ITNMT REVIEWER MIDTERM
offer security to some extent where
SESSION 2
A database is an organized collection of data,
generally stored and accessed electronically
from a computer system.
Database System - Composed of 5 major parts:
Hardware, Software (DBMS), People,
Procedures and Data
CHARACTEISTICS OF DBMS
 Real-world entity − A modern DBMS is
more realistic and uses real-world
entities to design its architecture. It
uses the behavior and attributes too.
 Relation-based tables − DBMS allows
entities and relations among them to
form tables. A user can understand the
architecture of a database just by
looking at the table names.
 Less redundancy − DBMS follows the
rules of normalization, which splits a
relation when any of its attributes is
having redundancy in values.
Normalization is a mathematically rich
and scientific process that reduces data
redundancy.
 Consistency − Consistency is a state
where every relation in a database
remains consistent. There exist
methods and techniques, which can
detect attempt of leaving database in
inconsistent state.
 Query Language − DBMS is equipped
with query language, which makes it
more efficient to retrieve and
manipulate data. A user can apply as
many and as different filtering options
as required to retrieve a set of data
 Multiuser and Concurrent Access −
DBMS supports multi-user environment
and allows them to access and
manipulate data in parallel.
 Multiple views − DBMS offers multiple
views for different users. A user who is
in the Sales department will have a
different view of database than a
person working in the Production
department.
 Security − Features like multiple views
users are unable to access data of other
users and departments.
POPULAR DBMS
Server DBMS
Oracle , SQL Server , DB2 , MySQL, Firebird,
PostgreSQL, (Significant open source DBMS)
Desktop DBMS
Microsoft Access, FoxPro, Paradox, Approach,
FileMaker Pro
USERS
 Administrators-Administrators
maintain the DBMS and are responsible
for administrating the database.
 Designers − Designers are the group of
people who actually work on the
designing part of the database.
 End Users − End users are those who
actually reap the benefits of having a
DBMS.
DBMS ARCHITECTURE
 The design of a DBMS depends on its
architecture. It can be centralized or
decentralized or hierarchical.
 DBMS architecture depends upon how
users are connected to the database to
get their request done.
 The architecture of DBMS depends on
the computer system on which it runs
DBMS ARCHITECTURE
1 TIER ARCHITECTURE
It is where the Client, Server, and Database all
reside on the same machine.
NOTE:
Anytime you install a DB in your system and
access it to practice SQL queries it is 1 tier
architecture.
2 TIER ARCHITECTURE
The Database system is present at the server
machine and the DBMS application is present at
the client machine, these two machines are
connected with each other through a reliable
network.
3 TIER ARCHITECTURE
This DBMS architecture contains an Application
layer between the user and the DBMS, which is
responsible for communicating the user's
request to the DBMS system and send the
response from the DBMS to the user.
3 LEVEL SCHEMA ARCHITECTURE
The term "schema" refers to the organization of
data as a blueprint of how the database is
constructed.
EXTERNAL(VIEW) LEVEL
 Several users can view their desired
data from this level which is internally
fetched from database with the help of
conceptual and internal level mapping.
 External level is the “top level” of the
Three Level of Schema Architecture.
CONCEPTUAL(LOGICAL) LEVEL
It is also called logical level. The whole design of
the database such as relationship among data,
schema of data etc. are described in this level.
INTERNAL(PHYSICAL) LEVEL
This level is also known as physical level. This
level describes how the data is actually stored
in the storage devices. This level is also
responsible for allocating space to the data. This
is the lowest level of the architecture.
Physical level these records can be described as
blocks of storage (bytes, gigabytes, terabytes
etc.) in memory. These details are often hidden
from the programmers.
Logical level these records can be described as
fields and attributes along with their data types,
their relationship among each other can be
logically implemented.
View level, user just interact with system with
the help of GUI and enter the details at the
screen, they are not aware of how the data is
stored and what data is stored; such details are
hidden from them.
Database schema is the skeleton of database. It
is designed when the database doesn't exist at
all.
INSTANCE OF DATABASE is the data stored in
database at a particular moment of time is
called.
Data independence refers characteristic of
being able to modify the schema at one level of
the database system without altering the
schema at the next higher level.
2 TYPES OF DATABASE INDEPEDENCE
Logical Data Independence
 Refers characteristic of being able to
change the conceptual schema without
having to change the external schema.
 Logical data independence is used to
separate the external level from the
conceptual view
Physical Data Independence
 The capacity to change the internal
schema without having to change the
conceptual schema.
 Physical data independence is used to
separate conceptual levels from the
internal levels.
SESSION 3
A data model is a collection of concepts for
describing data in a database, including:
 Objects
 Relationships among objects
 Constraints on objects & relationships
 Operations on objects & relationships
Data modeling helps in the visual
representation of data.
Data modeling is typically done in three phases
 Conceptual design
 Logical design
 Physical design
A conceptual data model identifies the
highestlevel relationships between the different
entities.
Features of conceptual data model include:
 Includes the important entities and the
relationships among them.
 No attribute is specified.
 No primary key is specified.
A logical data model describes the data in as
much detail as possible, without regard to how
they will be physical implemented in the
database.

Features of a logical data model include:
 Includes all entities and relationships among
them.
 All attributes for each entity are specified.
 The primary key for each entity is specified.
 Foreign keys are specified.
 Normalization occurs at this level.
Physical data model represents how the model
will be built in the database.
Features of a physical data model include:
 Specification all tables and columns.
 Foreign keys are used to identify
relationships between tables.
 Denormalization may occur based on user
requirements.
 Physical considerations may cause the
physical data model to be quite different from
the logical data model.
 Physical data model will be different for
different RDBMS.
ER MODEL
Entity-Relationship Model or E-R Model was
developed by Peter Chen in 1976.
E-R Model can be expressed as the collection of
entities, also called as real word objects and
relations between those entities. No two
entities should be identical.
The database structure is portrayed as a
diagram called an entity-relationship diagram.
ENTITY
An entity may be any object, class, person or
place. In the ER diagram, an entity can be.
represented as rectangles
An entity that depends on another entity called
a weak entity.
The weak entity doesn't contain any key
attribute of its own. The weak entity is
represented by a double rectangle
ATTRIBUTE
The attribute is used to describe the property
of an entity. Ellipse is used to represent an
attribute
KEY ATTRIBUTE
The key attribute is used to represent the main
characteristics of an entity.
It represents a primary key. The key attribute is
represented by an ellipse with the text
underlined
COMPOSITE ATTRIBTE
An attribute that composed of many other
attributes is known as a composite attribute.
The composite attribute is represented by an
ellipse, and those ellipses are connected with
an ellipse.
MULTIVALUED ATTRIBUTE
An attribute can have more than one value.
These attributes are known as a multivalued
attribute.
The double oval is used to represent
multivalued attribute.
DERIVED ATTRIBUTE
An attribute that can be derived from other
attribute .
It can be represented by a dashed ellipse
RELATIONSHIP
-used to describe the relation between entities.
Diamond or rhombus is used to represent the
relationship.
When only one instance of an entity is
associated with the relationship, then it is
known as one to one relationship
When only one instance of the entity on the
left, and more than one instance of an entity on
the right associates with the relationship then
this is known as a one-to-many relationship.
When more than one instance of the entity on
the left, and only one instance of an entity on
the right associates with the relationship then it
is known as a many-to-one relationship.
When more than one instance of the entity on
the left, and more than one instance of an
entity on the right associates with the
relationship then it is known as a many-to-
many relationship.
NOTATION OF ERD
Database can be represented using the
notations. In ER diagram, many notations are
used to express the cardinality. These notations
are as follows:
 Information Engineering Style
 Chen Style
 Bachman
 Martin Style
SESSION 4
RELATIONAL MODEL
is the primary data model, which is used widely
around the world for data storage and
processing.
The relational model represents the database as
a collection of relations. A relation is nothing
but a table of values.
CODD’S 12 RULES
 E.F Codd was a Computer Scientist who
invented the Relational model for Database
management. Based on relational model, the
Relational database was created.
 Codd proposed 13 rules popularly known as
Codd's 12 rules to test DBMS's concept against
his relational model.
 Codd's rule actually define what quality a
DBMS requires in order to become a Relational
Database Management System(RDBMS).
RELATIONAL MODEL CONCEPTS
1. Table / Relation
2. Tuple / Record
3. Attribute / Column / Field
4. Relation key
5. Attribute domain
6. Relation Schema
7. Relation instance
Relational model the, relations are saved in the
table format. It is stored along with its entities.
RELATIONAL MODEL CONCEPTS
A TABLE has two properties rows and columns.
Rows represent records and columns represent
attributes.
TUPLE - a single row of a table, which contains a
single record.
ATTRIBUTE- Each column in a Table. Attributes
are the properties which define a relation.
ATTRIBUTE DOMAIN- A domain is a set of
permitted values for an attribute in table. An
attribute cannot accept values that are outside
of their domains.
RELATION SCHEMA - represents the name of
the relation with its attributes.
RELATION INSTANCE - is a finite set of tuples in
the RDBMS system. Relation instances never
have duplicate tuples.
RELATION KEY - Every row has one, two or
multiple attributes. It is an attribute which can
uniquely identify a particular tuple(row) in a
relation(table)
KEYS
plays an important role in relational database; it
is used for identifying unique rows from table. It
also establishes relationship among tables.
TYPES OF KEYS
SUPER KEY
 is defined as a set of attributes within a
table that can
uniquely identify each record within a
table.
 Super Key is a superset of Candidate
key.
TABLE: EMPLOYEE
 EM_ID, EM_PhilHealthNum, EM_phoneNum,
EM_Bday, {EM_ID, EM_name}, {EM_ID,
EM_PhilHealthNum}, {EM_PhilHealthNum,
EM_name}
CANDIDATE KEY
 is a minimal super key with no
redundant attributes. It is a super key
with no redundant attributes
 EM_ID, EM_PhilHealthNum
PRIMARY KEY
 A Primary key is a column or set of
columns in a table that uniquely
identifies tuples (rows) in that table. It
is selected from a set of candidate keys.
 This is done by database admin or
database designer. EM_ID or
EM_PhilHealthNum can be chosen as a
primary
FOREIGN KEY
 are the columns of a table that points to
the primary key of another table
.
 They act as a cross-reference between
tables
 AR_ID is the primary key of the
AIRLINES Relation
OTHER KEYS
Alternate Key – Out of all candidate keys, only
one gets selected as primary key, remaining
keys are known as alternate or secondary keys.
Composite Key – A key that consists of more
than one attribute to uniquely identify rows
(also known as records & tuples) in a table is
called composite key.
Non – Key - attributes are the attributes or
fields of a table, other than candidate key
attributes/fields in a table.
CONSTRAINTS
Every relation has some conditions that must
hold for it to be a valid relation. These
conditions are called Relational Integrity
Constraints.
There are three main integrity constraints
Key constraints
An attribute that can uniquely identify a tuple in
a relation is called the key of the table.
Key constraints force that:
 In a relation with a key attribute, no two
tuples can have identical values for key
attributes.
 A key attribute can not have NULL values
Domain constraints
can be violated if an attribute value is not
appearing in the corresponding domain or it is
not of the appropriate data type.
 Domain constraints specify that within each
tuple, and the value of each attribute must be
unique.
Referential integrity constraints
is base on the concept of Foreign Keys.
 A foreign key is an important attribute of a
relation which should be referred to in other
relationships.
 Referential integrity constraint state happens
where relation refers to a key attribute of a
different or same relation. However, that key
element must exist in the table
QUERY LANGUAGE
Relational database systems are expected to be
equipped with a query language that can assist
its users to query the database instances.
There are two kinds of query languages
 Relational Algebra – Procedural
 is a procedural query language used to
query the database tables to access
data in different ways.
 works on the whole table at once, so
we do not have to use loops etc. to
iterate over all the rows(tuples) of data
one by one.
 It uses operators to perform queries. An
operator can be either unary or binary
The primary operations that we can perform
using relational algebra are:
Select
 Select Operator is denoted by sigma (σ)
and it is used to find the tuples (or
rows) in a relation (or table) which
satisfy the given condition.
 Notation: σ Condition (Relation/Table
name)
EXAMPLE: σ AR_address = “Cebu” (Airlines)
Project
 Project operator is denoted by ∏
symbol and it is used to select desired
columns from a table
 Notation: ∏ column_name1, ..
column_nameN(table_name)
EXAMPLE: ∏ AR_ID, AR_company (Airlines)
Union
 Union operator is denoted by ∪ symbol
and it is used to select all the rows
(tuples) from two tables (relations).
 Notation − r U s Where r and s are
either database relations or relation
result set (temporary relation).
A union operation must hold the following
condition:
 r, and s must have the same number of
attributes.
 Attribute domains must be compatible.
 Duplicate tuples are automatically
eliminated.
EXAMPLE: ∏ AR_company (AIRLINES) ∪ ∏
AR_company (TRANSACTION)
Set Intersection
 Suppose there are two tuples R and S.
 The set intersection operation contains
all tuples that are in both R & S.
 It is denoted by intersection ∩.
 Notation: R ∩ S
EXAMPLE: ∏ AR_company (AIRLINES) ∩ ∏
AR_company (TRANSACTION)
Set Different
 Suppose there are two tuples R and S.
 The set intersection operation contains
all tuples that are in R but not in S.
 It is denoted by intersection minus (-).
 Notation: R – S
EXAMPLE: ∏ AR_company (AIRLINES) - ∏
AR_company (TRANSACTION)
Cartesian product
 The Cartesian product is used to
combine each row in one table with
each row in the other table.
 It is also known as a cross product.
 It is denoted by X.
 Notation: E X D
EXAMPLE: AIRLINES X AIRCRAFT
Rename
 Rename (ρ) operation can be used to
rename a relation or an attribute of a
relation.
 It is denoted by rho (ρ).
 Notation: ρ(OLD NAME, NEW NAME)
 EX: ρ(AIRCRAFT, AIRPLANE)
 Relational Calculus – Non Procedural
 In contrast to Relational Algebra,
Relational Calculus is a non-procedural
query language, that is, it tells what to
do but never explains how to do it.
  It tells the system what data to be
retrieved but doesn’t tell how to
retrieve it.

Relational calculus exists in two forms:

Tuple Relational Calculus (TRC)

 Tuple relational calculus is used for

selecting those tuples that satisfy the
given condition.
 Notation: {T | P (T)} or {T | Condition
(T)} Where
 T is the resulting tuples
 P(T) is the condition used to fetch T.

EXAMPLE:{ T.AC_MODEL | AIRCRAFT(T) AND

T.AC_CAPACITY > 320}

Domain Relational Calculus (DRC)

 In domain relational calculus the

records are filtered based on the
domains.
 The filtering variable uses the domain of
attributes instead of entire tuple values
 It uses logical connectives ∧ (and), ∨
(or) and ┓ (not).
 It uses Existential (∃) and Universal
Quantifiers (∀) to bind the variable.
 Notation: { a1, a2, a3, ..., an | P (a1, a2,
a3, ... ,an)} Where a1, a2 are attributes
P stands for formula built by inner
attributes

EXAMPLES: {< AR_company, TR_DATE,

TR_AMOUNT > | ∈ TRANSACTION ∧ TR_DESC =
‘Tickets’}