum infonnntion
\' Voice ncli\'ity gain (approximn1cly 2)
s !-<'Ctors per cell
~ minimum ratio of bit energy to noise power (6 dB or factor of 4)

N.,
r frequency reuse rfficicncy foctor (approximately 32)

llt"n..'<", lh<' theoretical capnci1y of CDMA channel is of the order of 128 calls per 1.25 MIiz channel per cell. 11le
dTC"Cts of thcm,:1I noi. c arc ncglcctc:d.
·
Pr:ict1cally the CDMA syslcm~ are operated at maximum · . · 1oad'mg sueh thnt about half the receiver noix is
capacity
irom mutual interference and olhc:r is thermal noise that reduces the system capacity to half.
~ 8.1 O Advantages of CDMA
The CDMA systems have sever.ti :tdvanl:lges over the 2G GSM systems and other 2G systems. They are :
(I) uipuclty : One main advanl:lge of CDMA is its capacity. CDMA can accommodate more users per MHz of
band\\idth th:sn any other systc:m of some generation. It hns 4 to 5 times capacity than capacity of GSM.
til) Quality dt>J?rndntlon : CDMA cnll quality is better with more consistent sound compared to GSM. The handoff
fc:uure reduces ,nil dropping and has le s interference.
(ill) Conrage: CDMA gives better coverage and needs few antenna sites and consumes less power.
(h') Frequency : CDMA uses one frequency per cell compared with maximum possible frequencies in TOMA Hence. the
frequency reuse pl:ln is easier to nunngc.
(l-) MultJp3th chnrncterlstlrs : When the rndio ignnl i Iran mjned to a receiver. it can take direct route or it cnn tlke
reOccted path. It leads to multipath effect cau. ing interference. CDMA has a better multipath perform:mce than GSM.
(\i) Stturity : CDMA channel is not easily decodable. In order to decode a call if need a spread s~ctrum rr«iv~r and
decoding al o. Hence, it offers incrca~cd cellular communications security.
(rtl) Prh-acy features : Incrensed privacy i inhc-rcnt in the CDMA technology. The CDMA phone calls will be s«ure
from the casual eavesdropper. In analog conversation u si mple radio-n:cciver will not be ublc to pick indi,·iduru
digital conversations out of the overall Rf- radiation in a frequency band. The GSM systems have to add on e~tna
stage of signal to ensure privacy, whereas encryption is inherent to the CDMA system.
Ttth-~ Publirationt _ lfhrrr .-4uthorJ in.,pirr 1i11H11atio11

·-' JIOL/,VSJWI lrnhff

[§] Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC)
8-28 CDMA (IS-95 A&B)
... ; ) I n ~ efficiency as it can serve more users.

(iJ) 1,ow power requirements.
SDJaller phones.
!) s.11 Disadvantages of CDMA
(i) CDMA is relatively new. The network is not as mature as the GSM.
(ii) CDMA cannot offer international roaming, a large GSM advantage.
(iii) The CDMA system perfo~nce degrades with increase in the number of users.
!) a.1·2 Difference between CDMA and GSM
-Sr. Parameter -. -
GSM -.• •s. --·><·~,
~
• "1 "M.. ,.::~t 1~9S1@m
. • ·-..1.~-.. 4
, ,
•
I , ,, ,
t
•-.r:'"' ' ~-: _.t-. !- .... ' -~- t'., . .,_...

....,_
.. .:;•'-~x
••••
1
• -.;~tr ,,.'K:
··.~-.\~"·
. , ~
.,. -; ' "~(~
•'•
0
• ·,-\· \ },.._
'
No, ~
Frequency
. . • , : . ·::; '!-. .." .' •J';:: '.:.~i~---/-;. ·4t ~~"'(--...-;F;~;::{~:. :__ :', i
I. 900 MHz, 1800 MHz (PCS 180), 1900 MHz (PCS 800 MHz, 1900 MHz.
1900).
2. Channel bandwidth Total 25 MHz bandwidth with 200 KHz per Total 12 MHz . with
channels, 8 time slots per channel with frequency 1.25 MHz for the spread
hopping. spectrum.
3. Full-rate digitally code 13 kbps. 8 kbps or 13 kbps.
speech
4. Data bit rate 9.6 kbps and expandable. 9.6 kbps.
5. SIM card Yes. No.
6. Short message service 160 characters of text support. 120 characters
7. Carrier (channel) spacing 200 KHz 1.25MHz
8. Time slots (TS) is a frame 8TS 64TS
full rate
9. Time slots (TS) is a frame 16TS 128TS
half rate
JO. Downlink freq uency 935-960MHz 869-894 MHz
(Base station to mobile
~
subscriber)
11. Uplink frequency 890-915 MHZ 824-849 MHz
(Mobile subscriber to
base station) -
,,
12. Frequency separation 45MHz 45MHz
~ 13. Radio interface TDMA CDMA
14. Handoff Hard handover Soft handoff
15. Modulation method GMSK QPSK/BPSK
16. Mulljpath characteristics Causes interference and destruction to service Is used as an advantage.
17. System capacity Fixed and limited Flexible and higher than GSM.
18. Economy Expensive Due to many technological
advantages, dimension of
investment per subscriber is
expected to be lower than
, GSM.
Tecb-Nco Puhlicatiom_ lF/,ere Authors inspire iooontioo .....A SACHJNSll4/I Ymluri:

,
~ Moblle Comm. S tem MU-Sem.7-E&TC 8-29
CDMA 18-95 A&e
....
:> 8.13 University Questions ....
II. Dec. 2010
a. 2(a) Elaborate on forward W-CDMA channel. (Ans. : Refer sections 8.5.1 8nd 8·6) (10 Markt)
86 (10 Markt)
a. S(a) How Is power control applied In forward CDMA channel 7 (Ans. : Refer section · · 1(£))
a. 7(a) How Is variable data rate transmission done In reverse CDMA channel 7
(10 Marka)
11
• May 2011
a. 4(b) Sketch the block diagram of reverse IS-95 channel modulation process for a slngle user. Explain function
1
of each block. (Ans. : Refer section 8. 7) ( OMarka)
(5 Marka)
a. 7(b) Write short note on Rake receiver. (Ans. : Refer section 8.9.1)
Q . 7(c) Write short note on Handoff procedure. (Ans. : Refer section 8.9.2)
(5 Marks)
11
-t Dec. 2011
a. 1(b) Explain mobile assisted soft handoff procedures In a CDMA based secular system.
(Ans. : Refer section 8.9.2) (5 Marks)
Q. 3(b) Explain the frequency and channel specification of IS-95. (Ans. : Refer sections 8.4 and 8.5) (1 OMarks)
Q. 4(b) Describe open loop and closed loop system of power control in a CDMA system.
Q. 7(a) Write short note on Rake Receiver. (Ans.: Refer section 8.9.1) (5 Marks)
1
• • May 2012
Q, 1(d) Explain RAKE Receiver in CDMA system. (Ans. : Refer section 8.9.1) (5 Marks)
a. 3(b) With a neat block diagram, explain reverse CDMA channel. (Ans. : Refer sections 8.5.2 and 8.7)(10 Marks)·
Q. 5(a) How .is power control applied in forward CDMA channel ? (Ans. : Refer section 8. 6.1 (E)) (10 Marks)
nit Dec. 2012
.Q. 1(a) Explain features of CDMA. (Ans. : Refer section 8.2) (5 .Marks)
-0. 6(a) With a neat diagram, explain forward CDMA channel.(Ans. : Refer sections 8.5:1 and 8.6) (10 Marki)
,,_ May2013
a. 1(d) Explain variable data rate transmission In CDMA. (Ans. : Refer section 8.7.4) (5 Marks)
Q, 2(b) With neat diagram, explain reverse CDMA channe_
l. (Ans. : Refer sections 8.5.2 and 8.7) (10 Marks)
Tech-Neo Publiattion,__ &reAud,on impire innoration .-A SAOIINg/A/1 Ye111rn

---- -----
COUACIS-G'5A&Bl
.....
.,. o-c-2013
o. ,t(a) Wlltl iu,o.ei. tflagram •~?Ian role cl R a b ~- (Ans. : Refer s«:!ion 8.9. 1) (10 U-U)
0. S(b) ~ tr9Ql#le)' and ctwnoJ ~ca:a, d lS-95. (Ans. : R6fot sodO'lS a., and 8.5) (tOl&arb)
• tuy2014
o. e,(tJ ~ ope,, loop ~ oloM klop 1Y-1em cl powc,, C0n!rol n CDMA.

(4ru · ntA« s.«:JOfl !.9..3J (10 llarb)
Q . !,(b) Wl'.h f'lfl&1 ~ill!n e,:ptari ~ COMA c:t\o:Winat (""1 : RitlM uct,on 8.7} (10 Matb)
o.7t•) ncto on : RAKE r~tvor, (Arlt : n~,o1 ~..on a 9. 1) (10 Uarb)
(10 Martt•)
~cJRAKC~ (Alu • Rc,J6,/o,c,('t01!9 I ) (10 Me,b)
(10 Marb)
0. 4{!1) e,
'"'~ ,.~~~, (10 Wanca)
tr~" d\3f'nd ct I'S~ 1 (Art!. n~•'H soc!oi 8.6. t(E)}f.10 Marb)

0. 7(c) 1
1' tt :: , (5 Marb)
• Dec.. 2015
0. 1(c) EJ n con t-<,.A
0. :(b) EJ In
,_ May 2018
0. ?Cb) E.~ 15-0-5 lor• ·a.td and rever~e c:t\a/Y\QI ..truduto ~, dc,W
(Ans. • Red~ ~ tJ 5, tJ 6 and e 1J (10Mar1ta)
• Dec. 2016
0. 1(c) V't'hat It .on hAndolT 7 (Ara. : Rt!!« &«tJOn 8.,9.2)
0. t(b)(I) Whal ls Rau Rtiocwet ? (Alu. : Ra!• sac::ion 8.,9. 1)
__, 5'0/J.fSI/All I'-,_

r • May2017
0. e(o) Wr11e rJlOl1 note on : U81it teiceiv-t. (M•. : /1,rl~ ~f'icwt n PI)
• Doc. 2017
'
a. 3(A) Ooteribe tho tr'PQuellC)' All(! cl~lMI '4)0dul.Qlj °' fOt'IIIIArd dWYlOtt., Cl~'
(,\r,a, : fl,.h,r l'k"'IIOl'II 8 4 and 8 !i)
0 . S(b) R~KE RNX)lvnr (Ans. : Rt1for •«IJon 8.0 1)
• May2018
a. S(a) How RAKE roootvor Improves SIN ratio In CDMA aJso exp'4,r1 why power control on rht ,......,.. u-.,,.,.,
ls o&Sonhal? (Ans.: Rotor soction 8.9. 1) UO M.r\aJ
,. Dec. 2018
a. 1(c) Discuss IS 95 CDMA forward chaMels. (Ans. : Refer section 8.6)

3G Technology
'1 ua. • ,.1

-----·-·-
ua • ,., t\Olo M !MT :'

ua , ,., ( bt ~: lo f ro cu ~ ci4 IUl . 0 1"""~ t·ltn8'ttli!it 1rjfl - · ----····- ······.......9- 1
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· -·- -·-·-
...· - - - -·- ·· · - -- ·-· -· - · -·····. .·- ·--··~·····-···--· ............ . . g...s
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GI 5 1(0 ) l ra'"IC l..oQ¢.ld ~ l > •····--··---·----··-···--·- ···---- -·--··-·- ··-·-··----·······- ··········-········-··9-9
SI.S.2 l ran:;p()l1 ~nn(lls - · -···----- - ····-··- ···-··--·---· - -- ·-···---·--·········· - ·- - ······...........9-1 O
9.s.J Pt,y,;,cal Channc,ls •••••-••---•u•••••-••8 -••- •-••••- -•--•-•••- --•••-------•- •••••- ••- -•9-11

9.6 AMR Codec for UMT&W .. . - , ~ '8Chno~
9.7 -CDMA ·······--·-···-·········-···-················- ···..··- ··--·- ··- ·-··--·- -- ···-··-···-··-9-12
Securtty..........•.• ·
9.8 ···················································································································································9-13
Quality of Service
·························• .........................................................................................................................9-,3
9.8.1 aosc1
asses........•..........•. ·.................................................................................................................9.
9.8.2 13
OoS Attributes ....................................................................................................................................9. .
9.9 Spreading and Modulation 14
····················.. ···• ................................................................................................................s.1s
9.10
Call Search and Synchronization .................................................................................................................................9.1~
UQ. 9.10.1
Discuss cell search and synchronization in 3G. a. S(b), Dec. 18. 10 Marks ...................................9-15
9.11 Establishing a Connection · .
. ·······• ..................................................................................................................................s.1e
9.12
CDMA 2000 ···········.··········•.........................................................................................................................................9-
16
UQ. 9.12.1
Give the 3G CDMA evolutionary path. a. 7(b), Dec. 1o. 1o Marks. a. 6(b). May 11.1 0 Marks
......9-15
91
UQ. · 2.2 Write short note on : 3G CDMA evolutionary path. a. 7(a), Dec. 2013, 10 Marks .........................9•16
UQ. 9.12.3 Explain the major 3G RTT proposal. a. 6(b). May 2014. 10 Marks ................................................9-16
9.13
CDMA 2000 Network Architecture ..............................................................................................................................9-18
9.13.1 Mobile Station (MS) ............................................................................................................................9-18

9.13.2
Base Transceiver Station (BTS) .........................................................................................................9-18
9.13.3
Base Station Controller (BSC) ............................................................................................................9-19
9.13.4
Mobile Switching Center .....................................................................................................................9-19
9.13.5
Home location Register (HlR) and Visitor location Register (VlR) .................................................9-19
9.13.6 Router.................................................................................................................................................9·19
9:13.7 Firewall ...............................................................................................................................................9-19
9.13.8 Packet Data Serving Node (PDSN) ....................................................................................................9-19
9.13.9 Authentication, Authorization and Accounting (AAA) ..........................................................................9-20
9.13.10 Home Agent (HA) ...............................................................................................................................9-20
9.14 Forward Channels in CDMA 2000 ..............................................................................................................................9-20

9.14.1 · Forward Pilot Channel (F·PICH) ..........................................................................................................9-22
9 .14.2 Forward Auxiliary Pilot Channel (F-APICH) ........................................................................................9-22
9.14.3 Forward Transmit Diversity Pilot Channel (F-TDPICH) .....................................-.................................9-22
9.14.4 Forward Sync Channel (F-SYNCH) ................................................................................................... .-9-22
"9.14.5 Forward Paging Channel (F-PCH) ......................................................................................................9-22
9.14.-6 Forward Broadcast Channel (F-BCH) ................................................................................................9-22

9.14.7 Forward Quick Paging Channel (F-QPCH) .........................................................................................9-23
-9.14.8 Forward Common Power Control Channel (F-CPCCH) .....................................................................9-23
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~
;::::.
Mobile Cormt. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC)
9-C 3G Technolo0:
9.14.9 Forward Supplemental Channel (F-SCH) ...........................................................................................9-23
9.14.10 Forward Common Assignment Channel (F-CACH) ............................................................................9-23
9.14.11 Forward Common Control Channel (F-CCCH) ................................................................................... 9-23
9.14.12 Forward Dedicated Contr<>! Channel (F-DCCH) .................................................................................9-23
9.1s Reverse Channels in CDMA 2000 ..............................................................................................................................9-23
9.15.1 Reverse Supplemental Channel (A-SCH) ..........................................................................................9-24
9.15.2 Reverse Pilot Channel (A·PICH) ........................................................................................................9-24
9.15.3 Reverse Access Channel (A·ACH) .....................................................................................................9-24
9.15.4
9.15.5
Reverse Enhanced Access Channel (A-EACH) .................................................................................9-24
Reverse Common Control Channel (R-CCCH) ..................................................................................9-25

l
9.15.6 Reverse Dedicated Control Channel (R-DCCH) .................................................................................9-25
ua. 9.15.1 Explain Handoff in 3G system.
0. 6(b). Dec. 11. 5 Marks. a. 4(b). Ma 13. 5 Marks. a. 3(8). Dec. 17. 5 Marks ..........................9-25
ua. 9.15.2 Write short note on : Handoff procedure. a. 7(b). Ma 12. 5 Marks ...............................................9-25
ua. 9.15.3 Explain handoff in 3G system. a. 6(a). Dec. 13. 10 Marks .............................................................9-25
9.16 Power Control in 3G System ........................................ ...............................................................................................9-26
ua. 9.16.1 Explain Power control in 3G system.
0 . 6(b). Dec. 11. 5 Marks. 4(b). Ma 13. 5 Marks.a. 3(8 . Dec. 17. 10 Marks ..............................9-26
ua. 9.16.2 Discuss power control in 3G system. a. 1(d). Dec. 12. 5 Marks ....................................................9-26
ua. 9.16.3 Explain power control mechanism in 3G. 0. 4(b). Ma 16. 10 Marks ···················..·······•···............. 9·26
ua. 9.16.4 Why power control is used in CDMA2000 and WCDMA? 0 . 3(b). Dec. 16. 10 Marks ...................9-26
9.17 Difference between 2G-GSM and 3G-WCDMA .......................................................................................................... 9-27
9.18 Difference between IS-95, WCOMA and CDMA 2000 ................................................................................................9-27
ua. 9.18.1 Give the technical differences in W-CDMA and CDMA 2000.
a. S(a). Dec. 11 . 10 Marks.a . S(b). Dec. 14. 10 Marks ··························..··············........................9·27
ua. 9.18.2 Compare IS-95, WCDMA and CDMA 2000 with respect to channel bandwidth,
ch ip rate, modulation schemes, data rates and frame size.
a. 4(a). Dec. 15. 10 Marks. a. 1(d). Ma 16. 5 Marks.
a. 2(b). May 18. 10 Marks. a. 3(a). Dec. 18. 10 Marks ...................................................................9-27
UQ. 9.18.3 What are the bandwidths and chip rates used in WCDMA and how they are
compare with cdmaOne ? a. 1(d). Dec. 16. 5 Marks ......................................................................9-27
ua. 9.18.4 How WCDMA different from CDMA 2000. a. 4(A). Dec. 17. 6 Marks .............................................9-27
9.19 University Questions ...................................................................................................................................................9-28
• Chapter Ends ..___......................_............m ••···............... ................... ......... ..... . ...... ..............._. ••••• - ..... ........... . - .....9-30
Teclt-Me. Public:atio- ~ Autl»n iMJN~ mnontioa - ' SAOUNSILUI Ye11~

r [J;] Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 9-1
3G TechnolW;
~ 9.1 IMT 2000
UQ. 9.1.1 Discuss IMT 2000 system. 11~(•0•1WOOJ!Jii481 1M/fi1i•tlSIMfffM1•Hl\fll

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MU. a. 7(c • Ma 14. 10 Marks
UQ. 9.1.2 Write short note on : IMT 2000 concept
MU. a. 1(c). Ma 16. 5 Marks
UQ. 9.1.3 Baborate the concept of IMT 20040 family.
ua. 9.1.4 Explain IMT 2000 family. MU. O. 5 b . Ma 17. 10 Mar_!<!
3G systems provide an unp:ir:illt-lcd wirclc s acce~s in methods 1ha1have never been possible earlier.
Some of the adrnntages of lhe JG networks are :
I. Mul1i-meg:1bi1 Internet access
2. Communications using Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
3. Voice :icti,r:itcd calls
-t. Unparalleled networl..s capacity
5. Ubiquitous ualways-0n" acce~s
Comp311ies developing 3G equipment are with a view so th.at the users can have lhe ability lo receive live music,
conduct interacli\'e web sc sion and ha\'e simultaneous voice and data access with multiple panics al the same time
using a single mobile hancbet. whether driving, walking. or ~tinding ~rill in an office selling.
The Jnlematlonal Telecommunlcillons Union (ITU) formubted a plan 10 implement a global frequency band in the
2000 MHz range lhal would suppon a wireless communication standard for all countries throughout the world called as
lnternatlonal Mobile Telephone 2000 (IMT-2000).
It 1w ~n successful in helping to perform an acrive debate and technical analysis for new high speed mobile
telephone solutions in comparison 10 the 2G. However, the hope for a single worldwide standard has not materialiwf,
as lhe worldwide user community remains spilt between two standards : GSM/IS-136/PDC and CDMA.
The eventual 3G evolution for 2G CDMA systems leads 10 CDMA 2000.
Several variants of CDMA 2000 are currently being developed, but they all are based on the fundamentals of IS-95 and
IS-95B technologies.
The eventual 3G evolution for GSM, 1S-136 and PDC systems leads 10 Wideband CDMA (W-CDMA), also called
Universal Mobile Tclecommunicalion Service (UMTS).
W-CDMA is based on the network fundamentals of GSM, as well as the merged versions of GSM and IS-136 through
EDGE.
Table 9.1.1 gives some features of the IMT-2000 standards.
T ~ PuLritJ11ionL- ~ Author7iIL'fNrt' innowtioa --4 SAl7/INSIU/1 l~ture

I • -~ Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 9-2
Table 9.1.1 : IMT 2000 standord11 re11tur~

30 Tochnolog'i
Duplexing ll'ealUrt.t
CDMA2000 US Multi-carrier and direct FDD and TDD Auxiliary carrier to help with downlink
TIA spreading DS-CDMA channel estimation in forward linlc beam
forming.
Backward compatibility with IS-9.5A and
IS-95B.
Uplink can support a simuliancous
combination of multi-carrier or direct
spreading.
UTRA DS_CDMA FDDandTDD Minimum forward channel bandwidth of
(UMTS Terrestrial 5MHz
Radio Access) Wideband DS_CDMA system
W-CDMA Backward compatibility with GSM
CDMA-II Connection dedicated pilot bits assist in
(South Korea TTA) downlink beamforming.
WIMS/W-CDMA Upto 2.048 Mbps on downlink in FDD

mode
CDMA-I DS_CDMA FDDandTDD Upto 512 kbps per spreading code, code
(South Korea TTA) aggregating upto 2.048 Mbps.
TD-SCDMA DS_CDMA TDD· RF channel bit rate upto 2.227 Mbps

(CATI) Uses small antenna technology
DECT TOMA TDD Enhanced version of 2G DECT
TOMA FDD (OutdoorNehicular Fits into JS-136 and GSM
TDD (Indoor office) Backward compatibility with IS-l36 and
GSM
Explicit plans to support adaptive antenna
technology.
9.2 3G W-CDMA (UMTS)
The Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS) is 3G standard that has developed in late 1996 under the
European Telecommunication Standards Institute (ETSI). UMTS was submitted by ETSI to ITU's IMT-2000 body in
l 998- for consideration as a world standard.
Earlier UMTS was called as UMTS Terrestrial Radio A ~ (UTRA). It was designed to provide a high capacity
upgrade path for GSM. Further several other competing wideband CDMA (W-CDMA) proposals agreed to merge into
a single W-CDMA standard. This resulted W-CDMA standard is now called UMTS.
UMTS- or W-CDMA, assures backward compatibility with second generation GSM, IS-136 and PDC TOMA
technol'ogies and· afso the 2.5GTDMA technologies.
The network structure and bit level packagfng of GSM data is maintained by W-CDMA, with additional capacity and
bandwidth provided. by a new CDMA standard .
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The 3o W-CDMA is being developed for wide nrca mobile cellular coverage and indoor co rd1c1111 appllcati<>M,
The 30 W-CDMA air intcrfoce standard had been designed for "alwaytH>n" packcl-ba!IC<i wirelcH 11ervlcc, IO l~
computers, entertainment devices and telephones can oil shore the 1101nc wlrcle11s network and be connected to the
Internet, anytime and anywhere.
I W-CDMA will support packcl dnln rates up to 2.048 Mbps per user (if the ui;cr i11 111.ationary), thereby allowing. hl&Ji
l quality dati. multimedia, streaming audio, streaming video und broadcu111-1ypc ,;crvicell lO consumers.
The Fucurc versions of W-CDMA will support stationary user data rules in exces11 of 8Mbp11.
W-CDMA provides public and private network features, as well as video conferencing and virtual home entertainment
(VHE). The W-CDMA designers assure that games, interactive video, mobile commerce (m-commcrcc) Ind
broadcasting will be possible using a small portable wireless device.
W-CDMA needs a minimum spectrum allocntion of 5 MHz.
W-CDMA supports data rates from as low as 8 kbps to as high as 2 Mbps. They will be carried simultaneously on 1
single W-CDMA 5 MHz radio channel, and each channel will be able to support between 100 and 350 simultaneoua
voice calls at once, depending on antenna sectoring, propagation conditions, user velocity and antenna polarizations.
W-CDMA employs variable/selectable direct sequence spread spectrum chip rate that can exceed 16 Mega chips per
second per user. A common reel of thumb is that W-CDMA will provide at least a six times increase in spcciaJ in
spectral efficiency over GSM when compared on a system wide basis.
W-CDMA needs expensive base station equipments. Hence, its installations is slow.
c:r Features of Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS)
It is a 3G mobile communication system providing many broadband services for wireless and mobile communication.
It provides data rates upto 2 Mbps and provides new enhanced capabilities.
UMTS is developed for sending graphics, pictures, videos i.e. voice and data information to the mobile wireless
customers.
It extends 2G GSM/GPRS networks with Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA) technology. [t
provides handover capability.
The data rates used for UMTS are as follows :
(i) 144 kbps- Satellite and rural outdoor (ii) 384 kbps - Urban outdoor
(iii) 2048 kbps- Indoor and low range outdoor.
a. 9.2.1 UMTS Services
UMTS supports the following services and applications :

L Internet access : Messaging. video/music.. voice over IP, mobile commerce, travel and information services.
2. Intranet access/extranet access : Enterprise applications like email, messaging, home remote monitoring and
control, mobile sales, warehouse management. conferencing and video telephony, corporate database access.
3. Location Based Services : To provide the active location of the user to the network.
4. Personalized services.
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As smwa in Fig. 9.3. l UMTS uses some clcmcnts'of the GSM architecture:.
The Mobile: Station (MS) is called as User Equipment (UE). The function of MSC iKsame aKth.at in o gM,
SGSN is added as a new clement Ir supports data rates upto 2 Mbps.

The core network elements are connected to the radio network through lu interface.
The RadJo Access Network (RAN) is called as terrestrial RAN (U'fRAN) : Ju, interface conncctsi Radio ~etv,r.4
Controllers (RNCs).
The base stations are connected to RNC through the Iub interface.
a g_3_1 UTRAN" Architecture
It comprises of Radio Network Subsystems (RNS) as shown in Fig. 9.3.2. The RNS has two main bloch : kadll')
Network Controller (RNC) and Node B.
Iu ru
.----------------- -----------------· ,------------------ ----------------,
---
I
: RNS : Iu,: ANS :

: ' ----
.,. .___-;-•---~---1 I I
'
I
: ......,_.,..... : ''
I
I
I' II
I
I
'''
I
I
I
I
r
------ -----
:: Node B Node B
:
: I
I
I
I
NodaB Node B '

:'
'
'
''
'''
• ....... - - ~ ....- . . - . ~ I
!~ '--'"--"-✓ ,-~-·- i ''

L-•--------------•-----•------------J
I
-·--·--·--· --·-----·-- ----· ________ J'
Fig. 9.J.?: UTRAN architecture
The: RNC has many functions like transmitting/receiving- data in cells, managing lhe radio resources. The other
functions comprise :
(i) Managing the radio resources.
(ii) Frame synchronization
(iii) Serving RNS relocation.

(iv) Intra-UTRAN hand-off
(v) Outer loop power control
(vi) Macro diversity combining
(vii) UMrS Radio Link..ControL(RLC) sublayers function execution

(viii) I., data stream splitting.
Node Bis added to the network:. The Core Network: (CN) comprises of SGSN, GGSN, MSC/VLR.
- To communicate with the 3G Radio network the MSC/VLR needs to be modified.
The nodes have to work with the 2G or 2.5G nodes.so as to support seamless mobility between the networu.
_,1SAOUNS//,Uf ftt,/lll'e
.....
-
~ 9.3.2 Node B
~ 9.3.3 What Is node B, exptatn its responsibilities?

Node B ukes care of
(i) Radio-resource management functions (ii) Air- interface processing

Node B provides functions similar to functions provided by BTS in GSM networks. They arc collocated ,.ilh BTS so as
to decrease the UMTS system cost as well as planning limitations. UMTS worts at high frequencies, greater than that
of GSM resulting in less signal coverage range.
Fig. 9.3.3 shows the node B logical archite.cture.
Controlllng radio netwOB oontrollw (ANC)
.··---- --·------·-· -·-••·-·---- ........................... ----·••·••·.

lu,
:: l,.c,
(\.CJ 1.., lu, lu,
OCH OCH OCH : OCH OCH OCH
data da\4 data data data data
port port port port port port
TTT' (Traffic lOITTllnation polnl)

..
: : TTT' (Traffic le!mnation point)
1 : I
........................... - ----- - · - - • - - - - - - - - · - - - - - - · - - -- ........ --- - -- J ~ · -- --- - - - ------- - - ------- · - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - -
Fig. 9.3.3: Node B logical architttture
Node B deals with the radio transmission and reception to /from user equipments to cells.
The Responsibilities of Node n are as follows :
1.
2.
3.
4.
Open loop power control
Inner loop power control
RF processing
Frequency and time synchronization.
I
S. Tennination of Uu interface from user equipment.
6. Power weighting and combining of physical channels.
7. Radio channel coding/decoding.

8. Modulation and spreading/demodulation and despreading of physical channels.
9. FEC encoding/decoding and interleaving/deinterleaving transport channels.
10. Radio environment survey of parameters like signal strength. BER, etc.
11. Tennination of RLC, RRC and MAC protocols for transport channels PCH. BCH.
12. Macro diversity splitting/combining data streams.

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[i] Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 9-7 3GT~
13. Tcnnination of MAC protocol for tnwport channels FACH, RACH.

14. Error detection on transport channels.
IS. Radio channel coding/decoding.
16. Multiplexing/demultiplexing of transport channels.
~ 9.3.3 Radio Network Controller (RNC)
It deals with management of radio resources and controls many Node Bs. It works similar to the BSC in GSM nctworb.
However, RNCs have more intelligence e.g. They can simultaneously manage handovers without SGSNs or MSCs.
The responsibilities of RNC are as follows :

(i) I..b's user plane protocol termination.
(ii) Intra UTRAN handover.
(iii) Radio resource management.

(iv) Frame synchronization
(v) Radio resource allocation.

(vi) I.. interface user plane setup.
(vii) Macro diversity splitting/combining ¼b data stream.
(viii) SRNS (serving RNS) relocation.

(ix) RLC, RRC and MAC protocol termination for transport channels FACH, DCH, RACH, DSCH.
(x) UMTS RLC (Radio Link Control) Sublayers execution of functions.
(xi) Outer loop power control.

(xii) Frame selection/distribution for soft handover.
B- 9.3.4 UMTS Interfaces
The UMfS interfaces as shown in Fig. 9.3.1 are as follows :

(i) u.: It is the interface between the network and the user equipment. It is similar to the Urn interface in GSM networks.
(U) 1. - CS : It is similar to the A interface in GSM networks. It represents a circuit switched connection for carrying
signaling and voice-traffic between the core voice network and UTRAN. RANAP is the. signaling protocol used.
(Hi} I,, PS : It is similar to the Gb interface in GSM networks. It represents a packet switched connection for carrying
signaling and voice traffic between the core voice network and UTRAN.RANAP is the signaling protocol used.
(iv) I.. : This interface is used for controlling many NodeBs. NBAP is the signaling protocol used. It is similar to the Abis
interface in GSM networks.
(v) I.,. : This interface is used for supporting mobility of MSCs. When subscriber moves. Iur transfers subscriber data to new
RNC as he moves. RNSAP is the signaling protocol used.
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- 9.4 UMTS Air lntorfoco Spoclflcotlons
Tnhlo 9,•I, I lists lJMTS nlr lntcrfncc spccl11cntions.

l'uhle 9.4.1 : UMTS nlr lnlcr1nce speclncatlons.
I. Frt't1uc11cy r.pt~lnun
- Uplink 1920 MHz - 1990 MHz
Downlink 2110 MHz- 2170 MHz.
2. nu,,lexln,: method - FDDnndTDD
J. Modulntlon - Direct sequence CDMA with QPSK.
I
4. Chnnncl hnndwldth - 5MHz. I
l
5. Frnme length - 10 ms frame with 15 time slots.
6. Sen-kc type - Multi-rate and multi-service
7. Coding method - Onhogonnl variable spreading factor (OVSF)
It Chip rutc - 3.84 MCps
9. ll11ndovcr - Soft handover, inter-frequency handover.
10. Power control - Open and fast closed loop ( 1.6 KHz)
11. Downlink RP chunncl structure - Direct spread (DS)
:> 9.5 Forward and Reverse Channels In W-CDMA
uo. 9.5.1 Elaborate on forward W-CDMA channel. MU - a. 5 b. Ma 12, 10 Marks. a. 6 b. Dec. 13. 10 Marks.
a. 6(a • Ma 14, 1oMarks, a. 4 b • Dec. 14. 10 Marks
UQ, 9.5.2 Discuss forward W-CDMA channel. MU• a. 5 a. Ma 13. 10 Marks.
UQ. 9.5.3 lain W-CDMA forward channel structure in detail. MU - a. 3 b, Dec. 15 10 Marks
The UMTS channels can be defined in terms of functions, sharing and data flow direction. The uplink channels are
trnnsmillcd by the 4sec equipment and the downlink channels are transmitted by the UTRAN. The different types of
channels in UMTS are :
(i) Logical channels
(ii) Transport channels

(iii) Physical channels
~ 9.5.1 Logical Channels
Logical channels arc used in the interface between the MAC and RLC based on the type of infom1ation that needs to be
sent. Depending on the type of information the logical channels are characterized into traffic and control channels.
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......____ .

r ~ Mobllo Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 9-9
Logtcat channet.
I
Gd -7 ogloal;
nol/
(slgnallng)
l
Traffic logical'
channels
(user data)
I l
l
Broadcast
l l
Dedicated
l
Common
r
Dedicated
l
Common
Paging
control control traffic traffic
control control
ch4nnel channel channel channel channel channel
(BCCH) (PCCH) (OCCH) (CCCl;i) (OTCH) (CTCH)
Fig. 9.5.1
~ 9.5.1(A) Control Logical Channels
They are defined in FDD mode. The different control logical channels are as follows :
(0 BCCH (Broadcast Control Channel)
It controls the information broadcasted to nil the users in a cell. The information comprises the cell specific parameters
like code sequences, timers. call identifiers etc. that should be blown by the user equipment. It "is available for
downlink..
(ii) PCCH (Paging Control Channel)
It is a,·ailablc for downlink. It transports the paging information to users. All the user equipments should read
information on PCCH and BCCH.
(iiJ) Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH)
This channel is used to carry the dedicated control information for uplink and downlink. It carries signaling messages
for control operations.
(iv) Common Control Channel (CCCH)
This channel is used to carry control messages for uplink or downlink. It carries informatio·n from the network to the
user equipment.
a 9.5.1(8) Traffic Logical Channels
The types of traffic logical channels are :
(I) DTCH (Dedicated Traffic Channel)
It is a dedicated point to point channel. It can be used for both uplink and ilownlink. It-carries user traffic like .emails,
,;aeo, speech, file transfer etc.
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~ lOOblle Comm. Syslem (MU-Sem~-E&TC) 9-10 ao TochnolOfll
I .
{H) CTCH (Common Traffic: Channel)
This channel carries the dedicated information about user between select user equipment!! (UI!s) in the downlink
direction . .e.g. weather updates, stock market updates, service area broadcast, sports news etc.
"- "'9.5.2 Transport Channels
The UMTS transport channels define the manner in which the data is to be transferred.
Tran1port channel•
.l
Broadcast
l
Forward
l
Paging
1
Random
l
Common
l
Down link
l
Dodloalod
channel aocess channel aocess packet shared transport
(SCH) channel (PCL) channel channel channel channol
(FACH) (RACH) (CPCH) (DSCH) (OCH)
(i) Broadcast Channel (BCH)
This channel is used on downlink for broadcasting information to the user equipments in cell to allow them to recognize
the cell and the network.
(ii) Forward Access Channel (FACH)
This -channel is used on downlink for transferring user data/control signaling messages to the user equipments that ure
re_gistered on the network.
(iii) Paging Channel {PCH)
This downlink channel carries messages that alert the user equipments for SMS messages, incoming calls, maintenance
etc. It allows the UE to use sleep mode.
(iv) Random Access Channel (RACH)
This channel is used for uplink. It carries the channel requests for service from UEs that arc trying to access the
network.
(v) .Common Packet Channel{CPCH)
This channel is used on uplink. It is used as contenti~n channel for bursty data.
(vi) Downlink.Shared Channel (DSCH}
This channel is used on downlink. It is used as a shared channel that carries user data/control messages 'in downlink.
(vii) DedJcated transport channel {DCH)
This channel is used bi-directionally in -uplink or downlink to transfer traffic/control messages.
Tech-Nee, Pulilic:a1iom Bere ..4uJl,onuupia D1D1Jratit»I -A SACJJJNSJlUJ Yeal,w

r
[i] Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7~E&TC) 9-11
3GTecnno~-
a. 9.5.3 Physical Channels
Phy.SO.I channel•
PCCPCH SCCPCH OPCCH PCPCH AICH OPOCH COICA-fCH
SCH PICH POSCH PRACH CSICH CPICH
(I) PCCPCH-Primary common control physical channel
This downlink channel continuously broadcasts the system access control infonnation and identification.
(ll) SCH-Synchronization channel :
This channel allows the UEs to synchronize with the network.
(Ui) SCCPCH-second.ary common control physical channel
This downlink channel carries the forward access channel (FACH) that provides information about control and also
paging channel (PACH) with messages for users registered on the network.
(Iv) PICH paging Indication Channel
This channel provides information to the user equipment to work in sleep mode when listenin_g to paging channel (POI)
so that lhe users battery can be saved. The UE needs to have knowledge about when to 'wake up' and listen to the
paging channel.
(v) DPCCH-ded.i~d physical control channel
It is a bidirectional i.e. can be used on uplink and downlink. It carries the control infonnation to/from the- user
equipment.
(vi) PDSCH-physlcal downlink shared channel
This channel works on downlink. It carries the control information to the user equipments within the coverage area of
NodeB.
(vil) PCPCH-physlcal common packet channel
It carries packet data. The data is transmitted on the channel when node B acknowledges the request from user
equipment.
(viii) PRACH-Physical random a ~ channel
lt works on uplink. This channel allows the user equipment (UE) to send bursts for accessing the network.
.(h). AJCB-AcquJsJtion indkator channel
This channel is used to indicate user equipment about the data channel it can use for communicating with node B.
Tech-Neo Publit.atiom_ ll'here AuthonUJ!lf'ire mno.-MioD --4 SACIDNSHAH Yellllff

Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 9-12
(x) DPDCH-Dedlcnted physical data channel
This channel is used to transfer user data on uplink/downlink.
(xi) CSICH-current status indication channel
This downlink channel carries the status of CPCH or bursty dala.
(xii) CPICH-common pilot channel
Every node B transmits this channel to aJIow user equipments

· · · for signal
to compute the timmg · ·
dcmodula11on.
(xiii) CD/CA-I CH-collision detection/channel assignment indication channel
This chan nel is used on downlink to determine whether the channel assigned is active or inactive to the user equipment.
:) 9.6 AMR Codec for UMTS/W-CDMA
It is new codec used in GSM and UMTS systems.

. AMR codec has eight source rates as follows :
(i) 4.75 kbps (ii) 5.15 kbps
(iii) 5.90 kbps (iv) 6.70 (PDC-EFR)
(v) 7.40 kbps (IS-641) (vi) 7.95 kbps (VSELP)
(vii) 10.2 kbps (viii) 12.2 kbps (GSM-EFR)

RAN (Radio Access Network) is responsible for controlling the AMR data rates.
AMR codec utilizes low bit rates when the cell load is high during busy hours to provide high channel ~pacity.
However the speech quality is low.
AMR bit rate can be used for extending the coverage area of a cell for a user equipment that is using ma.,imum
transmission power and is moving out of coverage area.
Depending on the subscriber requirements a trade-off can be obtained between the speech quality, cover.1ge and
capacity.
Using the AMR speech codec we can obtain switching every 20 ms frame depending on the command with
approximately J60 samples at a sampling rate of 8000 samples/second.
ACELP algebraic code excited linear prediction coding is used by AMR codec.
Before sending the speech parameters bits obtained by speech encoder to the network they are rearranged into class Ia.
lb and 11 depending on their sensitive to errors. Class Ia is the strongest channel and mo~t sen~itive "hile channel II is
least sensitive to errors.
It can resist approximately 1% frame error rate (FER) for class la bits without dctoriation in the speech quality. Higher
frame error rate is allowed for class lb and class II bits.
Inorder tQprovide Discontinuous Transmission (DTx) following functions ure used by the AMR codec :
(i) Transmission of comfort noise information to the receiver Rx side using the Silence Descriptor (STD) frame.
(ii) When no normal speech frames are received ut the receiver (Rx) side, generation of comfort noise.
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F r • pplic:i1ion
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• an d bac kground classes
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9.8.2 QoS Attributes
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Traffic handling priority - - TBD -

Tu hie 9.8.2 : Uudlo bcurt'r ultrlbuks ror cuch clnss
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I Traffic Clau Cc>rwentlonol class Streaming clase
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fttA.-~ t'ublicatiom

I~] Mobile Comm System (MUS
- em.7- E&TC) 9-15 3G T echnolo!D'.
Traffic Class
Conventional class Streaming class Interactive class Background ~~aa;-
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SOU enor ratio 10- 3, 10- 4, 10- 5 -
10- 2, 10- 3, 10-4, 10-5 10- 2, 10- 3 , 10- 4, 10- 5 10- 3, 10- 4, 10-5
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~ 9-9
-
Spreading and Modulation
On lhe downlink through the scrambling and channelization codes, the different users can be isolated with each other
QPSK modulation is used.
The channelization codes are used such that they form a structure similar to the binary tree.
Spreading is used aJongwith scrambling that separates the mobile units from each other. Scrambling neither modifies
the chjp rate nor its bandwidth.
Depending on an Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor (OVSF) method the channelization codes are used to
separate the transmissions from a single source. This maintains the code orthogonality and changes the WCDMA
spreading.
:> 9.1 O Call Search and Synchronization
UQ. 9.10.1 Discuss cell search and synchronization in 3G. MU• a: 5 b ;. Dec.'. 18, ·10 Marks
Whenever we search for a signal is the mobile handset, it selects the strongest signal from the base station and
synchronizes with the base station. It is ac~ievcd as follows:
Step I : The mobile station synchronizes itself with the time slot of the strongest signal that can be seen on the handset_,
Step Il : Frame synchronization is done by viewing the secondary synchronization.
In step I the mobile station searches for 256 - chip primary synchronization code. After the base station transmits the
signal the mobile station correlates it with the synchronization sequence so as to recognize the base stations. The
correlater output indicates signals from different base stations having different signal peak values. The mobile station
selects the signal with largest peak value and synchronizes it with the time slot of the strongest signal. However the
mobile station is unaware about the frame synchronization.
Hence, frame synchronization is done in step 2. The CPICH and CCPCH channels are transrrutted on downlink with
one of primary scrambling codes from 51 2.
These 512 primary scrambling codes are grouped into 64 groups such that a sequence of 15 cods are transmitted by
secondary synchronization channel in 15 time slots. Thus, the code sequence is a word of 15 letters such that every
letter represents an alphabet.
After a fixed time period, the sequence is repeated code are selected such that the codeword i~ a cyclic shift of the
codeword and not a new codeword and also where it begins.
e.g. : If three codewords of length 5 are transmiued (i) pqrst (ii) qsprt (iii) pwxyz (iv) orstpq. Now if the codeword
received is rstpq then we can see that it representc; codeword (i) syclically shifted version. Such that frame timing needs
to be adjusted by two slots.
The mobile station can then identify the codegroup belongs which group.
Tuh-Neo Puhlic.ition,.__ _ Where Authors inspire innor;i/ion ·-·-" SAC/JINSHAH Ycnture
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[i;] Mobile Comm. Syslem (MU-Sem.7-E&TC)

9-16 3G T ochnoloJL
:> 9.11 Establishing a Connection
Following are s1eps needed t · · · 1-

o m111a 11.c a conncc1ion by 1hc Mobile S1a1ion (M S)
Step I The Mobile Station (MS) ·sync hronires
· Itself
· . the s1rongest signal
with . · (BS)·
from Dase Station
Step Il MS decodes the Broadcast channel (BCH). It obtains the infornuuion about.
(a) CCPCH transmit power (b) Spreading faclor for mc~!.agcs
(c) Available codes
(d) Scrambling code for PRACIJ
· (e) Spreading code of preamble (f) Available codes
I<
(g) Uplink interferen.ce level.
Step Ill: A spreading code for the preamble and scrambling code for 1he messages is selected by the Mobile Stalion
(MS).
Step IV: Spreading factor for the message is estimated by 1he mobile station.
Step V : The MS determines the uplink attenuation, dependi ng on the parameters like transmit power of BS, CCPCH
signal strength etc. Depending on lhis data the ms determi ne the 1ran~mission power needed for preamble.
Step VI : A timeslot is randomly selec1ed by the MS from 1he available 1ime slots.
Step VII : The preamble is transmitled by the mobile stalion. After correction reception of the preamble, the base station
sends an acknowledge on the AICH channel to the mobile stalion.
Step VIII: lf MS doesn' t receive the acknowledgement, the ba~e stalion retransmilS preamble with an increase in
transmitted power.
~tep ~X : The MS begins ro transmit access message in successive time slots.
Step X : MS waits for access grant message from the network, if it doesn't get the message in some predetermined time
the steps 5 onwards are repeated.
:) 9.12 CDMA 2000
U~..9.12.1 Give the 3G CDMA evolutionary path. MU - a. 7(b , Dec. 10, 10 Marks, a. 6(b), Ma 11,10 Marks
i,o:9.12.2 Write short note on : 3G CDMA evolutionary path. MU - a. 7(a). Dec. 2013, 10 Marks
fra:·;:12.3 E~i-ain the major 3G RTT proposal. l&Ud•l1~Efti•IGMl•l~,fflti

CDMA 2000 is a high data rate upgrade path for current users of 2G and 2.SG CDMA standards. It is a unique radio
and network access system that is part of the International Mobile Telecommunications 2000 (IMT 2000). It is called a~
3G standard.
Jt allows wireless carriers to introduce a family of new high data rate internet access and maintains backward
compatibility with existing CdmaOne and IS-95B.
The IMT 2000 specification from the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) define one of its platfonn
standards that make up the 3G suite of access platform5.
The general features for CDMA 2000 arc,
(i) Supports high speed data services.

(ii) It is a global standard.
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9-17 3G Technol°2l
mt :r: " ,.~ ~ ~"-'tau

.,. . ~ ~iU:ft.-.,_,~x~j~efficiency.
._-\ i.ti ~~ 3 d:st:! rates· of 384 kbps for pedestrian use, 144 kbps for vehicular use and 2 Mbps for fixed
c~~~c.
- l'tl¢ ~tion.s of CDMA 2000 are,
t;t} Wireless internet (b) Wireless email
(c) Wireless telecommunication (d) Telemetry
(e) Wireless commerce (f) Location based services
(g) Longer standby battery life

The first 3G CDMA air interface CDMA 2000 1xRTf indicates that a single 1.25 MHz raclio channel is used. RIT
stands for Radio Transmission Technology language suggested by the fMT 2000 body.
CDMA Ix supports data rate upto 307 kbps for a single user in packet mode. It can provide throughput rates upto
144 kbps depending on the propagation conditions. velocity of a user and the number of users·
CDMA Ix can support two twice as many users as the 2G standard. The subscriber unit has standby time twice for long
lasting battery life.
CDMA2000 is being developed for both mobile radio (FDD) and cordless applications (TDD).
The improvements in CDMA 2000 l x over 2G and 2.5G CDMA systems use adaptable base band signaling rates and
chipping 'rates for each user and multi-level keying within the same gross framework of the original · CdmaOne
standard. No additional RF equipment is needed to enhance perfonnance. The changes are all made in software on in
the base band hardware.
- In order to upgrade from 2G CDMA to CDMA 2000 Ix, a wireless carrier needs to buy a new backbone software and
new channel cards at the base station, without having to change out RF components at the base-station.
- Qualcomm developed CDMA2000 lxEV as an evolutionary advancement for CDMA. It is a high data rate (HDR)
~acket standard to be upgraded on the existing IS • 95, lS - 958 and CDMA 2000 networks.
Later the HOR standard was modified to be compatible with W- CDMA.
- In August 2001 , ITU recognired CDMA2000 lxEV as part of the IMT 2000. lxEV provides CDMA carriers with the
option of installing radio channefs with data only (CDMA IxEV-DO) or data and voice (CDMA 2000 lxEV-DV).
- With the help of CDMA lxEV technology, individual 1.25 MHz channels can be installed in CDMA base stations to
provide specific high speed packet data access within selected cells.
The CDMA 2000 lxEV-DO dedicates the radio channel strictly to data users and supports greater than 2.4 Mbps of
instantaneous high speed packet throughput per user on a particular CDMA channel, although the actual user data rates
are ~pically much lower and highly dependent on the number of users, propagati.on conditions and vehicle speed.
Typt~al us~rs can ~btain throughputs of the order of several h~ndred kilobits per second, that is sufficient to support
web browsmg, email access and m-commerce applications.
~~MA 2000 _lxEV-DV supports both voice and data users. It can offer usabfe data rates upto 144 kilobits per second·
w1th about tw1ce_as, many voice channels-as-IS--95B.
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•....A SACR/NSHJ.11Yeoture
l
-◄
~ Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 9-18· 3GTechnofOID;
The CDMA 2000 3xRTI standard uses three adjacent 1.25 MHz radio channels that are used togtther to
provide instantaneous packet data. The actual throughput' depends on cell loading, vehicle speed and propagation
conditions.
Three non-adjacent radio channels can be operated simultaneously and in parallel ac; individual 1.25 MHz channels, or
adjacent channels can be combined into a single 3.75 MHz super channel. With peak user data rates in excess of
2 Mbps, the CDMA 2000 3x has a similar user data rate throughput.
CDMA 2000 allows the same spectrum, bandwidth, RF equipment and air intcrface framework to be u~ al each
station. Upgrades are introduced over the time as compared to CdmaOnc system.
To understand which radio and network components arc needed for successful implementation of a CDMA 2000
system, whether it is I xRTT, EV-DO we will study the architecture of a CDMA 2000 system.
~ 9.13 CDMA 2000 Network Architecture
Mobile l{a]_.-1/
station ll
Fig. 9.13.1 : CDMA 2000 System Architecture
The CDMA 2000 system architecture consists of various systems that interact between themselves and with the users
through certain network interfaces.
~ 9.13.1 Mobile Station (MS)
The Mobile Stations (MSs) communicate with the Base Transceiver Stations (BTSs) over the radio interface.
~ 9.13.2 Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
It is the official name of the cell site. The Base Transceiver Station is responsible for allocating resources and both
power and Walsh codes for consumption by subscribers with a I xRTT system and time slots and modulation format for
lxEV-DO.
BTS has a physical radio equipment that is used for transmitting and receiving the CDMA 2000 signals.
BTS controls the interface between the CDMA 2000 network and the subscriber unit.
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ft•:11111-cs 111111 llTS co1111\1ls 111-0 11111l1lple cnrrlcrs 1h111 upcrnlc rro111 1111: Hire, r11rwurtl po vmr 1111,I 111H1l11,111111;111 ,,r Wut.A,
cndl'S.
~ 9.13.3 Bose Station Controller (BSC)
Ench DSC contmls up1n s11vcrnl l11111drcd BTSs. The USC i11 rcsponsihlc l'nr co111rn lll11g ull lhc 11'/'f-lH utHlt:r Ith tlotm•l11 ,
The BSC l\llllcs pnckcl.".. lo 1111d 1'!'0111 lhc BTSs 10 lh~ PDSN.
The BSC nlso l\llllcs Time l>Mslon Mulll11lcxl11~ ('l'l>M) 1rnfflc 10 1hc d rc11i111wi1cl1cd plu1fon 111), II m 111,;~ 111,; pric~~
d:ita 10 lhc PDSN.
~ 9.13.4 Moblle Switching Center
TI1c MSC is the! cemml unit nml co111rols 1he 1rnflic 11111011g 1111 of 1he llSCs. There urc d111uh11M!Hculled Ill J< (llornc
Loc111ion Rcgis1er) und Visitor Loca1ion Rcgis1cr (VLR).
The HLR is a dnrubase thlll contains suhscriher inf'orn111tio11 111111 locution i11f'orn1111 io11 l'or cud, w,cr who rcsldcH111 Ille
same city as the: MSC.
The VLR is II dntahase 1hnt srorcs 1he cus10111c:r i11for11111tio11 !'or cnch ro11111ing suhscrihcr who Is vlHlling tire coverage
:ire.1orn sp<.-cific MSC.
~ 9.13.5 Home location Register (HlR) and Visitor location Register (VlR)
The HLR used in . existing CDMA networks needs 10 s101\! ucld itionnl snhscrihcr in!'orn1111io11 11ssocl111ed whir
i111roduc1ion of packc1- d11111 scrvicc.s.
TI1c HLR performs 1hc same role for p11ckc1 scrvicc1, ns ii cun\!nlly docs for voice services i11 that it store~ 1hc
subscri h<:r packet datn service options 1111d lerminnl c11pnhili1ies nlong wi1h the voice plutf'orm nc:cds.
The ~ r.1ice infonn:11ion fmm the HLR is downloaded in 1he Visitor Loc111io11 Register (VLR) of the nssocinlcd nclwork
swi1ch during :i. successful rcgis1n1tion process. The same process is done i11 CDM A 1111d other I G 1111d 20 sys1c111s.
';:s.. 9.13.6 Router
TI1e function of the! Router is to rou1e the! pncke ts between !he vurious nerwork clements wi thin lhc CDMA 2000
sys1cm.
TI1e rnsk of the Routc:r is 10 send and ,~ceive packets to and from !he in1crn11I nelwork to 1he off11c1 pint forms.
~ 9.13.7 Firewall
A tirewall is rt-qui red to ensure that securi ty is n111in111i11ed while conncc1ing to off11ct d11111 applic111ions.
'B. 9.13.8 Packet Data Serving Node (PDSN)
It is a. news component in the: CDMA :woo system i11 compnrison 10 !he CdmnOnc ne1works.
It is :in essential cleme nt in 1he tre:t1men1of packet dnta services 1ha1 will he offered.
TI1c runction of PDSN is 10 suppo11 packet 011111 services. The l.xR'rt' nnd I:<EV-DO sys1e111s trcnt pack in different
ways. ln 1hc COUl"'$C of packet data Sl!.~sion the fu11ctions performed hy PDSN nrc,
(i) Receh·cs St"r.'ice parnmc1cr.. for the mobile client fru1111hc AAA server.
(ii) Initiates au1hencica1ion, :i.u1horizn1ion und ncco11111ing (AAA) for 1hc mohilc s1n1io11 clicnl lo lhc AAA sl!rvcr.
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(iii) It ~u ppm, ,.1 rrirlc and fflll ,t\i k IP ru<-l ,1 1.t:t',, let,
(h•) It C.'-l:,Ml,ht',. nui n~m\ and tcrrn1nil(, P<•int to P0tr.t l'mu , I Wf1'>" " ,...,, .,. ,111 Cf., rt1>4't "' 1
(\') It r,t 4hli,ho munta.,n, lnd tcrmuwc, 1hc 1<,zic~ hr;h 10 1hc R~J"l ~:<,,.,,.,\ 1V.."i> • 1 •<• c,,, ".ao!.n Paci'<t
(R-1') interface.
(vi) ft collects uuge <131..a that arc rctarcd to the AAA )CO-Cf .
(vii) It routes packets to and from the cu.enul pada dau nct-.on.i.
The over.ill capacity of the POSN is determined by bolh the throughput ,mJ tJic nurrh:r of Mi' .0.-Jr.1
served.
The capacity of PDSN depends on the infrastructure u~ as ..,.ell a_s p.uucullI ard pri,puut100 dut ,i lO~~rc :-- •
'5. 9.13.9 Authentication, Authorization and Accounting (AAA)
A new component is the AAA. With COMA 21XX) ne111,or\: it pro,·i~ :11.1tllentic:i11on• .wlhonLdlt>f1 µvJ s:
functions for the packet da1a net wort.
Remote Access Dial In Use r Service (RADfUS) pro«x:ol is uc;cd by this component.
Toe AAA server communicaleS with the PSDN through IP. It i rt5pon\1blc: for c"°mplcting the folio"' u:i ~
functions:
(i) Authentication related to the PPP and Mobile fP connections.
(ii) Authorization.
(iii) Accounting.
~ 9.13.10 Home Agent (HA)
It is an important component 10 the CD\f A2<XX) pad.ct d.l1.l ~nice nctv. orl. It ~ I d be complitru 1oo 1th ts
relevant to home agent function:tlity v. ithin av. irclc!..S nct11,or\..
The home agent performs TTU.ny tash. II tracks the loeution of the mobile IP wlhcnbcr :u it ltltJ\n from ~--L--t
zone to another. while tr:id.ing the mobile, the Home A ~nt -.ill ensure Lh;11 t.hc pad.cu ttTC i l.1dcd to Ulic: in..,t,&:
itself.
:) 9.14 Forward Channels In CDMA 2000
Fig. 9. 14.1 ~ ows the forward link for a CD\fA channtl ..., hcthcr 11 or 3x.
The base Mation 1.r ammits multiple common channels as -.ell a.s S.C \CnJ dcdicll(J h..uulcls w th: ~iJlex:it
coverage areas.
Each CDMA 2000 user is assigned a (o~ '3.fd ctunncl th.11 cumi~ of the folt.J ..., wg :><rbtll.llK•tt. :
fo~-mt fund.:uncnW d wrncl (f:. r It )

0- 7 forwilrd i.uppknlt"nu.1 ro.k chmncl (P·SClh) for t,lth RCI ~ Rt'~
0- 2 fofWllld 1upplc11~nt.ll code ch:1ru1el, {P-SCl h ) f.x tll.,th RCJ 11.nt.S RN
When the chllllnel I, a,r.oclllled with )lHTf impktt)('nl:stlvo. Ui< d .112 f1'< Iii< ~ub...,·11l~ 11ft 1 1 ~ to ui.:b o( I.he d'lttt
different carriers, emmll11i,,: 1i1.;, Llarvuihpul.

... .
T •. •"I .-

~ Mobile Comm. SY;!lem (MU-Sem.7-E&TC)
9-22 3G Technology
(xi) Forward Common ~ignmcnt Channel (F-CACH)
(xii) Forward Dedicated Control Channel (F-DCCH)

(xiii)Forward Data Traffic Channel.
a 9.14.1 Forward PIiot Channel (F-PICH)

This channel is used to get m If1 ath f • . .
. u P ading and channel conditions. This channel is shared by mobile nodes to obtain
the above mentioned infonnation.
a 9.14.2 Forward Auxillary Pilot Channel (F-APICH)

th
Many of ese channels can be present. In beam forming applications these channels are used with smart antennas.
With the help of these channels, it was observed that the coverage of smart antennas is increased.
Every channel is allotted a unique Walsh code under code multiplexed method in downlink.
a 9.14.3 Forward Transmit Diversity PIiot Channel (F-TDPICH)
This channel is used to increased RF capacity.
- These channels are intended for synchronization by the mobile with a specific cell.
"B.. 9.14.4 Forward Sync Channel (F-SYNCH)
- For providing initial synchronization related data to the mobile station this channel is used.
- There arc two types of forward sync channels that are used. They are :
(i) Shared Sync channel
(ii) Wideband Sync channel
- The shared synchronization channel is compatible with overlay configuration. It is used in IS - 95 channels and CDMA.
- The wideband synchronization channel is compatible with both the overlay and the non-overlay configurations.
a 9.14.5 Forward Paging Channel (F-PCH)
- The base stations use this channel in order to transmit the mobile station specific messages and the overhead messages.
There are two types of channels arc used. They are :
(i) Shared paging channel (ii) Wideband paging channel
The shared paging channel can be compatible to overlay configuration of the 3G CDMA standard.
The wideband paging channel is made compatible with both the overlay and non-overlay configurations. This channel
is modulated across the 3G CDMA2000 wideband channel completely.
a 9.14.6 Forward Broadcast Channel (F-BCH)
It is intended to transmit ~ntrol information to the respective mobile stations effectively that have not been allotted a
traffic channel.
TecL-Neo Publiatioa,__ ~ Ailthon impire iDDon,tion -4 SACIJJNSlU/1 Yenture
:.....
a 1.14.7 Forward Quick Paging Channel (F-QPCH)
-
n,'it quick ~ng channd i, u~ by lhc pAging dwmcJ for ~ viding c:onlrol anfomwion to the mobile Sbtions.
9.14.8 Forward Common Power Control Channel (F-CPCCH)
Tht ntU'"-"')' power control informJtion of uplink common cootrol dwmels arc COO\"C)'Cd by ~ )Utioos using this
channel
9.1.&.9 Forward Supplemental Channel (F-SCH)
plO t F- a lt. can be a.uigncd IO I i.inglc mob,lc UM for hi&,h ~ d (bu r211ging from 9.610 153.6 lbps in Rdc~
0 aoJ 307.2 and 614.4 ~ in Rrk~i.e A.
l-1. 9.1.&.10 Forward Common Assignment Channel (F-CACH)
Tbc qu l u.>J,:nmmh c ( rr,nv mmon mn1rol (uplinl ) du.'\ncl [, dl'lnC by b~..c 1U1ion u~ ng this du.nnd.
~ 9.14.11 Forward Common Control Chnnnol (F-CCCH)
9.14.12 F-orward Oc!-dlcatcd Control ChAnnel (F-OCCH)
It ~ lk~ lhc-),(' ru...U'IC'h ' '"""' :.nJ ih:a 1aff1c lu..~.nc h JJt a;.~ 10 ( -i..-d c tunnch in the CDMA 2(XX)
.a._~
~ 9.1 S Ro verse Channels In COMA 2000
The~~ linl , cfu.nncl ( r ct)'-tA . •) !Ul l'fl)f mn r..uru ur IO 1hc ( l!\1 h.n.L It include~ 2 pilot o n the rc,"Cl'SC
I
n t . 9. l ~. 1 1,b r:,-.~ ltae i.tructu« of ffi'-tA. (I ft"\ tnc tururl.
Thc wb\a,bcr or le uru1 t) ~I014cd 10 1nmrrut n ~ 1h::i.n one coJc ctunncl to !ICrol'TUTlOdMc high d.u.1 r.ita.
The minimum nfit-ur.won 1h1r.b of :a rt'\~~ pilot (R - P1ll>1) t u nnel to cruhk the bl.SC SU!ion to perform
i)T!Chronc~a dctc-ctJoo ~ad a lt'\cn c fumhmc111.i.l d1~111d ( R-f II ) fo r , o i~-c.
lbc .Miooru.l ctunncl, 1,Lc Rc,·c-~ Supplc111c11u l C-h:1.nncb ( R-SC lls) :uld Reverse DediC3ttif O>nuol Owmcl
(R-DCCH ). CAn ~ u\C'd 10 i.cnd d.su or ,isruhng in romution.
'The IT\'("1'\(' dunnd fo, )t h d1lfr:rrnt fro m tlut in 11 in tlut it is :a d in::ct spre3d but e.1n be overlaid over 1 11
implcmrnt.at.i n.
- ' SIOllfJIWI lblt.n

,,,,,,--
[§] t.4obtle Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC)

9-24 3G Technologl
--- -~ CDMA 2000 ChanJ.i-

. .. =
I I Reversii' Enhanced Reversa . Reverse •,

l Channe1 l Traffic Access Common·
·l
-;._ Traffic--:,
--------- Channel Control · Control ::channel.'
Operation Channel , Openttlon
Operation
--------- I--------- ",_-- Reverse ·-,,1· :-:-i,
: Reverse 1
Reverse . ,
1 _
: Fundamental :
' Channel 1
:----------~
:
1
Pilot
Channel
l----------~
:
I
:•
1
t
•
Reverse
Pilot
,
· ·: ·l~-
I
I ; •• Channel
Pilot
.-:.J.,.
________
,. 1
~
: 010 7 Reverse: Channel :
: Enhanoed : O or 1 Reverse·? ,
I SuwlementaJ I Aocess •-------------
: Reverse · l : · Dedicated ---:~•1
:Code
__________
Channels:_,
I
l
I
Channel ~ : Common Control l l Control Channel! •
----------.J ,.. ___________
Channel J1 I
1•
-•---------~-<l
Fundamental :.,
.f___________
I
Channel • - ~__::
_..,.
: I
l 0-2 Reverse -~
' .. Supplemental -:;
!_. Channels · ;.;·.1
----------➔
: Reverse Power;.:
I Control .I
I -• I
, Subchannel .,. ,
Fig. 9.15.1 : Reverse CDMA2000 channel received at base station

'------------·
The different reverse (uplink) channels are :
(i) Reverse Supplemental Channel (R-SCH) (ii) Reverse Pilot Channel (R-PICH)
(iii) Reverse Dedicated Control Channel (R-DCCH) (iv) Reverse Enhanced Access Channel (R-EACH)
(v) Reverse Commo n Control Channel (R-CCCH) (vi) Reverse Access Channel (R-ACH)
(vii) Reverse data traffic channel.
~ 9.15.1 Reverse Supplemental Channel (R-SCH)
When the data rates are greater than 9.6 kbps, an R-SCH is needed. An R-FCH is assigned for power control. A total of
one or two R-SCHs can be assigned per mobile unit. ·
a 9.15.2 Reverse Pilot Channel (R-PICH)

It provides pilot and power control infonnation. 11 enables the mobile unit to transmit a lower power level and allows_it
to inform the base stations of the forward power levels being received, enabling the base station to reduce power.
~ 9.15.3 Reverse Access Channel (R-ACH)
For initiating communication, the mobile stations use R-ACH channels. It is done as a response to the paging messages.
a 9.15.4 Reverse Enhanced Access Channel (R-EACH)
Tlus channel is used to initiate communication with the base stations. It is used by the mobile stations.
Tlus channel is meant to minimize colJisions. Hence. reduces the access channel's power.
Tecb-Neo Publications_~ AutlJorsinspi'rr inoowioD
-A SAOONSHAH Yea~

C
, 0.16.8 R11wr11 Comm n Cotttt-nl Ch~Mf ('' CCCH)
~ 9.15.0 Rovc,rao ~ltatod Control Ch1rmol (R•OCCtf)
•M'M!iffiufllii*Hil!•ridil#IINil4ii
UQ. 1.11.J \Yf11t "'°'1 nc,te an : Handoff ~ •.

UQ, ..,,., ['l)lai\ handoff k'I 30 ...,._,,,rn,
1lti• h:iMcl rrplu C', lltt d1ru w,J IIU~ ~ lie u-iJ t'tvtll II i~ u~ fi.'I( mc~Utlllf. aoJ """tv' ,.~ li.i,t,, , ~;.
Al<'rtf "1tJ1 the'< "f 1:il, tltc f'C\ct'-C d.-tu tnl~ twmch 1J1t u-cJ
HandoN In 30 l"yalem
W11h COMA :ill tltt frc4uc1 ) hari.h c:i.n t'C u«d an ~JI cell In CD~IA 2n RF ch~ncl u-.c, .utKt " ' I r! M.. ~
"1th OP ' K 111odul:s11on.
TI1e t,:tnd" 1dlh of h3rmcl ,~ 1.15 MI IL Dc-c:iu\C o ( this ) 1cm c.1p.lC1t) i) incrY.1.-.cd rruny folJ
In Cl>MA tJic :.prc.:.id pcC'tJ\lm 11-ic-thocl u-.ai frequency d.J,cn1t)' 1s u\C(ul in II bile cn,uvnO'c nt "'1tJ1111ult1p.ilh ta!..::,.
Tik: O)MA )' 1cm u-.c- complete 1.25 MIi, h.:i.nd\l, idth for , oi c tr.rn,mh11on.
Ai. the frrqucncy h not ch!Ulftni,t "hen n bile h cro ~jng the cell, h.tnJoff 1s not rcquitnl ln'\tc..J the Cl)~tA t )'l.tt'O
U~) !!i(tn •tlllndotr.
In . fl h:mdofT mobile o)rnmunic!ltes wilh '"u ("(IIS ~mult3JlC'OIJ ly in)tc.v.i of "1tcl11ng from one c:cll to tl,c c,ct,n •
This ,:_ivci. ) p :tl' C diH·ri.il)' of :m1c-n nli. h :ni:iids d.rorring of n.Jl Fig. 9.15 2(11) ant.I (b) \how, h::ud tundu(f ll.'I...! t,(jft .
h3J'ldoff.
(,) ll.11'\.1 h:i.ndotf
Tl,nij • 1 Trn.t • 2
bor1 bb.nUng IOoe5 a, moblk m,nts 10 crlJ
(a) : Ju.rdtwidolf
Tlmii - 1 l\rna , 2 lmi • 3

MobllC' rom1nuruntrt • Ith hhtha'.M' ,t•lkllh Jrut.itlllncVU-,Jy, lwutt r,o d•ta b b1
(b) : Sttn hukiolf
tlt, 9.1~.2: Cl>MA harJ iu.d 1e.lll b.wdoff
l
~ Mobile Comm. SysJem (MU-Sem.7-E&TCJ
9-26 3G Technology
The onJy disadvantage of soft handoff is increased load
in the switching station.
In CDMA syStem soft handoff results from the

Soft handott zone
system's capability to deliver signals to a mobile
through more than one cell. Thus, the handoff
sequence deals with the transition from the donor cell t
C
to both the donor and the receiving cell and finally to g

c.o
the receiving cell. This make. before. break process
reduces the probability of dropped calls during
handoff.
distance
Fig. 9.15.3 shows the soft handoff process in the
CDMA system. Fig. 9.1S.3 : Son handofT process in the CDMA system
The handoff is mobile assisted. The mobile with call in progress continues to observe the signal strength from the
neighbouring cells. Handoff is initiated if the signal from a cell is comparable to that of the original cell. Handoff is
initiated by sending control message to the MSC.
The MSC responds by establishing a link to the mobile station through the new cell while maintaining the old link.
If the Mobile Station (MS) is located in the transition region between two successive cells, the ca11 can be supported by
signals through both cells. It eliminates the border cell problems of back and forth hand-off between the two cells.
The original cell with hand-off the call only when the mobile station has been established in the new cell.
~ 9.16 Power Control in 3G System
UQ. 9.16.1 E,g>lain Power control in 3G system. MU - a. 6(b). Dec. 11. 5 Marks. 4(b). May 13. 5 Marks.
a. 3(8). Dec. 17, 10 Marks
UO.9.16.2 Discuss power control in 3G system. MU 7 Q . 1(d). Dec. 12. 5 Marks
UQ. 9.16.3 Explai~ power control mechanism in 3G. MU· 0 . 4(b). May 16. 10 Marks
" .. ·. ·~
; . ,
UQ. 9.18A Why power'control is used in CDMA2000 and WCDMA? MU - a. 3(b). Dec. 16. 10 Marks
A major enhancement of CDMA 2000 over IS-95 that enables higher data rates is power control. Fast forward link
power control is the primary power control enhancement.
The CDMA 2000 systems are interference limited. Decreasing the interference will result in an_improvement in the
capacity of the sys em.
If power control o} both the forward and reverse Jinks is obtained then it has the following advantages :
I
\
(i) The System capacity is enhanced.

(ii) The Mobile battery life is extended.
(iii) The Quality of service (QoS) at different bit rates can be _maintained.
(iv) Radio path impairments are compensated.
Tech-Ne. Publ.icaliom- IF/Jere Ailthon iDSpi~ lllDDraJioa -A S40JJNS/M/J Ye.a1are

~ Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 9-27 3GTochnol~
:, 9.17 Difference between 2G-GSM and 3G-WCDMA
- Sr. .. . . Panimclcr
-•
- 2G GSM
0
11 ·''
. JG-WCDMA
c;;:
.
' ';'1, :
, No. - I .
CDMA with f'DD/fDD
]. Access mode TDMA/f'DD
2. Carrier (Clrnnnel spacing) 200Kl-lz 5 Milz
3. Downlink freq uency 925-960 MHz 2.110-2.170 GHz
4. Uplink frequency 890-915 MHz 1.920-1.980 GHz
5. Channel bandwidth Tol!II 25 MHz bandwidth with 200 KHz per channels 5MHz
6. Radio interface TOMA CDMA
7. Handoff Hard Handover (handofl) Soft Handoff (handover)
8. Modulation technique GMSK QPSK
9. Frame duration 4.615 ms 10m5
JO. Technology 2G 3G
l I. Time slots in a frame fault rate. 8 15
12. Channel bit rate 270.33 Kbps 5.76 Mbps
:, 9.18 Difference between IS-95, WCDMA and CDMA 2000
MU • a. 5(a),
~,ua:....9.18.1 Give the technical differences In W-CDMA and CDMA 2000. ec. 11, 1O Marks.
~ .....~
~>~~- ;···" . a~5(b), D c. 14, 10 Marks
'"~· ,"-
u,{9.18.2 Compare JS-95, WCDMA and CDMA 2000 with respect to channel bandwidth. chip rate, modulati~n schemes,
.. i':.r~ .
?:?\)·>:~~ ," data rates and frame size. MU:-,!!QN a i Dec'.:'fS1~l0'1M.ij'rks,·.a •.-1 d, Ma 16, 5 Marks.
. , ...
I ~~ ~ ., · 0tllMWMDiiti•Mfflffli>@l•fafii:li1•fitfflb,
ub:~{1;:3.:.. ':, ·-~ . .
What are the bandwidths and chip rates used in WCDMA and how they are compare wilh cdmaOne ? •· . r' "' ·;,
~~~"~~·-~~"< . MU• Q. 1 ; oec. 16, s Marks
tt*\~ Jf> ~·:~ :':. < \ •
'MU• a. 4 A , Dec.J7, 6 Marks
UQ."9.18.4 How WCDMA different from CDMA 2000.
WCDMA
1. Year 1993 2000 2003
2. Frequency soot MHz, 1900 MHz 850 MHz, 2100 MHz, 800 MHz, 1900 MHz
1900 MHz, 1800-MHz
3. Channel bandwidth 1.25 MHz 5MHz 1.25 MHz
4. Chip rate 1.2288 M 3.84 Mcps 3.68 Mcps
5. Frame duration (size) 20ms 10 ms 20ms

6. Power control Uplink at 800 Hz slow poyver Open loop + fast closed loop Ope'\loop + fast closed loop
control on forward link. control 1500 Hz at uplink control.
and downlink
7. Number of carriers 20 15 X 12 = 180 48 \
8. Duplex mode FDD ' FDD DD

Tedi-Neo Publica,lions--1Phere Autl,ors in.spire illll()ra/Jon ..)J SAO/INSIMI/ YeDIUl'e

I~] Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem7-E&TC) 9.28 3G Technology
Sr. ' . Parameter.
' IS-95 WCDMA CDMA2000
~o.. '
'
9. Channel coding Convolulional code, block Convolullon code turbo code Convolution code,
code turbo code
10. Synchronization Synchronous Synchronous/Asynchronous Synchronous
mode of base station
11. Modulation scheme QPSK/BPSK QPSK/BPSK Uplink : QPSK
Downlink : BPSK
Packet data
12. Packet data
- Load based packet
scheduling
Packet data transmitted as
short circuit switched calls.
13. Efficient radio Not required Yes provides quality of Not needed
resource service
management
14. Uplink frequency 824-849 MHz 1850-1910 MHz 1920-1980 MHz
15. Downlink frequency 869-894 MHz 1930 - 1990 MHz 2110-2170 MHz
16. Parameter 5-95 WCDMA . CDMA2000
17. Channels/Carrier 64 64 64
18. Spectrum allocated 50MHz 120 MHz 120 MHz
19. Speech FEC rate 1/2 or 1/3 1/2 1/2
20. Data rate 15 - 95A 14.4 Kbps 2 Mbps 1X: 144 Kbps
15 - 958 115 Kbps 1XEV- DO 384 Kbps
1XEV - DV 4.8 Mbps
21. Handover Sett Handoff Soft handoff Soft handoff
22. Technology 2G 3G 3G
:> 9.19 University Questions
llt Dec. 201 o

11
a. 7(b) Give the 3G CDMA evolutionary path. (Ans. : Refer section 9.12) (10 Marks)
11
• May2011
Q. S(b) Discuss IMT 2000 system. (Ans.: Refer section 9.1) (10 Marks)
Q. 6(b) Give the 3G CDMA evolutionary path. (Ans. : Refer section 9.12) (10 Marks)
11
• Dec. 2011
Q. 5(a) Give the technical differences in W-CDMA and CDMA 2000. (Ans. : Refer section 9.18) (10 Marks)
Q. 6(b) Explain Handoff and Power control in 3G system. {Ans. : Refer sections 9.15.6 and 9.16) (10 Marks)
Tcdi-Nco PubliC4tion,_ _ JPbcrc Authors inspire innon1tion -A S.4011NSLWI Ye.nture
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(10 u.ta)
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/ ~ a.~ COLL\ 20CO. (Ans.. : Ra!w sac:ion 9.18) (10 Marta)
- lby2015
0. 6{1} Di:,:,~.,~ lMT 20:)J. (Arts.: Re'et 5«!lOn 9. 1) (10 lbrb)
. - Dec. 2015
Q.. ~ ~ W-COUA f.onQ.--:S ctQ: a Id s::u:::ln ii de::.ai. (Ans.. : Refer s«:aJ 9.5) (10Ma,bJ
-'ju:I/1.f!illU/ r-.r

,....
[iJ MobDe
- Convn. System (MU•Som.7-E&TC)
a. 4(a) Compare 1s-95• WCOMA

o.:,o
nnd CDMA 2000 w"h IODpoct lo t h91'l0f'jl bntl<t~"''· cf ilf, , ..~. tnrJltMffon
schemes, data ratoa and fnamo alio. (An,,. : notor , oe11on '1. IO) (10 .,_k.e)
• May2016
a. 1(c) Elabomto tho concopt of IMT 2000 fnmlly. (~m,. : notor Soctlort o.,, (5 M«k.t)
a. 1(d) Olfferontlnte botwoon WCDMA ond CDMA 2000. (Am,. : f1of,Jr r "CfJori o.tO) (t; M.-rU)
a. 4(b) Expla1n power control mochnnlsm In 30. (Ans.: notor &ctJon o.,tJ) (OUMU)
• Dec, 2016
Q. 1(d) What are the bandwidths and chip rates used In WCDMA and how they are comparo With cdrMOM ?
(Ans. : Refer section 9.18) (5 M•u)
a. 3(b} Why power control is used in CDMA2ooo and WCDMA? (Ans. : Reier soctJon 9. 16) (10 Uaru)
a. 4(a} Draw a neat diagram of UMTS system architectures with interfaces.(Ans.: Refer section 9.3) (10 Marb)
•• May 2017
a. S(b) Explain IMT 2000 family. (Ans. : Refer section 9.1) (10 Marks)
,. . ()ec.2017
a. 3(B) Explain the Handoff and power control in 3G systems.(Ans.: Refer section 9. 15.6 and 9. 16) (10 MMb)
a. 4(A) GN'8 the main features of WCDMA and how are they different from CDMA 2000.
(Ans. : Refer section 9.2 and 9.18) (10 Martt.a)
• May2018
Q. 1(c) What is node B, explain its responsibilities. (Ans. : Refer section 9.3.2) (5 Martaa)
a. 2(a) Sketch UMTS Network Architecture and explain it in detail. (Ans. : Refer section 9.3) (10 Mark.a)
Q. 2(b) Compare 1S95, WCOMA and CDMA2000. (Ans. : Refer sec1ion 9. 18) (10 Uarb)
,... Dec. 2018
0. 3(11) Compare and contract WCDMA with CDMA one for various performance measures.
(Ans. : Refer section 9.18) (10 Uarb)
0. S(b) Discuss cell search and synchronization in 3G. (Ans. : Refer section 9.10) (10 Mara)
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~ Mabie Conm. system CMU-Sem.7-E&TC) 10-1 3GPP/LTE
~ 10.1 Introduction
In~. the 3GPP (Third Generation Partnership Project) industry was developing the 4G systems after the rollout
of WCD.\U. S)~ems. This was because WCDMA systems wecc incapable of providing high spectral efficiencies and
lht:l r a t e s ~ for the \\ireless applications.
This led to the dc,-clopment of a new complete packet switched network that supports MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple
Output). OFDMA (Orthogo03l Frequency Division Multiple Access) and OFDM modulation. It is called as 3GPP
~ Tenn ~--olution or L TE.
LTE is being deployed for supponing high speed cellular services. Future releases for supporting_data rates upto
l Gbps. MThlO for increasing the spectral efficiency led to form called as L TE Advanced.
lbe 3GPP LTE "'ill allow the cellular communication sen ice to move ahead to cater the needs for cellular technology
to 2017 3lld future.
3GPP LTE is :m IP based network. It supports IPv4 and IPv6.

T:ihle 10.1.l lists the 3GPP LTE specifications for uplink and downlink.
Table 10.1.1 : LTE specifications
Parameter Details
Channel band\l.idth 1 MHz. 3 MHz., 4 MHz, 51'.ffiz, 10 MHz, 15 MHz, 20 MHz
Data type Packet switched data (voice and data)
Duplexing FDDandTDD
Spectral efficiency Uplink 2-3 times Release6 HSUPA
Downlink 3 - 4 times Release 6 HSDPA
Peak uplink speeds 50 Mbps (QPSK). 57 Mbps (16 QAM), 86 Mbps (64 QAM)
Mobility 0- 15 km/hr, 15 - 120 km/hr
Peak downlink speed 326 Mbps (4 x 4 MIMO, 64 QAM)
Access method Uplink - SC FDMA
Downlink- OFDMA
Modulation QPSK, 16 QAM, 64 QAM
IP 1Pv4, IPv6
Latency round trip time - lOms
LTE uses OFDM, OFDMA and SC-FDMA

Table 10.1.2: Difference between WCDMA (UMfS), HSDPA, HSPA + and LTE
. . ,.,. ................ ,.
I -_
Parameter - WCDl\lA HSPA/HSDPA/HSUPA HSPA+ - L'l'E -«---~-=--~
.·.... ~"":, . .
(UMfS) -" ._... -
.-,:,:, • ,<'
Maximum download 384 Kbps 14 Mbps 28 Mbps 100 Mbps

speed
3GPP Release Release 99/4 Release 5/6 Release 7 Release 8
Maximum uplink speed 128 Kbps 5.7 Mbps 17 Mbps 50Mbps
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Access method CDMA CDMA CDMA OFDMA I SC-FDMA

Latency round time trip 150ms lOOms 50 ns - IO ms
(maximum)
Years of rollout 2003/4 2005/6 HSDPA 2008/9 2009-IO
2007/8 HSUPA
LTE plans to obtain a peak data rate of 50 Mbps for uplink and 100 Mbps for downlink. Thus, the spectral efficiencies
for uplink and downlink are 2.5 bits/s/Hz and 5 bits/s/Hz.
Table 10.1.3 shows the performance requirements for different mobile stations supported by LTE.
Table 10.1.3 : Performance requirements for MS for different cl~
~· ~~-~,,. -: - ... . . ·. .. ·..fj, •
•-,.,·MS41:~~
'J
.:.•-.·~.--:-."~- Par.ameter -~·-=- ....,. ... .Mobilestation 1. i,!:.. MSl .. :~ MS3~~ -~.;''
' t" 1 ••
"'-·- :- ,f£i~
.;
<
... ;/, . .,
Peak data rate (downlink) 10 Mbps 50Mbps 100 Mbps 150 Mbps 300Mbps
Maximum downlink modulation 64QAM 64QAM 64QAM 64QAM 64QAM
Peak data rate (uplink) 5 Mbps 25 Mbps 50 Mbps SO Mbps 75 Mbps
Maximum uplink modulation 16QAM 16QAM 16QAM 16QAM 64QAM
MIMO maximum layers for downlink I 2 2 2 4
There arc two types of lattncies they are :
User plane latency :· It is the time required to send an IP packet to the Radio Access Network (RAN) edge. In·a single·
mobile station it should not be greater than 5 ms.
Control plane latency : It is the time required for a mobile handset to perform the transition from a non-active mode to
active mode-. It is between 50 ms and I00 ms. A system must support at least 400 mobile stations that arc active per
cell.
It is desired that the throughput of the LTE ~ystems should be 2 - 4 times greater in comparison to WCDMA systems.
The LTE systems should also support
(a) Low speeds (up to 15 km/hr) for data services required for nomadic terminals
(b) High speeds (up to 500 km/hr)
(c) Multimedia broadcast and also multicast services.
The transition from WCDMA/HSPA. systems to LTE should be easy and such that the transition time required for real
time applications is 300-ms while- that for non-real time-applications is 500 ms approximately.
:> 10.2 System Overview
'B. 10.-2.-1 Frequency Bands-and Spectrum Flexibility
Many frequency bands are used for LTE FOO and TDD. The LTE s_pectrum allocated varies for different regions.
Hence, there are many LTE frequency bands and allocations.
• I
- Many of the frequency bands are used-by cellular systems while-the other LTE bands are new.
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The LTE bands between 1 and 22 are for FOO (paired s trum) and bands between 33 and 41 arc for TDD (unpaired
spectrum). pee
The FOO LTE frequency bands are paired to support simultaneous transmission of two frequencies. To roll of the
antenna fitI tenng
· and to provide enough attenuation of transmitted signal there should be sufficient separation
· between
the bands.
Table 10.2.l : FDD frequency bands for LTE operation

1
'
• I
RegJon
•
1 1920 - 1980 211 O_ 2170 60 190 130 Europe,

Asia
0 2 1850-1910 1930 1990 20 America

60 80
3 1710-1785 1805-1880 20 Europe,
75 95
Asia
4 1710-1755 2110-2155 400 355 America

45
5 824 - 849 869 - 894 25 45 20 America
6 830 - 840 875 - 885 10 35 25 Japan
7 2500 - 2570 2620 - 2690 70 120 50 Europe,

Asia
8 880-915 925 -960 35 45 IO Europe,

Asia
9 1749.9- 1844.9-1879.9 35 95 60 Japan

1784.9
IO 1710 - 1770 2110 - 2170 60 400 340 America
11 1427.9 - 1475.9- 1500.9 20 48 28 Japan

1452.9
12 698 - 716 728- 746 18 30 12 America
13 777 - 787 746 - 756 10 -31 41 America

14 788 - 798 758 - 498 10 -30 40 America
15 900 - 1920 2600 - 2620 20 700 680

16 2010 - 2025 2585 - 2600 IS 575 560
17 704- 716 734 - 746 12 30 18 America
18 81 S - 830 860 - 875 15 45 30 Japan
19 830 - 845 875 - 890 IS 45 30 Japan
20 832 - 862 791 - 821 30 -41 71 Europe
21 1447.9- 1495.5-1510.9 15 48 33 Japan
1462.9
22 -3410 - 3500 3510 - 3600 90 100 10
23 2000- 2020 2180- 2200 20 180 160
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.
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1660.5
25 1850 - 1915 1930 - 1995 65 80 15 America
-
26 814- 849 859 - 894 30/40 - 10 America
27 807- 824 852-869 17 45 28
28 703-749 758 - 803 45 55 10 America
29 .. 717 - 728 11 - - America
30 2305- 23 15 2350 - 2360 10 45 35 America
31 452.5 - 457.5 462.5 - 467.5 5 10 5
Table 10.2.2 : TDD frequency bands for LTE operation
. -- . .. ,. . ·~·•"\".. .. ,.... .. . ·- ·.·,-~·.... '\"<iX.
...,,·•·•·';;tr.<2,- :,;.:_t;+u""'" "
Width of band '' -;.,_.,- ' .. -- -:,•ti¥?! .;, ,✓.; Regiori
• •• T .. ~
,,•;.~'!" ✓~;..-~~-., ·l.li • .,.4"~-,q,

·,., LTE band .. . .Allocation band ;,. •• ;•-..' ....
~
·:.,:>number ,'
.. ~ 1
.. ,, (MHz) . )' ,. , ~., ,'
(MHz) .
. . ,\ ::;·:)'t i,~:r:tt~i;,~fz;?"i
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; ··~· ~,.; .... ; ._;.;_., ·,f;·:j.~jY.(..,:,f·;~~,j,~~:,✓ -4';':f't''
,I • ..-:; •
' '
. . •. •----.A ·~ •.
33 1900 - 1920 20 Europe Asia

34 2010 - 2025 15 Europe Asia
35 1850 - 1910 60 -
36 1930 - 1990 60
37 19 10- 1930 20 Canada, Brazil, Poland, Russia, Sweden, Uganda. Saudi
Arabia
38 2570-2620 50 Europe, Asia. Canada, South Korea

39 1880 - 1920 40 China
40 2300 - 2400 100 Russia, Australia
41 2496 - 2690 194 USA, China, Japan
42 3400- 3600 200 Canada, Chile, Belgium, UK, Japan
43 3600 - 3800 200 UK
44 703-803 100 China
~ 10.2.2 Network Structure (Architecture)
LTE network architecture is simple. It talces care of the radio communication between the mobile and evolved packet
core with only one access point called as eNodeB or eNB.
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f. Servfng gateway
--
It serves as a router for forwarding the data packets between the user equipment and the PDN gateway.
2: PON gateway
It communicates through the external networks through the SGI interface. It is responsible for
(i) routing packets to/from PDNs. (ii) Allocation of IP address (iii) Subscriber charging
· Every PDN is identified through an Access Point Name (APN). 0
·a-. Moblllty management entity (MME)
It handles the signaling of messages and security, tracking the user equipment.
4. Home· subscriber server-(HSS)
.It is a database comparing.all the information related to subscribers and users.

It.provides support functions in
(i) User authentication (ii) Mobility management (iii) Call setup (iv) Access authorization
~ 10.2.l LTE P-rotocol Structure
MU - a. 2(a). Ma 16. 10 Marks
t:.,./. ntemet prot

'pif.;; ,. ,', ,
User traffic
PDCP PDUs Q
Radio Bearers
Layer2 ·
ALC PDUs
Logical channels
MAC Control ~~b (Medium Afx;ess-:,-
'----------Hf;.,. Control)
{ftt ';:
A
' -~
L1 Conflguratlon and MAC PDUs

measurement Transport channels
Flg.10.2.2: LTE protocol structure

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[i] Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sern.7-E&TC) 10-7
3GPP/LTE
ll compruc5 of many layers.
Layer 1 : It c.omprises of the pilyac:al layer (PHY). It handles all the information from MAC tranSpOrt cbanncls over
the air interface.
[t also lwldles the following func:lions:

(i) Power control (ii) Coding and modulation
(iii) Cell search (iv) Cink adaptation (AMC)
(v) Data transmission over lhc air interface.
(vi) Measurements related to Radio Resource Control (RRC) layer 3.
Layer 2 : lt comprises of the Medium Access Layer (MAC).
It handles lhc following functions :
(i) Scheduling of PDUs
(ii) Mapping between the transport and logical chrumcls.
(iii) Priority handling between user equipments through dynamic scheduling.
(iv) Hybrid automruic rcpc:At re.queM (I IARQ) for rctra.nsmis.sions on the physical layer in case of erro~.
Radio link control
The POCP sends the CUl3 p:id:ets called &nkt' l>uta Unlt.s (SDU) 10 the RLC.
lt.s function is to send the d.:iu p:id:cts to t11e upper !Jycr Protocol Data Units (PDUs). The siz.e of POU can be
dyrumt~C4lly adju tcd becau,sc of variations in the data rares during trans missio n of data paclccts.
RLC Clbllrcs tlut the PDUs lll'C received nt the rrcciver end and proccsscd to the POCP in correct sequence if the PDUs
arc not rettived. rctr.insmission request i scnL
A POU an comprise or one or mort' bits from the SDUs. A SOU can be mapped Into sqmrots such that the
~mentscan bc Lrarumlttcd Into many l'DUs.
Laytr 3 : Radio Resource Control (RRC)
lt functions are
(i) Paging
(ii) Establishing connections and releasing them
(iii) Handling sc.curity functions
(iv) Broadca.~ng system information to Access Stratum (AS)/Non-access stratum (NAS).
The LTE transmission protocol has many layers.
The PlXJ> protocol is responsible for

(i) Data intcgrity.
(ii) Maintenance of PDCP sequence numbers..

(iii) IP header compression and decompression.
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:> 10.3 Frames, Slots and Symbols
lua. 1D.J.1 OisaJU the lrames and slots in LTE. What Is Rosou-co Bb:k ?
for .1 3G LTE 1,y1,u:m~ Lo main1.1in S)'nchroniu1ion nnd h:indlc infomu tion hctw-ccn the u~r cq,J1prrct;t ~-d ~K
!,1.'lt.ion, :in LTE frame 1w been defined.
Depending on lhe duplexing method (FOO or IDD). there are two types of LTE fr.in~ .
T~ I: Type I frame i used for LTE FDD mode system~.

Type 2 : Type 2 fr:lll-= is used for LTE TDD mode systems.
fig. 10.3.1 i.how Type I LTE fr.une structure.
LTE frame length = 10 m.s
LTE framo longlh = 10 ms
~
~ I
I MO I •1 12 I •3 I •4 I •s 1------------· j •1e f 11a j
I• Sub-lrama •I
J,lg. 10.3.1 : Type I LTE frame struc.-ture
A rad.lo frame is the fundamenl.!ll time unit for a LTE transmission. Tiie overall length of a (ram: is 10 a n . ~ ~
is subdi ,•ided into 20 sJots. A subframe consi ts of 2 lots as ~own in fig. I0.3. 1. 1ne length of 11 sub(nmc li O..S ~
A LTE frame hru IO subframes. faery l0 1 compri of 6 or 7 symbols.
Fig. 10.3.2 shows a time slot in LTE.
One Rrsoura Block is of0.5 ms, it is the mallest unit of resource assignment. LTE US(1 oro~t "' ith I ? ~
Such that spacing betl4ttn the canim is M = 15 kHz.. It results in symbol dur.uion of 67 ).b: 10-&8 Ti, ,ocb du! ift i
slor we can allow 6 or 7 - OfDM symbols in a cyclic prefix,
Ono !tot " 0 5 ms
CP lp 10 CP LB 11 CP LB 12 CP LO 13 CP LB 14 CP LB 115 CP,
J.-ti I• •I
TCP• 100Te Ge.7µ.s'" ~ Til
1'11. 10.3.2: Ont' Umt sJoc ln I.Tl-: (<:Pt cyclic pn-lh)

◄
Ii] Mobllo Comm. sx:1em \MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 10-9
3GPP/LTE
Fig. 10.3.3 shows II typo 2 LTE TDD frame structure.

Ono framo (1 o ms)
14 ti
H11ll lmmo
I• "
Sub lramo
1ms fl
14
'~:3 l!t·~::.
14 "
:'....~ -------·I~--~- #9 :.: H
_ _ ___..;..__ __,_.-r-L-r-'-T"'
I
GP GP
Fig. 10.3.3: LTE TDD frame structure
The IO ms TDD frame consists of two half frames such that every half frame is of 5 ms. These half-frames are spJit
into 5 subframes such that each subframe is J ms long.
The subframes arc divided into a subframe with .three fields as shown in Fig. 10.3.3. They are
DwPTS : Downlink pilot time slot
UpPTS : Uplink pilot time slot
GP : Guard period
For uplink to downlink transition guard period is not necessary.
~ 10.4 Modulatlon
LTE uses OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) as its modulation format as it can overcome multipath
delays, inter symbol interference and delay spread.
- The inter symbol 'interference can ·be avoided by adding a guard period at the starting of every data symbol. It is called
as cyclic prefix (CP} andlte]ps the rec.eiver to sample the waveform.
The .standard Jength of .cyclic prefix .is 4.69 µs to overcome .the delay spread. F.or .a .carrier spacing .of 15 .kHz, the
symbol length= 66.7 µs.
Fig. 10.4.1 shows block diagram ofDFf precoded OFDM.
On downlink OFDM in LTE comprises 2048 subcarriers with a 15 kHz between them. The data frame the mobile
. .. ' ,- . . "
stations is multiplexed on different resource block such that each resource block has different modulation.
~ - . .
'
The .ovCJ:811.signal is give.n to .an foverse fas_tfo11Jie1 transform (JEFJ) .transformation where .the CP is found .an.d signal
is transmitted. ...-
On uplink the mobile station maps symbols such that the number of subcarriers is same as the input DFI' while the
output is mapped on subcarriers and further processed.
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,,.....~.,,,
.~~-~--,~
.
10-10
.
3GPP/LTE
-
'·
'' · · _;··:! !.o:t ···.t • :,. ... _,\. .' .·
Parallel
mer ., N-polnt to
pt~ · IFFT Serial ~ To DACand RF
(Radio frequency)
Fig. 10.4.l : DFf precoded OFDM
Inorder to overcome the effect of multi path fading in UMTS, LTE uses Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple
Access (OFDMA) for the downlink. Orthogonal frequency-division multiple access (OFDMA), is a frequency-division
multiplexing (FDM) scheme used as a digital multi-carrier modulation metho.d. OFDM serv.es the LTE r.equirement for
spectrum flexibility and enables cost-efficient solutions for very wide carriers with high peak rates.
LTE uses a pre-coded version of OFDM called Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access (SC-FDMA) in the
uplink. This is to compensate for a drawback with nonnal OFDM, which has a very high Peak to Average Power Ratio
(PAPR).
High PAPR requires expensive and inefficient power amplifiers with high requirements on linearity, which increases
the cost of the terminal and drains the battery faster.
SC-FDMA solves this problem by grouping together the resource blocks in such a way that reduces the ne£d for
linearity, and so power consumption, in the power amplifier. A low PAPR also improves coverage and the ceH-edge
perfonnance.
:> 10.5 Coding
Fig. 10.5.1 shows the LTE encoding method.
I •
.Eig.10.5.1:.LTRencocling-1Ddhod
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~ Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 10-11
3GPPIL"1'E
,, eyc:nc Redundancy check

. gh the followin_g code
A cycbc redundancy check of 24 bits/16 bits/8 bits is dctcnnincd for each transport block tbrou
polynomials and added al lhe end of lhe block.
I 07
G(D) = D + + D4 + Dl + D + I for 8 bits CRC
G(D) c 01• + 012 +Os+ I
for 16 bit CRC
6
G(D) = [>1A + D23 + D + D5 + D + 1 for 24 bi~ CRC Or
= D24 +on + 0 1• + on ·+ o•• + D11+ o•o + o' + D6 + Ds + o• + Dl + D + 1
. . . . . the I ngth of a
TilC data arc dmdcd 1mo code blocks if the transport block is large. In such a condrtton · c
code block •
6144 bits. For c,•cry code block. CRC is determined.
,r Convolutlonal codea
LTE uses convolutional codes for encoding of the control data.

TilC oonYolutio nal code hM the following polynomials :
2 l 6
GI D = I + Dl + D' + Os + D6 GID = I +D+D +D +D
GJD = 1+ o + 0 2 + o• + o"
rr Turbo codes
They :ire used for encoding lhc 113yl03d dnl.3 for LTE sySkrm.
Fig. 10.5.2 ~ws the turbo encoder.
Tbcsc codes arc gi,'Cll tO uplink :ind do11i'tllink ~ clunncl (UL-SCJl DL-SCH) and also the multi-case channel•
...--------------+----P(l)
S(l)
P(I) - ........-o
.
t
.
I
!I ___________ ..,.._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
-
➔
ln18r1eaver
S'(t)
.
+
.
I
I
.t----------....----------1
I
II
I
'·-- --------------------------------------------------+ P'(t)

Flg.10.S.2: Turbo encoder structure
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{J;] Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 10-13
3GPP/LTE
a 10.6.3 Single Input, Multiple Output

II is called as receive diversity. As shown in Fig. 10.6.1 a single 1n1nsrnl11cr drives two receiver outpul!I RxO and Rx I.
The receiver antenna gain is obtained in temis of
SIMO
I
fading resistance by delennining the corrclalion and Rooolvorn
multipath fading between the antennas and also the
Tran~lttar J---+•® ~ RxO
micro diversity environment.
Rx1
SIMO provides better signal 10 noise pcrfonnance in
gain resulting in good throughput on downlink.
Fig. 10.6.2 : Single input multiple output using one Input
SIMO systems provide more throughput compared to and two outputs (Receive diversity)
SISO systems with micro-diversity.
a 10.6.4 MISO, Multiple Input, Single Output

MISO
Transmitters
Txo r---"
I- . . ~ y I:X"'"'"' I
..rx1
.;,..,.:,___" ~ -.-· . .. ·.
Fig. 10.6.3 : Multiple input single output (MISO) (Transmit diversity)
Fig. 10.6.3 shows a MISO system with two inputs Tx0 and Tx l and one output Rx. II is also called as Transmit
diversity.
Both the transmitters send the same data stream. However, the coding used for both is different.
It provides more fading resistance and is used in LTE, SFBC (Space Frequency Block Coding).
a 10.6.5 MIMO, Multiple Input, Multiple Output
UQ; tots~: ' < 'iain MIMO with' its advantages and applications. MU• a . 6 b. Dec. 18. 7 Marks
TxO p ~ ~ RxO
~
Input data
Transmitters Receivers
stream
Tx1 .P I· . t-> Rx1.
Fig. 10.6.4 : MIMO, Multiple input multiple output with two transmitters and two receivers with high speed
independent data streams
MIMO systems provide multiple parallel data streams. The data streams are decoded by scattering produced by cluster.
Channel estimation method~ are used to separate the individuaJ channels at the receiver end.
If the order of MIMO is increased, i.e. 4x4 MIMO then four antennas on the system and mobile would be prncticaUy
difficult. It wo~ld need strong scattering environment covering multiple paths and increasing the system capacity or
coverage. Orthogonal independent channels are created as a result of scattering.
To improve the signal quality SFBC diversity processing is used in the LTE systems.
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~ Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 10-14 3GPP/LTE
CZ
With two antennas at all the antenna sites, the typical MIMO is 2 x 2 MJMO for an HSPA+ and LTE indoor system.
The data speed can be doubled if the scattering is perfect with no correlation between the signal paths.
Practically we cannot double the data speed because of interferences in buildings.

MIMO systems provide better comparison compared to SISO systems. ln open areas MlMO indoor performance can be
increased by 30% as compared to SISO systems and in high scattering regions the MIMO systems indoor performance
can be around 100%. Thus, we can obtain high throughput with MlMO.
WLAN (Wi-Fi) uses MIMO with 802.11 n standard. Multiple small antennas are present in modem devices like
laptops, data cards, mobiles, tablets.
The HSPA uses MIMO in commercial networks. But installing two antennas in mobile devices is difficult practically
considering the mobile hardware limitations.
Spatial separation for antennas changes from 3 to 7 wavelengths. However, with modern developments the spatial
separation use two-to three wavelengths or three-to-five wavelengths depending on the environment.
Some mobile devices are supporting dual antennas that operate for MIMO. Both the antennas are cross-polarized.
For optimizing systems to obtain maximum throughput we need to consider following parameters :
(1) Signal quality : On the MIMO paths, the signal to noise ratio (SIN) should be good for maintaining 64 QAM
high modulation performance throughput the cell.
(2) Low noise factor on uplink : We need to have a system with good uplink performance, low noise factor for
indoor LTE and HSPA systems. This keeps the mobile transmit power low.
(3) Ease of Installation : The systems should be deployed to provide maximum throughput We can obtain 85%
perfonnance with implementation in 95% of buildings and 95% performance with implementation in 10%
buildings.
(4) Uniform coverage: To obtain maximum performance the system should provide unifonn coverage.
:> 10.7 Logical and Physical Channels
~ 10.7.1 Mapping of data onto Logical Subchannels
uaJo.1:11A<5'#~plng'.bf~1,elsls ichlfive<i'~lh lay~rs i~LTEprcitoool lliyers?".,·: MU -_a. 6(._a). Dec. 18. 10 Marks
LTE technology supports three channel types. They are:
(a) Logical channel
(b) Transport channel and
(c) Physical channels.
The LTE channels are used by lower layers in order to provide services to the upper layers.
The logical channels are identified by the type of information that they carry .They are used for providing services to
the MAC layer. The logical channels are mapped onto the transport channels .
The transport channels are identified by the physical characteristics like subcarrier, time etc. The transport channels
are mapped onto the physical channel as shown in Fig. 10.7.1. ·
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Downlink channel•
10-15
Upllnk channel• __ 3GPP/LTE
__,
1
DCCH Logical CH I
..__7'--" ~ - - ~-__.channels
Transport
channels
Physical
channels
P.RACH PUSCH I- PUCCH J
Fig. 10.7.1: Mapping between logical, Transport and physl~I channels
~ 10.7.1(A) Logical Channels
The logical channels are identified by the type of information lhat lhey carry. They arc used for providing services to
the MAC layer .
Control channels: The LTE control channels carry the infonnation about the control plane. The LTE c~ntrol channels
are
1, Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH) : This control channel is used for providing system information that is
broadcastcd to all mobile terminals connected in a cell.
1. Paging Control Channel (PCCH) : This control channel is used for paging multiple mobile stations (MSs) on a
network.
3. Common Control Channel (CCCII) : This control channel is used for accessing information randomly e.g. for
actions needed while selling up a connection.
4. Multicast Control Channel (MCCH) : This control channel is used for information needed for broadcast or
multicast reception.
- Traffic channels: The LTE traffic channels carry the user-plane data .
- The LTE traffic channels are :

1. Dedicated Traffic Channel (DTCH) : This traffic channel is used for the transmitting the data on uplink or
downlink.
1. Multicast Traffic Channel (MTCH) : This traffic channel is used for transmitting broadcast or multicast data.
a. 10.7.1(8) Transport Channels
The transport channels are identified by the physical characteristics like subcarrier, Lime etc. The transport channels
on uplink and downlink arc as follows :
Downlink
1. Broadcast Channel (BCH): The LTE transport channel maps to Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH). It has a fixed
format, allowing the mobile station to directly listen to it.
Tedt-Nee Puhliaition1_ ~ Authon iMpi~ inno.-atioa .-4 SAO/INSHAH Yt11ture

~ Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 10-16 3GPPA.TE
2. Downlink Shared Channel (DL-SCH) : This transport channel is the main channel for downlink data transfer. It is
used by many logical channels.
3. Paging Channel (PCB) : It is used to convey the PCCH.
4. Multicast Channel (MCH) : This channel is used to transmit MCCH infonnation in order to set up multicast or
broadcast transmissions. It supports systematic scheduling.
Uplink
l. Uplink Shared Channel (UL-SCH) : This transport channel is the main channel for uplink data transfer. It is used
by many logical channels.
2. Random Access Channel (RACH) : This is used for accessing infonnation randomly.
'B.. 10.7.1(C) Physical Channels
Downlink
1. Physical Broadcast Channel (PDCH) : It canies the system infonnation for mobile equipment's needing access to
the LTE network. It carries BCH channel.
2. Physical Control Format Indicator Channel (PCFICH) : This channel indicates the user equipment about the
received signal fonnaL It does not carry any transport channel.
3. Physical Downlink Control Channel (PDCCH) : The main function of this channel is to carry mainly scheduling
infonnation of different types:
(a) Downlink resource scheduling (b) Uplink power control instructions
(c) Uplink resource grant (d) Indication for paging or system information
It does not carry any transport channel.

1. Physical Hybrid ARQ Indicator Channel (PIDCH) : This channel is used for reporting the Hybrid ARQ status. It
carries the HARQ ACK/NACK signal indicating whether a transport block has been correctly received. It docs not
carry any transport channel.
2. Physical Downlink Shared Channel (POSCH) : This channel canics the control and user data for downlink. It
carries PCH channel.
3. Physical Multicast Channel (PMCH) : This channel comprises the control infonnation and . payload for
broadcasting or multicast . It carries MCH channel.
· 4. Synchronization Signal (SS)
Uplink
1. Physical Uplink Shared Channel (PUSCH) : It carries the control and user data for uplink. It ~es· UL-SCH
channel.
2. Physical Uplink Control Channel (PUCCH) : I (
ltcompmes:
(a) Sc~uling resource requests - (b) Channel state feedback (c) HARQ feedback bits.
3. Physical Random Access Channel (PRACH) : This uplink physical channel is used for random access functions.
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~ Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 10-18 3GPP/LTE
a 10.8.2 Retransmissions and Reliability

Retransmission
New transmission
7 8
To higher layer
Fig. 10.8.1 : HARQ Scheduling
For delivering good transmission quality retransm.i~ion is an important feature in LTE.

It comprises two elements :
I) Hybrid ARQ {HARQ) : it retransmits the data blocks that are correctly not received along with multiple
transmission . It speeds up transmission and has same strategy for transmission on uplink as well as downlink.
The transmitter send the data block ,on reception the receiver decodes the block .lfthe decoding is successful it sends a
ACK signal otherwise a NACK signal is sent to indicate that block needs lo be retransmitted as shown in Fig. 10.8.1.
On uplink data block is retransmitted after 8 sub-frames while on downlink the retransmission can occur through
arbitrary resource blocks (RBs).
After successful transmission of a packet a new data packet can be transmitted.
However the drawback of this method is that between retransmission there is a delay of 8 frames .This increases the
system payload data that needs to be transmitted.
ii) Radio Link Control {RLC) : It is a transmission protocol. It handles the data block transmissions that do not
succeed after HARQ. However it is a slow process in comparison to HARQ. The advantage of this method is
that it provides system reliability for transferring confidential data. lf retransmission is not needed it can be
switched off.
a 10.8.3 Power Control
In LTE power control is needed to reduce inter cell interference, increase battery life. Power control in LTE uplink
system comprises open loop as we~! as closed loop control.
Downlink power control is not specified .Base station can adjust the power as needed.
Tecb-Neo Publicatiom__ ~ Aathoninspire inooratioa -4 S.4CIDNSJJ,4// Ymture

~ Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7•E&TC) 3GPP/LT_§.
10-19
-
-
-; 10,9
ua. 10.9.1
Comparison between 3GPP/LTE and advanced LTE
Compare between 3GPP/l.TE and advanced LTE. I

Panme'ter · .LTE
3GPP releases Rel 8/9 Release 10
Access melhodology OFDMA I SC - FDMA OFDMA / SC - POMA
Approximate latency - 10 ms
<5 ms
roll out time
Spectral efficiency Moderate 3 times greater lhan that of LTE
Peak data rates Uplink 100 Mbps@ 20 MHz Uplink - I000 Mbps @ I00 MHz
Downlink 50 Mbps @ 20 MHz Downlink - 500 Mbps @ IOO MHz
Mobility < 350 kmph s; 350 kmph, ~ 500 @ frequency band
first release 2009 2011
Generation 3.9G 4G
Duplex mode TDDandFDD TDD andFDD
Coverage upto 100 km Uplo 100km
Channel bandwidlh 1, 4, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20 MHz Upto 100 MHz
VoIP capacity 80 users per sector/ MHz (FDD) > 80 users per sector/MHz (FOO)
Other qualities Full IP-based architecture 3G compatible QoS Full IP-based architecture 3G compatible
support QoS support
:) 10.10 University Questions
lllt' Dec. 2015
Q. 4(b) Draw LTE network architecture and discuss it in detail.(Ans. : Refer section 10.2.2) (10 Marks)
11
lt' May 2016
Q. 2(a) Describe the difference between service data units and protocol data units. How is mapping from one to
other is done. (Ans.: Refer Section 10.2.3) (10 Marks}
Q. 3(b) Draw the block diagram of LTE transmitter and receiver. Explain them in detail.
(Ans. : Refer Section 10.2.2) (10 Marks)
1t' Dec. 2016

11
Q. 5(a) Draw a neat diagram of LTE Network Architecture and explain in details.
Q. 5(b) Why LTE uses OFDMA for DL and SC-FDMA (Single Carrier FDMA) of UL ?
Q. 6(a) Compare between 3GPP/LTE and advanced LTE. (Ans. : Refer section 10.9) (5 Marks)
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11
•
MobUo Comm. S1!18m (MU•Som.7-E&TC)
May2017
10-20
-
3GPPt1..TE
a. 4{b) Draw and explain 3GPP LTE architecture. (Ans.: Refer section 10.2.2) (10 Marks)
11
• Dec. ·2011
a. 4{B) Elaborate on the contribution of MIMO techniques in LTE. (Ans. : Refer section 10.6} (10 Marks)
a. S(A) Discuss the frames and slots in LTE. What is Resource Block? (Ans. : Refer section 10.3) (10 Marks)·
1t May 2018
11
a. 6(b) Sketch and Explain LTE network architecture and various interfaces.
(Ans.: Refer section 10.2.2) (10 Marks)
11111
• Dec. 2018
O.1(d) Which modulation techniques are used for uplink and downlink in LTE and discuss their give advantages
of OFDM. (Ans.: Refer section 10.4) (5 Marks)
0. 5(a) Discuss the main elements of the LTE-SAE network of EPC (Evolved Packet Controller).
(Ans. : Refer section 10.2.2) (10 Marks) .
a. 6(a) How mapping of channels is achieved with layers in LTE protocol layers?
(Ans.: Refer section 10.7) (10 Marks)
a. 6(b) What is Multi antenna technology? Explain MIMO with its advantages and applications.
(Ans. : Refer sections 10.6 and 10.6.5) (10 Marks)
Chapter Ends...
□□□

-
Advanced Techniques for 4G
Deployment
1 1
11 . 1 -4G lntroduc1k>n and Vision ·······················································. ........... ....................,. ......·····•···········•············ 1 •
11.,., 40 N'Chi1octure ····-·········-··~ ···-· ....- .. 11-1

··················································-·········•·""·.. -·•···················. . ..
""
11.1 .2
,._ft_,_,,.
~~
. ,_ and ....... _
vuarlldonstlcs of 40 Wlrolo" Systorns ............................................. _. ...•
....... 11 ·2
s-toms
11 . 1.3 AdvanlaQOs of 40
,- ······································..·············...-··-·-···········--- ···--- ·- ·················· 11 ·2
11 .1.4 Diudvan\AnA ... ·o s ............11 ·2
wv S VI .. )'$10fTII ·····-·--········ .. ·-···········--········-··········-···--·····-·· ········ ··--
_ _ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ __ __ _ _ _ 11 · 2
11. 1.5 Appl.blt10ns of 40 - ---
MultJ·Mlonno Tochnol,v,,los . ............................................ 11 ·3
11 •2 ""'V .. .... . .................... . ......... ................................... . .
U0. 11.2.1 Wrrto • 5hof1 noco on : Uu!t1&n1«V\a ~ .
ua. 11.2.2 Wmo ahol1 nolo on : •Aultwltenna toctoologlos 0 6(b l fJa 17. 10 fJ:uk5
11.2. 1 Stnar1 Anlonna .....................................-....................---···--·-·- -- - - - ·--······ .. - ·········· 11-3
11.2.1 (A) Featunts ol Smart Antennas Syst&tns ......................_. .............. _. ......... -·--..····-···- ······ ··················11-4
11 .2.1(B) A.cN'an~gos of Stnan Antenna SystenlS ......................... ....................... ..... ....·- ········-·················..... 11 --4
11.2.2 Prindple ol Stnar1 Antenna System .................................................................................................... 11-4
11.2.3 Types ol 5'nart Antenna Systems ...................................................................................................... 11-4
11 .2.4 SISO, Single Input. Slnglo Ou1put Systetn •.................................•............•......•.......•...••.•..•.••..••.••••••.•11 ·5
11 .2.5 Single Input, Multiple Ou1pu1 System .................................................................................................. 11-5
11.2.6 MISO, Multiple Input. Single Output System ···············•···................................................................... 11 ·5
11.2.7 MtMO Systems (Multiple Input Multiple Output) ......................................•..................•..•.••......•.•.••••.•.11-6
UQ. 11.2.3 E.xplm oonc:ept of MIMO w.r.L -40 tec:hilology. 0 Sf bl r.ta 16 10 f.1.1rk'i - - - ----11-6
UQ. 11.2.4 Elaborate on the oontrbrtlon ol MIMO techniques In LTE. 0 -i1B I Dec. t 7 1 0 l.1ark ~ ...................11-6

[i] Mobile Comm. Syslem (Ml>-Sem.7-E&TCJ 11-B Advance Technique 4G Oep~
UQ. 11.2.5 How do we use space-time block code (STBC) and space-time
trelfts oode {STTC) 7 a. S(c). Dec. 15. Dec. 16. 5 Marks ...............................................................11 •7
0
11.3 Software Defined nau,u
--':-
- - -- - - - - -- ----- -- -- ·----·-· -
--
.. ·-· - - · - · · - · -· - - - - - - -- - -.. 11-S
UQ. 11.3.1 What Is the concept of software defined radio ? Baborale in detail.
a. S(a). Dec. 15. 10 Marks .............................................................................................................. 11-a
UO. 11.3.2 Write note on : Software defined radio. a. 6(c). Ma 16. 10 Marks ................................................11-a
ua. 11.3.3 hat is software Defined Radio ? a. 1(C). Dec. 17. 5 Marks ............................................................11-a
UO. 11.3.4 Describe the concept of software defined radio, explain It In detail. a. 6(a). May 18. 10 Marks ......11-a
11 .3.1 Features of Software Defined Radlo...................................................................................................11-8
11.3.2 SOR Arc:hitecture ................................................................................................................................11-9
11.3.3 SOR Rate of Adoption ...................................................................................................................... 11-1 O
11.3.4 Probtents In SDR oonimunlcatlons. .................................................................................................. 11 •11
UQ. 11.3.5 Write short note on : Problems In SOR communication,.
0 . 61a). Dec. 15. 10 Marks. a. 6(a). Ma 17. 10 Marks
11.3.5 Advantages of SOR .......................................................................................................................... 11-11
ua. 11.3.6 E)pla1n the advantages of Software Defined Radio Convnunlcation Systems.
0 . 1(a). Dec. 16. 5 Marks ····-···········..···············..········..············.................................................... 11-11
ua. 11.3.7 List out advantages of SOR in communication. a. 1(e). Dec. 18. 5 Marks ....................................11-11
11.4 Cognitive Radio ........................................................................................................................................ 11-12
11.4.1 Cognitive Transceiver Architecture ................................................................................................... 11 •12
11 .4'.2 Spectrum Sensing ............................................................................................................................11-13
11.5 Principle of Relaying ................................................................................................................................ 11-14
11.6 Fundamentals of Aefaying .......................................................................................................................11-15
11.8.1 Fundamental Protocols...............................................................:..................................................... 11-15
11.7 University Questions ................................................................................................................................ 11-16
• Chapter End■--------·--·-·---·--···········-·--····--·-·····-·-·-········--·········-······················-·-···~11-16
--A SAO/INS1lNI re111are

,..
Mobile Comm. S stem (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 11·1
~ 11.1 4G Introduction and Vision
4G means Fourth Generation wireless network communications technology Standard.

It is developed for complementing and replacing the 3G systems.
The 4G systems are developed such that they will interoperate with the earlier 2G and 3G systems, and also the ns
broadband systems
The 4G systems are designed such that they arc fully IP-based with wireless Internet
4G systems were needed to be developed because of following reasons :

(1) Applications like videos .. multi-media, wireless teleconferencing.
(2) Requirements of global mobility and service portability.

(3) Wide bandwidth requirement
(4) To meet the needs of high data rates for different multimedia applications.
(5) Necessity of a digital packet network.
A 4G system provides IP based wireless internet for multimedia applications involving voice, data and it can be
provided to users on an "Anytime, Anywhere" basis. Also the data rates are high.
_ MAGIC is a term that descn'bcs 4G wireless systems. It indicates :
M : Mobile multimedia A : Anytime anywhere
G : Global mobility support I : Integrated wireless solution C : Customized personal service.
a 11.1.1 4G Architecture
Fig. 11.1.1 shows 4G system architecture.
- ~
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l-=-..:..,1)
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Fig. 11.1.1 : 4G system architedure

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(i] Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 11-2 Advanee Technique 4G Dep""'=

a. 11.1.2 Capabilities and Characteristics of 4G Wireless Systems
1. Faster and more reliable data rates than I00 Mb/s
2. It has a Low cost in comparison to other generations (1G,2G, 3G networks)

3. It supports Bluetooth , Wi-Fi, Wucd and Wlf'Cless Ad Hoc Networking
4. It Supports for multimedia services like teleconferencing and wireless internet
5. Thcy have wide bandwidth
6. 4G networks are completely packet-switched networks.
7. 4G is wireless adhoc peer to peer networking.

8. They have high internet speeds.
9. Provide global rrobility and service portability.
10. The network security is tight.
a 11.1.3 Advantages of 4G Systems
1. They support for interactive voicc. lntcmc:l. streaming video, multimcdm. and other broadband services.
2. They provide :1 complete IP based mobile system.

3. lbey pro\idc :1 better spectral efficiency in compmson to other networks.
,t lbey provide high speed and high dau rates.
S. lbey support Ad-hoc and multi-hop networks .

6. Seamless network of multiple protocols and air interfaces.
a 11.1.4 Disadvantages of 4G Systems
1. 4G wireless systems are expensive.

2. 1bc 4G systems need more battery as compared to earlier systems .
3. They arc difficult to be implemented.

4. The hardware in designing 4G systems is complicated.
a 11.1.5 Appllcatlons of 4G
I. Mobiles 2. Tablets
3. 4G Car 4. Vutual navigation
S. Sensors in public vehicle 6. Crisis management
7. Cameras in traffic light 8. Tele-Geoproccssing applications
9. Fust responder route selection 10. Tele-medicine and education
11. Traffic control during disasters 12. Multimedia-video services
-4 SAanNS1LUI YartaT

0 mm. System (MU-Sem.7-E&TC)
11-3
Multi-antenna Technologtes
u IY for a radio channe1 we assume that there is . . n the network

Os . one input and one output providing connection betwee
- and mobile.
All a
dditional antenna is added on the b
h .
.
ase station uplink for macro deployment in the mobile antenna 5 Yste rns·
This is I
-' .ned mroug a cross po1anzed antenna i e
obtal · · one antenna and two inputs/outputs.
,,
,....e base station connects Tx to one port and Rx t0
•"
th . . . st fading on the
o er port so as . to obtam better resistance again r
uplink•
- Micro-dive~s~ty processing is done by the base station to improve the signal quality by using algorithms like maximal
ratio combmmg.
- 'fhe receive diversity ~elps by providing better resistance against fading on uplink by a margin of 3 - 5 dB depending
00 the antenna separation and operating environment.
_ For 4G syStems to maximize th e throughput over the radio link the signals are combined from scattering and multipatb.
_ The resear.ches are finding out methods to improve the capacity of mobile communication systems without increasing
the spectrum.
This is done with the help of multi-antenna techniques.
Multi-antenna system use smart antenna systems (systems with multiple elements at one link end) and multiple input
multiple output (MIMO) ·systems that consist of multi-antenna elements at both the link ends.
~ 11.2.1 Smart Antenna
Smart antennas are antennas with multfple elements whose signals are adaptively processed to utilize the spatial domain
of the mobile radio channel.
Generally, the-signals received at the different antenna elements are multiplied -w ith their complex weights W.
The antenna adaptively selects the summed up weights.
This smart antenna is also called as adaptive array elements.
Smart antennas combine an antenna array with digital sign~ processing capability to adaptively tran~mit and receive
the data. : I
Smart antennas modify their antenna pattern dynamically in"order to adjust to the noise interference· in the channel.
suppression..
. .
Smart antennas improve the capacity of the wireless systems ?Y combining array gain, diversity gain and interference
Improved .capacity le~ .to higher data rate. Smart .antennas-use multipath w.ave propagation to reduce .the fading
I
Problems. '
1
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Advance Technique 4G Deployment
~ 11.2.1(A) Features of Smart Antennas Systems
L S-ignat gain : The inputs from nmltiple antennas are combined together in-order to optimize the power that is available
2Dd provide the required cov~. ·
1- Spatial diversity : The composite data from the array is utilized for mioiroiziog fading and other multipath propagation
effects.
3. Power efficiency : In order ID optimize the available processing gain in the downlink, the inputs are combined to
omltiple elements.
4. Interference rejection : It improves the signal to interference ratio of the signals. received.
5. SD:\fA (Space dinsioo multiple ac~) : With the help of smart antennas. SOMA adopts to the radio environment
a.. 11.2.1 (B) Advantages of Smart Antenna Systems
Tbe smart antenna system offer following advantages.

1. Better range/coYerage 2. Increased batter life
3. Increased capacity 4. .Multipath rejection 5. Reduced expense
~ 11.2.2 Principle of Smart Antenna System

Antenna User signals
In a smart antenna s y ~ the antenna systems , ,1 User 1 elements separated
are smart/intelJjgeot ~ems----
nUftj
use,-2----
Principle or operation : Every antenna Optical User1
Multipath Analog
Digital
element looks ruffereotly at each propagation signal User2
Beamformer/
processing
path. The smart antennas transmjtters encode switch User3
independent data streams on different paths.
This impro\'CS the sign.al from fading increases

the data rates and decreases the interference. Fig. 11.2.1 : Smart antenna system
Tbe smart antenna systems electronkally adapt ID the RF environment.
Multipath propagation is obtamed through scattering and reflection.
~ 11.2.3 Types of Smart Antenna Systems
Depending on the data transmission methods, the different types of smart antenna systems are
I
1. Switched beam antenna 2. Adaptive array antenna ~
L Switched beam antenna
The switche.d beam antenna systems form multiple fixed beams

with increased sensitivity in some specific directions.
The signal strength i s ~ by the smart antenna systems it then

switches from one fued beam to the other as the mobile moves.
Fig. 11.2.2 : Switched beam system coverage pattern (sectors)
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Mobile Comm. S stem (MU-Sem 7-E&TC) Technique 4G Depl
· 11 ·5 Advance
· hed be d' tional
The sw1tc am antennas co b' . t they form irec
,....,,n, .. with high spatial . . m me the outputs of multiple antennas in such a manner tba
IJ\AU•- se1e.ctiv1ty.
z. Adaptive array antenna
AdaPtive array antennas are the mo tad

. .
now signal processing algorithms t
f signals minimize th . rf
s vanccd smart ante Th
nnas.. ey use
o locate and track the different types
'2= User
erterer
0 • • e inte erence and maximize the required signal

recepuon. . t.2.3 . Adaptive arrsY antenna
Fig. 1 ·
Both the switched beam antennas . . nna depending on the
. and adaptive array antennas increase the grun of the ante
Jocauon of the user. However, the ada • . .
pttve array antenna provides maximum grun
?,. 11.2.4 SISO, Single Input, Single Output System
It implies a single radio channel with One mput

•
and one output. Hence the name ''Single input

single output system".
For the advanced antenna systems while

evaluating the performance gain in terms of
t) Radio Channel
throughput the radio channel specification. Fig. 11.2.4 : SISO (Single Input Single Outpu
?,. 11.2.5 Single Input, Multiple Output System
Transmitter SIMO
Tx
, .....-::;;.,,.-,.,• • ...,.. .. :i..,_
t---P > Receivers
RxO
~ ·fbe1 :· '•
:;!.:""'.=...•- '"' ... :
Fig. 11.2.5 : Single input multiple output using one input and two outputs (Receive diversity)
It is called as receive diversity·. As shown in Fig. 11 .2.5 a single transmitter drives two receiver outputs RxO and RxL
The rece.iver antenna gain is obtained in tenns of fading resistance by determining the correlation and multipath fa.ding
between the antennas and also the microdiversity environment.
SIMO provides better signal to noise performance in gain resulting in good throughput on downlink.
SIMO systems provide more throughput compared to SISO systems with micro-diversity.
a 11.2.6 MISO, Multiple Input, Single Output System

MISO
Transmitters
Receiver
~)~~ ;, i '.
~ =-~~Jli~~1"\.,'.;;1
Fig.' 11.2.6 : Multiple input single output (MISO) (Transmit divei:sity)
Fig. 11.2.6 shows a MISO system with two inputs Tx0 and Txl and one output Rx. It is also called as Transmit
diversity.
Ted:t-Neo Publications - - ~ Authors inspire innovation -A £4CHINSHAH Yer1~

i\111111, fl 11111111 Ml I 11 11 1,1 I•I I\ II) 11 II
lhith lhl' lt1Ul'llllllr,i11~1•111111111 ~111111, ,111111 ~111•11111 ll11~ \ 111, 1h11 , 111111,~ 1w ,I (111 111 ,rl, h ,llfft '""1
II l1"whlr, 11111111 lmllt111INl~lllll111111111 ,~ 11~1·,t 1111.111,: 1111 ' {' po• 1• l'1• q11r111 Y 111,lf ~ t ',i(llfl/1/
':"'I. 11.2.7 MIMO Sy1tnrn1 (Mulllflht lnpul M11lll11ln Oulpul)
ua. 11.2,3 -~•kH10tlUOJII of MIMl} w 1,1, 40 IMhook)i.lV, - 11

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""u_a._1_1_.2_••_ U_IA_bo 111;•00t ' '':.:.:"::.:''::kl::,:ll..:,':.:.''.::M~IM
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1hr l\'\'r h rr.
,\ t,11,r ~t111l, 111 \\Ith lw11 t11111,111l11r ,~ \\Ill Nlvr 1t1r I hn1111rh Ml (Muhlplr l11p111) 111111 1111111' rrcrlvrr rtlll, 11 "' ""'''"
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SFIIC (Spurr F1"tq11rncv I
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ritmnm TrMt1mlltr1ro
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~ l no011lvort1
T~I :> Rill
Ft,:. I 1.2.7: 1\111\10, l\tultlpl<' 1111111111111ltlplf 011tp111 with two trn1m11lth'r1111ml two rc·C'C·lvrn wllla l1ll(h ~pttd
h111t·1K·11dc11I dulu 11ln-11111~
MIMO sy!>tcms provide 111ultiplc pnrulld d11111 bleu111~. The dutu i.1cu111~ ure decoded by 1-cu11crlng produce<l by clu, tcr.
Oinnnd cstlmntlon methods urc 11M'.d w i-cp11rn1e the indivlchml chu1111cls 111tllc receiver end.
If the onkr of MIM0 is lncrc1111cd, i.e. 4x4 MIM0 then four 11111e1111n~ 011 rhc 11y111cn1 und 111<JIJilc would be practically
difficult. It would nc<'d 111rong 1,cu11cri11g c11vironmr111 rnvering multiple pulh~ 1111d l,1crca\i11g 1l1e 11y,1cm capacity or
coverage. 0nhogonnl imlcpcmlcnt chnnncls urc cren1ed n~ n resulr of i.callcring.
To improve the signal quulity divcr..ity STUC and s·rrc (Space Tln1e Trell!~ Code) pn>ee,, ing i, u-.ed in the: 4G
systems.
With rwo nntennns 111 nil the nntennu i.ircs, rhc typicnl MIM0 I, 2 x 2 MIM0 for4G indoor sy~tcm.
The dutn Spe<"d can he doubled if the sc1111cring is perfect wirh 110 corrclurion between the 11lgnal parh1.
Pmcticully we c11111101 double the durn speed hccau,c of interference~ in building,.
MIM0 systems provide l>ellcr co111p11riso11 romparcd to SIS0 (Single Input Single Output) ~y,1cm,. In open 11.1c"
MIMO indoor pcrforrnnnce cu11 he incrcm;cd hy 30'.{ a, compared to SIS0 sy,tern, nnd in high i,c11t1cring '""gion, the
MIMO system~ indoor pcrfonnunce cun he uround 100%. ·nius, we cun ohtuln high thrnul(hpul ~uh MIMO.
WLAN (WI-Fi) uses MIM0 with 802.1 In ~lnndnrd. Multiple ~mall 1111te11111L~ urc prc~nl In n-.xkm dc,·kc\ lite
lnptops, datn curds, mobile~. tublcts.
The HSPA uses MIM0 in con1111erciul networks. But in tolling two ontennu~
I
in mobile dcvkc-i I$ difrkuh procliCAlly
considering rhc rnuhilc hurd w11rc li111it111io11s.
Tm-Nre l'uhlinition,_ _ Jl'l,m, Authon ;,,.~,,;,,. inno11riun

t.l
Mobile Comm. S tem (MU-Sem.7-E&TC) 11-7 Advance Technique 4G Oeplo ent
Spatial separat' ~ I ts the spatial
. ton or antennas changes from 3 to 7 wavelengths. However, with modem deve opmen
separation use two-to three wavelengths or three-to-five wavelengths depending on the environment.
Some mobile devices are supporting dual antennas that operate for MIMO. Both the antennas are cross-polarized.
- _;;:or
op · rruzing systems to 0 bta·m maximum
· • following
throughput we need to consider · parameters ·· •
Signal quality : On_the MIMO paths, the signal to noise ratio (SIN) should be good for maintaining 64 QAM high
'dulation performance throughput the cell.
'1
...,>-
w noise "acto
'' r on upUn k : · k pe...&ormance,
We need 10 have a system with good up 1m u,
tow noise factor for
indoor LTE and HSPA systems. This keeps the mobile transmit power low.
(3
,_,/ /4
Ease · · . w
of mstallation : The systems should be deployed to provide maximum throughput. e can.
performance with implementation in 95% of buildings and 95% performance with implementauon
obtain 85%
.
10
IO%
buildi s.
niform coverage : To obtain maximum performance the system should provide uniform coverage.
Space time codes (STCs) are used to maximize diversity maximize coding gain and throughput inorder to compensate
for the channel fading and decrease the bit error rate.
There are two types of space time codes used in MIMO systems. They are :
(1) Space time block code (STBC) (2) Space time trellis code (STIC)
The space time block codes are codes that are transmiued using a block structure that supports simple decoding at the
receiver end. It allows the system to transmit the multiple copies of the data over a number of antennas inorder to improve
the data transfer reliability. It is represented by a matrix. Every row represents a time slot and every column represents one
antennas transmission over the time.
!!l
0
;;;
0
E
~
Transmit antennas
The length of block is assumed to be T. Sii is the modulated symbol to be transmitted in time slot i from antenna
j. There are T time slots and nT and nR transmit and receive antennas. ' /'
The space time trellis codes (STIEs) are codes that transmit multiple redundant copies of convolutional or trellis code
distributed over time and a number of transmit antennas. The receive antenna reconstructs the original transmitted data
using the multiple redundant copies.
The space time trellis code provides both diversity and coding gain in comparison to the space time block codes. The
STICs have a good bit-error performance. However their encoding and decoding methods are complex. They require a
virtebi decoder at the receiver end.
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Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem,7•E&TC) 11-8
~ 11.3 Software Defined Radio .....

MU'•'O. 5 a , Dec. 15, 10 Marks
_uo. 11'.3.1' What Is the concept of software defined' radfo ? Elaborate In detail.
MU • a. 6 c , Ma 16. 10 Marks
!Jq:_1'1.3~2..Write note on : Software defined radio.
MU. O. 1 C , Dec. 17, 5 Mark:;
µ0. 11.3.3 What is software·Defined Radio ?
MU. a. 6(a), May 18, 10 Marks
.UQ. 1.1.3.4 Describe the conce t of software defined radio, Ex lain it in detail.
w·u th •
1 1 e exponential growth in the ways and means by which people nee to comn
d iunicate data communications, voice
. .
· · · d d conLrol communications, emergency
communications, video communications, broadcast messaging, comman an . ..
. . . f' · ly has become business cnt1cal.
response communications, etc. - modifying radio devices easily and cost-e iccuvc
Software Defined Radio (SDR) technology brings t;1c flexibility, cost efficiency and power to drive communications
forward, with wide-reaching benefits realized by service providers and produc't developers through to end users.
A number of definitions can be found to describe Software Defined Radio, also known as Software Radio or SDR.
The SDR Forum, working in collaboration with the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) Pl900.l
group, has worked to establish a definition of SOR that provides consistency and a clear overview of the technology
and its associated benefits.
Software Defined Radio is defined as :
"Radio in which some or all of the physical layer functions are software defined" or "radios that provide
software control of a variety of modulation techniques, wide-band or narrow-band operation, communications
security functions (such as hopping), and waveform requirements of current and evolving standards over a
broad frequency range."-
A radio is any kind of device that wirclessly transmits or receives signals in the Radio Frequency (RF) part of the
electromagnetic spectrum to facilitate the transfer of information.
In today's world, radios exist in a multitude of items such as celJ phones, computers, car door openers, vehicles, and
televisions.
In short, software modules running on a generic hardware platfonn of DSPs (Digital Signal Processors) and general
purpose microprocessors can implement radio functions such as modulation/demodulation, signal generation, coding
and link-layer protocols. This helps in building reconfigurable software radio systems where dynamic selection of\
parameters is possible.
& 11.3.1 Features of Software Defined Radio
Regardless of the means by which the radio is reconfigured, a fully implemented SOR will have the ability to navigate
·a wide range of frequencies with programmable channel bandwidth and modulation characteristics.
The features of SDR are :
I. Multiband 2. Multicarrier
3. Multimode 4. Multirate
5. Variable bandwidth 6. Ubiquitous Connectivity
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Mobile Comm. S om (MU-Sem.7-E.&TC) 11 -9
► I. Multlband
The ·· · A licaLions like cellular
tmdilJonal radio 11tchi1octures operate on a ~ingle bMd or range of frequencies. PP
c.ommunic.llions, go, cmmcnt Md nongo,cmmcnt agencies worL. on ~ range of freque ncies.
A muJ . . . . . . rate on rwo or more bands
no rudio I de~rgncd to opcnuc m one ~pecific-d band. Out n mul11band radio C3ll ope
either scqucntiJ.lly or 1,.imulWlCO~ly.
► 2. ~fultla rric-r
. th f rcqucncy. This may be
A multJcutic-r .:1.h.o cilkJ rnulta h:inncl rad io c.:in ~irnult:ancoui.ly operate C1n more nn one . . .
. . . be servicing many users
v. ,Ltun lhc umc b:anJ or in I \I. O l11fTcrrn1b.inJ, . TI1is I< gener.illy \CCO inn b:uc l>Ullon thal rn:iy
:u once or 1 IL\CJ' tcnrunll lh.11 mly he rm: Cj._, ini; holh , oi e JJnd d.11.l on d1ffCICI1l C11Tiers.
► J. MullJmodc
An SOR tu lhc b1hty to \I, \ 1L. v. ,ili nun) J 1ffrrrn1 ~UnJlf1h u.J be conunuou,ly rcpro&r.unmcd.
MulumoJc impliei lhc "'1l1lil) hl pc n, -c,c-ral J1Hcrc n1 L.ar.h o ( ~..1.s~nls. E.u mples of i.und:ud arc AM, FM,
GMSK• .ulJ CD~fA w nun) n ,re. TI)C-c n-.xlc, II\J) t-c unplcn~ nlCJ -.cqucn1illl)' or simuluneously.
► 4. MuJtlnitc
Mult.inie is clol>CI)' rcllleJ to multimcxk .

A ITllllUr.w: ndio is one th:u c:i.n procc) d1fTcrrnt p.ut} of the 1,.ign.il tui n :u different s:unples rates, as in a mullirate
fiJt.er.
It un 1ho "" 10 dtffucnr mc>Jc• uut require different chu r;ucs. An eumpk is a r:ldio that can process GSM al
:270 33 L.SPS ( L.ilo S)m ls Per Second ) or c m 1A ~t l.:!1 g ~!CPS ( ~kg:i Chips Pl'.'r Second ). This can also be
dooc i.cqutntially or irnulWleou)I)' on diffrn:nt c:irricrs.
► 5. \ 'arlablt B.andMldth
A tr.dluorul ndio v. oru in a fildl channel bandwidth v. ith he.Ip of a lln:l.log fi lter such as an SAW ( Surface Acoustic
W3ve ) or cx-rJJllic filter. An SOR ~~ digiul filtm v. hen: 1he bmdwidth can be altemi on the n y. Additionally, digital
filiers C:tn compcm.a.tc for lrM~nuS\iOn p11tl1 dibtOrtion.
► 6. l.:blqullous Conn«th lly
If lhe termiMI i) incomp;itiblc witJ1 the network lechnology in a p3Iticular region, an appropriate software module
ncc:ds to be insulted onto the hand'ld (possibly ovcr•lhc-air) resulting in seamless network access across various
geographic .
Fwther, if lhe tundset tL~d by the ubscri ber is a legacy hand.set, the infrastructure equipment can use a software
module implementing the older standard to communicate wi th the hand5CL
a 11.3.2 SOR Architecture

Fig. 11.3.1 shov.'S the architecture of typical SDR system.
--4 S400NSll,4// Yelfllff

Mobile Comm. S tem (MU-Sem.7-E&TC 11-10
Roproeontatlvo
, I BMF
ReaV fnformaUon
Baeoband Baaeband Baeoband Flow
Radio . Radio • Complox , TeKt Text Text
Digital Formato
~requency AIIX Frequency Aux Aux Flow CntJ. Aux Flow CntJ. Aux Aow CnU. Aux
Analog BIia Bits Bits
..
--
Signals '. ,.:, MutUmodia/WW'
.. l/0 :
Volco/PSTN
aod</Strobe
C C C C Ref, Power
Monitoring Status/Controlling Function/Bus

Common
System
Equipment
Aux: Special purpo98 I: Information
Remote Control/ Local Control
Display
1/0 for Antenna Diversity,
Adaptive Antenna Control
C:
IF:
Control/Status
Intermediate Frequency tExt. Ref
Selective Encryption, etc. NSS: Networl< Switching
System
PSTN: Public Service Telephone Network
E]oataflow
E) Radio Function
Fig. 11.3.1: Archlttcture of SOR
The system uses a generic hardware platfonn with programmable modules (OSPs, FPGAs, microprocessors) and
analog RF modules.
The operating environment performs hardware resource management activities like allocation of hardware resources to
different applications, memory management, interrupt servicing and providing a ~onsistent interface to hardware
modules for use by applications. ·
In SOR system, the software modules that implement link layer protocols ·and modulation/demodulation operations are
called radio applications and these applications provide link-layer services to higher layer communication protocols
such as WAP ( Wireless Application Protocol ) and TCP/IP.
Software defined radio technology provides an efficient and comparatively inexpensive solution allowing multimode,
multi-band and/or multi-functional wireless devices that can be enhanced using software upgrades.
B- 11.3.3 SDR Rate of Adoption
The SOR Forum commissioned a number of research reports in 2006 to evaluate the adoption of SOR technologies in
various markets. The results of these studies demonstrated that, in certain markets, SOR is moving beyond the
innovators and early adopters .
Examples of SOR adoption illustrating the transition to the mainstream are abundant :
I. Thousands of software defined radios have been successfully deployed in defense applications.
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j/Jµ),, ii;;1 'JYI- i,I irp'lt#1i', ,-L• .lfl\1,11 II } M.4..,;11,<l +¢ ~ 1)~ 'ti'', U,<;J utiliJ..e aod benefit from SDR technolo~ies IO
,;1)11 lh1tl/# "Y'/,1ly .V-'h »,,w,~l11J, 4//'f -'-/1 ~ 1i'•;Jvyi,.-,,1,t, ,,1pt yf y,c.,dw;.tioo, cost of upgrades and maintenance~ ~me to
II / Il l "' 'l 'J/Y1>' -'// 11-,11 ,-1,/) '-II/ 'lll,Y,. ;w ll1~"'1~,..; :,~,4ic~, vi µwbl,;u~ ~~iated with network interoperability.
'1• 11ilJ111 1;,. 1hY J1 ;1U411 1, µ;;.J'i,1/ ;.4;.J ~;,;l,iw¾Y w.i<li•~ Jl,jj,ve :;howo that cost effective radio frequency
'l/•,li1/Jlt// 1• ,;,yy;it..J,J ti,. 11).h '~•;11 11 91 11,1flv1...i1,; ~;tJt,,}j 1a1i<~ <JVef a btoad spectral range have begun to mature,
,-Jl'l,111',J I/;> u,- 1JJ,,, 1lll.1 u.-- v,,.c 1;t 11,1Hv1.w•; 4 ;1111~ ta<liQ ~ l1!I ,;nabling t.eehnology for dynamic specuum access
H7'/'J,JJJ;, /111) 11/!J/111J'/I. 1/1 t,U>
1JJ 1 /J,,(fa,J 11,JH<,/tlyfl;,!J i1y ,
Jfo, , ,.,,// Jl •l,Y,l·),i,;j \I; •1111l1111;4; ,1;,,1 I),.; 111;,1.1 t,.c;Y•;.r.i.l y•;w~, aJJc,wing SOR to finally achieve the defined vision of
th
N)Ju; ,11,y 111,,'J w y1111i;J11,y ,;,ii<! Vt,i,,i~ v1nli .a<Ni~~ It> vl)jc~uiv>u~ wireless communications - enabling em to
1/;inn, ~111 ,,h 11i 1J1 1111,u,.,-; ,,1 tJ,.,r t;(,iA , wJ11;,i1,;,vq th;y 11,:,,;,<j to wid in what.ever manner is appropriate.
JJµ. )IJlh}.; 1,1t )ll~?J/JJ J.,J)Jn1111m)J.;;.,Jil1n »1,;

l)) J11i;n)~~-1v-.o::)'1, )lJYM I.J<'l-'.1>1}1,4· ,,fll1<; 1111 lniu1I pr1>t~;s:.ors.
I/)) / ,~ I/J/,1 )I)/ ,,..11 )11y 11µ JII ) !'> l)J( tiyl) IA'/}/ J~ YI'/ y l1ll!)1,
I)/)) J)11,. ,J;..~, ~JJ)))l,l 111 l)11u.' j~ /u.,qj, ~J /Ml•' ,
/)Y) JJ,1 UJN• 11/ 1/11,.· J)JI 111111111/1wlv1111 ,; H11,i1111 l1111~, ,,,~ :-,<)ftwurc rcliuhili1y is less. The software is complex.
IY) J 'lfl/11)/ i>: )11l1-Jlli11'J11/1111,111 il1 till)l ll•111 II) 11111\<'IVl'II.
/ ~}) }11)) J.J)Y•JJ/Jlf' JI y;j1JL1/1•·•pwn,·y 1111iJ!i", 11i,, 11111,twnro 11rcils 10 development udapted to the different frequency ranges
1 I l,'-1,t> A•lv,o,tJJuati or nnn

,m,J1 JJ J:v,~"'' ,,,~WIYUIJIUijFt~ l)f flQ/IW,trtt Ottflntld flnclto Communication Systems. MU• a. 1(a). Dec. 16. 5 lillarks
MU• a. 1 e . Dec. 18. 5 IT:J!ar'ks

U!li..J JAILLlY!.£1.ULi!lh!!~llD~ Qf RJ.>...J'""'I..,;.n__o1__m__m"'""'in1..;..011_11o__n.;..,--------!~~!!!!!!!:!!2!!:!~!!=!!:::!!i!!!!i~!.J
J t/11/1 WIii ~ 111 ho' " "~~,1 111"11)~~ 11111111 "pn1tl11l·I~", 1,·,l11~os tlcv<"lopm('nt costs dramatic3.lly.
I
), I Jy~,r lllll ulr w·•llhtif 1r,11111lq 1lltlt1l1lfllllllllh1!!, 11l111wln~ "hug fixes" to occur while a radio is in ser\ice., thos r:-.dncir" :h:
tlHli.l 1111,J ,aJ~l ij 11~~1111111111«1 wllh np,1r111l1111111hl mnl11tt.'11:11w~. -
~, 1•~1li111u 1111~1~ 111 11rnvltll111! 111hl 11sl'!111 with 11,·,·rss t,, uhiquito\ls wire.ks.~ cornnnnriC3tions _ r:mmJi:n.. 'frl::m I:l
1i1)11111111111t1111~ wlll1 wh,111IIWM thi'y 111'!1'1.I, whl'lncvrr lhry nl'ttl ,,, :md in whstcver manner is appmpruue. -

7 r.&TC) as
:) 11 ,,. Cognitive Radio
, ) ... . 1 l"t\!.a..'C' :v-: t' t' ll' r-'\J :..'(1 ... ~ k :..a,• .-, et'., ,., l \ \
L , OC'(\j "-' 1..'"\J u " ~..:: , n r.1 . ...., o .,."1n ,n..:.r
11 ., .1 Cogn -.-e Tr.tnsct-lvt'r A.rchltKturo
II dh. !
TO U!41
r-1 11 c ~ ~ ... , i Rf ' :\ l:\11•.: c-...J , , r;c1~· L. ...
f ro-, use,
. .~ . . !,er tL" '- l. I '- :.I , ..., :-• "· '--' -..:.!
.. .Jct, tJ
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nr .J..~1 I\ >c~.rJ :.."..r the l!lllC"f o, "At1 l'lltl\t'1trf l I( IS.\ ffU ) t'C )..lfun.:cJ b) J lfJul lhlt i no( in ttic
fmr..r:.: . •~ oJ ~ac rnn•n .. , ~in Jcn'-'1ubtc 1.hc ~Jt :ul .l.1 i ('.it1K"Uhr 11nw: tni.U.'\!
l~ l.-dc-r I.;) m:~ "!nfc- ti~ l!l~nm.-c-, t.t.'\'1't n..1U.h liltc-n :ur u'<\1 l'Cfl'ft'. L~A. l lx- t ~ l' f lhc n<.'I( h tiltcn is hi&h 1nd
11, t-.:!U n I:~
Low
DJ . lk RX t"(,)rH
a,ro/,f,o, AGC
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ClN")
h ~ t,c- .l._,oc- t,) 1mpknC"nt1nt
~,s:\Ch;DJ f4n • C'n I dJpuJ pul RX
Local
p:tx 1nsri od.uJr
AOC
A cnq,Jctr putllT ndJo u J.1

CA..'1..-d a._\ a JOftwan racfk, fli, 1U.l : kf' rttdnr rroot md
-A S4<Hll'SllUI ~

~ 11.4.2 Spectrum Sensrng
1be electromagnetic rad'10 ·

government As s~m that cont.uns transmitters and receivers that allocated and licensed by the
co~sts of freque pectrum compnses of s·gna1
, , 1
s that ·
' can be used for the wireless communication services. Th pectrum
es
8
communication •. ~Yb ands _allocated for different applications like GSM/HSPA, 3G, 4G, TV, Wi-Fi, defcru;e
• rauJO roadcastrng b'J .
• mo 1 e satelhtes, aeronautical satellites, etc.
Because of these applications the . · th
s~rtn•m 15• t ffi . ' spectrum is overcrowded in some bands as compared to the other bands. 1.e. e
r,--w no e JCJ.Cntly used. As . . bile
the bands th· a result the signal quality is poor in bands where the spectrum is crowded. w
at are not over crowded rema·in unused .
The underutilization of the el . f
. . ectromagnetic spectrum gives arise to "Spectrum Jloks" ( Spectrum holes are a band 0
frequenc1es that are assigned to . )
a pnrnary user, but at a specific time and location are not being utilized by that user ·
In order to efficiently utilize the spectru .• •
m ut.1 11zat1on
band, is allowed access into a spectrum hole at

correct time and geographic location.
l:
a secondary user requesting service from anoth • Power Spectrum occupied by
primary users
Such a type of dynamic allocation can be obt.uned

by the "Cognitive Radio".
Spectrum sensing will find out the availability of the

spectrum and also the numbers of the licensed users
Spectrum holes
(also known as primary users) present in that
spectrum. Fig, 11.4.3 : Spectrum holes ·
For cognitive radio spectrum sensing is the most difficult to establish a cognitive radio network. The different methods
used for spectrum sensing are;
(i) Primary transmitter detection,
(ii) Cooperntive detection
(iii) Interference detection.
However. spectrum sensing is the very important parameter in cognitive radio as there are many uncertainties
connected while picking up the signals to find the holes in the band like Channel Uncertainty, Noise Uncertainty,
Sensing Interference Limit, etc. These uncertainties need to be considered and addressed .
The types of transmitter detectors are :
(a) Energy Detection,

(b) Matched Filter detection and
(c) Cyclo-stationary feature detection.
The energy detection method detects the primary signal depending on the sensed energy. The signal is passed through
a band pass filter. Then , the signal is integrated over a time period. The output is tested against a predefined threshold
to detennine primary user is present or absent.
A match filter is a linear filter. Jt is used when the secondary user has information about the primary user signal. It
provides more accuracy at the expense of complexity.
Tedi-Nee Publicatiom-Wkl'e Author, i,wpire innontion -A SAC/ff!(SI/All Yenture·

:> 11.5 Principle of Relaying
t O nodes using point•to•point
The wireless communication systems are dependent on communication between w
communication.
two mobile stations in peer•to•
The two nodes are the mobile station (MS) and base station (BS). In cellular SYstems,
peer communication systems.
. ~ haring the same resources in
In the other wireless systems, the transmitters and receivers compete m the spectrum or s
the same spectrum. However, this gives rise to interference.
. th age source and send it to the
Some of the nodes help the other nodes in•order to acquire the informatton from e mess
destination source with the help of dedicated relays or peer nodes that act as relays.
Hop 1 Hop2
The dedicated relays are used for exchanging the N~-e---N-~-e-----:-N~e
information of other nodes. The dedicated relays p Q A
do not act like source or destination. (a) Two-hop network
The peer nodes can act as source or destination. • Hop4
The help to send the data e.g. mobile handsets. • • •
Hop 1 / '\.Hop 2 /
The relay nodes offer more freedom in the system / '\. /Hop3
• • • •
design. However, the system design method is
complicated. Consider a three node network shown
• • •
in Fig. 11.5.1(a). (b) Multihop network
We assume that on every link there is no fading. Fig. 11.S.1
If the node P docs not have sufficient transmit power to send data directly to node R, it transmits the data packet to
node Q. Node Q then retransmits the packet to node R. This method is called as two•hop method. A two•hop method
doubles the range of the network.
For large networks, multiple hops can be used to transmit the data packets from one node to another. In a multiple hop
network message is sent to a first relay, the first relay retransmits the message to the second relay, the second relay
retransmits the message to third relay and so on till the message reaches the required destination as shown in
Fig.. I 1.5.1 (b).
In wireless communication the broadcast effect plays an important role. If one node transmits a signal. some other
node in vicinity can also receive that signal in multinode networks.
The co-operative communications method uses the broadcast effect Multiple hopping method does not consider the
broadcast effect.
Consider Fig. l 1.5.2(a). NodeQ
If node P transmits a signal, the signal reaches
node Q and node R (weak signal). Node R cannot
decode the weak signal. Node
/.""-
•.............•
Node Node A
p A
However, it helps in signal transmission from node
B to node C. In larger networks the broadcast Nodes
effect is even more significant. (a) (b)
Fig. 11.S.2 : Broadcast effect in relay networks
Tedi-Nt.ei Puhliratiom_.._ 11'/Jen: Authors inspire innoration ,_.,4 SAC/UNSH,4// Yenture

Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7-Et.TC
~ 11.6 Fundamentals of Refayfng
a 11.6.1 Fundamental Pro1oeofa
......J;#., __ _. F
In the
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T,/W!: .Z-..:'c:'/ ~
- - --~..,.,.
. r A 4 • · · ···· •,-
~
.,.
1 ?':"~-
1/
In the Decode-and-Forw.art! (DF),. !he reh?, d.e::.-Y...e::;.:he-~- 7-:ie:~;;..t-. tr .r~~-::'"..J'£i='..✓,_~~--:-"'~

~z ,,_~:,,,~ ~
In the Comp __ ..., cc,
~ -1' or.v...... '-"'
_ _..... ( t'""'i:'\
J-,- die ~~~ &-::er~ .,
-=-~~~ ~
-s~ )r,..m ~ ;e-,-;..--t::,?,; - - -
signal is forwarded to the cesrinr-r:cn . l ae' c!e;;tinati,,ll ::..mmme::.. 111.s;. ~vn~s~ -:,~:a ~ ~ ~~~ •~·,:;•:·f~:'~
signal. from the sour..e.
, _ '>~~ump,.:;~~ • • • "'--• -IT-" ~ _ ,-_ • · · • _,r t!!' • • t. - • • _ _,_ __..- ',,:'.-' -,,,-
~ ~_.:::
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....... .,...,.._ fi . -- - . -
~
w e = ... ...qm:ncy 1..=u ar. or same cnre as- :fie :r:m:smimcn :;mt;e:.~,r..;r ~
✓
s:. J; ~---= -~=-- ,,...,,
_ _-:,____ __.., ,.,...,..,...,..~
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<:.W._!' processmg - ·-
-vuiL .urre:en:: ~· ::C-~
~ , , - - f° • .-,..,.;.,.-,✓,,,_ ----~---~"'?":~. . . •- -
'=11
..-.i lich cbo. or infommnon Ercc.h ..re tr.,nsmure:i. :ir..m. ·wuc.i- 1l'~
L :'.\Jnfti-bop tl 0,b:F): fu tfiis ;m:tr:c:-- f :ir :iie~r:;;:~:;L ~ ::ro,~ ~ ~ ~-::,

3
::--2 ~2::' :.~;: l ~ ..:::
to ti::e :;ign:tl . h t:!e- se::::nC:: ::me :nre::-1~ _:ne ::e:z;.. ~ ~ ::;~ -vrnL~ ~ - : 1..:.-.:....-::-. ~ ==-~
1.. Spiit-Comone- n t~CL.~ r::r :ms: ;race:-.:£ :n: :tu: ~ C T ~ ~ . : 1 - e r ..._-- _...;,....,.- ~ ~-:;:;- .~ ~ ~ ~
i:s only ~--re:ring iD i.he. siTJ:>f . fu.:he ~ cf:im:l! ~ a _-:Jm.ir. :iu: ::.:::r'--C.."!:~Zzj · :Cl -~ ::....:_;<: ~ - ~
~ - 1 . ."'n: Is li..
"ti!mn:: er: ::he s~aj
~ en. :Ire- U...~!! :r: :fie- ~ . n ire: ~ :me :i::;.- ,.a ~ -e::;: -:..'"?...~_,.._---
- ::::=!:: :1--:_;--[ -~ ~
~ is.5,.~ ;:c ::!::.e- :-::ynl _- m.. ±!! ~e--m:x:afa;,-~:::..'l. =-.:::--=--- z •_ -
.s..
i:-.:.n.'i'C.t."ul::cn:ti. -:::ce~_S.-we'Je::- _:fie'~ 2 m., 011~ 1 ! ; ' ~ ir:::cr... . z= :i::: =- ==- ~ rr ::-,::::::-e:::
fu::m. s::~ JB: ~~. ~~ ~ ~ lFlr::: ~ ~
S.. ~ ~ ~ E ~ ' :: :;[r_-fn5:pmrrc i 1!=.:1:!~ . ! : = ~ ~ ~ ~ -- - d.~ ~

s;::~ ~ .l.~=.tc:ci:Il :fre-~Jmf:n.:me:teEe~ T - =- -::; ~ i:: •Z...::C :::1 .::::=..=a:::-::~
~
~ , i .. ~tnn:..-US:?, :ne ~ ~ JI:- ~ ~ !IO. ~ ___:_ :::r ~ ~ :_ ~ -=-f f :: ~-=~ c ! : -
fu. ~ ~ ~ :fn:: ,fi::qmmru: ..ll:::u ~ 5.1.C::1I l',i ill I If ~-==e::::::- .m.. - - _ ;. : i:--x::z:::::.
.:me :l. ~ 1J:tc:ln,- ..fuc:. 3icci..imrr :fi=:J!!t!!_'C.

Advance Technl ue 4G De lo ent
Mobile Comm. System (MU-Sem.7•E&TC 11-16
:> 11.7 University Questions

-
11
• Dec.2015
O. S(a) What is the concept of software defined radio ? Elaborate in detail.

(10 Marks)
(Ans. : Refer section 11.3)
(10 Marks)
0. 6(1) Write a short note on : Multiantenna techniques. (Ans. : Refer section 11 ·2)
3 (10 Marks)
0. 6(a) Write short note on : Problems in SDR communications. (Ans. : Refer section 11· .4)
0. S(c) How do we use space-time block code (STBC) and space-time trellis code (STTC) ?
(5 Marks)
11
• May 2016
0. 5(b) Explain concept of MIMO w.r.t. 4G technology. (Ans. : Refer section 11.2.7) (10 Marks)
Q. 6(c) Write note on : Software defined radio. (Ans. : Refer section 11.3) (10 Marks)
11
• Dec. 2016
Q. 1(a) Explain the aqvantages of Software Defined Radio Communication Systems.

Q. 5(c) How do we use space-time block code (STBC) and space-time trellis code (STTC) ?
111
• May 2017
a. 6(a) Write short note on : Problems in SOR communications. (Ans. : Refer section 11.3.4) (10 Marks)
Q. 6(b) Write short note on: Multiantenna technologies. (Ans. : Refer section 11.2) (10 Marks)
11
• Dec. 2017
Q. 1(C) What is software Defined Radio? (Ans. : Refer section 11.3) (5 Marks)
Q. 4(B) Elaborate on the contribution of MIMO techniques in LTE.(Ans.: Refer section 11.2.7) (10 Marks)
11
• May 2018
Q. 6(a) Describe the concept of software defined ratio, Explain it in detail. (Ans.: Refer section 11.3) (10 Marks)
11
• Dec. 2018
Q, 1(e) List out advantages of SOR in communication. (Ans.: Refer section 11.3.5) (5 Marks)
Chapter Ends....
□□□

Mobile Communication System: Rkltech

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strictly as per the New Revised Syllabus ( Rev • 201 G) of

SUBJECTS I AUTHORS l LEADERSHIP IEXPERIENCE

Semester 7 - Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

A Sachin Shah Venture

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M.._ UnltN~11, .- .,-J'',:-,r;~v- . 'I ~" .. '-.•~·.,....--.: ~ ... '-(· · .,

1.0 Fundamentals of Mobile Communication 08

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♦ Chapter:( · ·.: .. F.undamentals ot'

. ,. :). ,. Cellular Capacity and

'. ♦ Cha'pter 4 : · ·· MobTie Radio Propagation :

♦ Chapters .. Mobile Radio Propagation :

:· ♦ Chapter 6 Multiple Access Techniques (6-A, 6-B) ....................6-1 to 6-22

:. ♦ ~pter 7 2G Technologies (7-A, 7-B, 7-C, 7-0) ..... 7-1 to 7-54

CDMA (IS-95 A&B) (8-A, 8-B) .................... 8-1 to 8-31

3G Technology (9-A, 9-B, 9-C) ............ 9-1 to 9-30

for 4G Deployment (11-A, 11-B) ............ 11-1 to 11-16

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1.1 Introduction to Wireless Communication ....................................................................................................................... 1-1

L0.1.1.1 What Is wireless communication system? ........................................................................................... 1-1

1.2 Mobile Rndlo Telophony .......................... :.................................................................................................................... 1-1

L0.1.2.1 Write short note on Mobile Radio Telephony........................................................................................1-1

1.3 Mobile Radio System Around the Wor1d ....................................................................................................................... 1-2

1.4 Examples of Wireless Communication Systems ....................................................................................................... - 1-4

1.4.1 Definitions of Elements of Wireless Communication System ...............................................................1-5

1.4.2 Types of Mobile Radio Transmission Systems .................................................:...................................1-6

L0.1.4.2 Explain the types of mobile radio trans~ission systems....................................................................... 1-6

1.4.2(A) Simplex Systems .................................................................................................................................. 1-6

1.4.2(0) Half-duplex Systems ............................................................................................................................. 1-6

1.4.2(C) Full Duplex Systems ............................................................................................................................. 1-6

Duplexing (TDD) In mobile communication systems . ........................................................................... \-6

1.4.3 Paging Systems ......................................................................................................................... ........... 1-7

L0.1 .4.4 Write short note on paging systems. .................................................................................................... 1-7

L0. 1.4.5 Whet Is simulcasting ? ......................................................................................................................... 1-8

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Why ara Paging Transmitters Located on Tall Buildings ? ...................................................................1-a

L0.1.4.7 Write short note on : Cordless Telephone Systems.............................................................................. 1-s

1.4-.5 Cellular Telephone Systems:................................................................. •···••······································.••1-9

1.4.S(A) How a CeHular Telephone Call is Made ?.......' ...................................................................................1-11

quality when the mobile Is roaming? .............................................................................................:.... 1-11

LQ. t.4.10 .What do you mean by roaming ? ............................................................................................. :.......... 1-12

,J LQ. f.S.1 Ust the advantages of Wireless Communication ................................................................................ 1-12

1.7 Applications of Wireless Cornrnunicatlon Systems :...............................:....................................................................1-13

t .9.f ArstGeneratlon {1G CellularNetworks) .............................................................................................1-14

1.9 •3 Third Generation (3G Wireless Networks) ..........................................................................................1-16

eornpartson of 1G, 2G, 2.5G, 3G, 4G and 5G Mobile Standards ...............................................................................1•17

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:> 1.1 Introduction to Wireless Communication

LO. 1.1.1 · What la wireless eommuAlcation-system.? •.

:> 1.2 Moblle Radio Telephony

Tech-Neo Publications-~ Aull,ol"6inspire inno.-ation --' SAaJ/NSllUI YMture

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throughout the World. I

1995 was about 100 millions (37%) of the US-population.

630 millions, compared to 1 billion wired telephone lines. t

:> 1.3 Mobile Radio System Around the World . ,;

e7 Mobile Radio Standards in North America

Cellular 1983 FDMA 824 - 894MHz FM 30KHz I

- . . fieJT ,lulhorsisspire UUJtwatioa

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- GSC Paging 1970s 12.5 KHz

ar Mobile Radio Standards In Japan