National Institute of Technology

Rourkela
Transmission Line Theory
EE3004 : Electromagnetic Field Theory

Dr. Rakesh Sinha

(Assistant Professor)

Circuit and Electromagnetic Co-Design Lab at NITR

Department of Electrical Engineering
National Institute of Technology (NIT) Rourkela

March 10, 2023

 Outline

1 Introduction

2 THE LUMPED-ELEMENT CIRCUIT MODEL OF TL

3 TL as Two port network

4 THE TERMINATED LOSSLESS TRANSMISSION LINE

5 Smith Chart or Reflection Chart

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Introduction

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 Introduction
❑ Transmission line (TL) theory bridges the gap between EM field theory
and basic circuit theory.
❑ It is of significant importance in the analysis of microwave circuits and
devices.
❑ The phenomenon of wave propagation on transmission lines can be
approached from an extension of circuit theory or from a specialization of
Maxwell’s equations.
❑ Both viewpoints will be presented and show how this wave propagation is
described by equations very similar to plane wave propagation.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

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THE LUMPED-ELEMENT CIRCUIT MODEL OF
TL

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 Lumped Circuit Model of TL
❑ The key difference between circuit theory and transmission line theory is
electrical size.
❑ A transmission line is a distributed- parameter network, where voltages
and currents can vary in magnitude and phase over its length.
❑ Ordinary circuit analysis deals with lumped elements, where voltage and
current do not vary appreciably over the physical dimension of the
elements.
❑ R = series resistance per unit length, for both
conductors, in Ω/m.
❑ L = series inductance per unit length, for both
conductors, in H/m.
❑ G = shunt conductance per unit length, in S/m.
❑ C = shunt capacitance per unit length, in F/m.

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 Telegrapher Equations
❑ KVL can be applied to give
∂i(z, t)
v(z, t) − R∆zi(z, t) − L∆z − v(z + ∆z, t) = 0 (1)
∂t
❑ KCL law leads to
∂v(z + ∆z, t)
i(z, t) − G∆zv(z + ∆z, t) − C∆z − i(z + ∆z, t) = 0 (2)
∂t
❑ Dividing (1) and (2) by ∆z and taking the limit as ∆z → 0 gives the
following differential equations:
∂v(z, t) ∂i(z, t)
= −Ri(z, t) − L (3)
∂z ∂t
∂i(z, t) ∂v(z, t)
= −Gv(z, t) − C (4)
∂z ∂t
❑ These are the time domain form of the transmission line equations, also
known as the telegrapher equations.

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 Telegrapher Equations
❑ For the sinusoidal steady-state condition, with cosine-based phasors, (3)
and (4) simplify to

dV (z)
= −(R + jωL)I(z) (5a)
dz
dI(z)
= −(G + jωC)V (z) (5b)
dz
❑ Note the similarity in the form of (5a) and (5b) and Maxwell’s curl
equations in a source-free, linear, isotropic, homogeneous region

∇ × Ē = −jωµH̄ (6)
∇ × H̄ = jω ∈ Ē (7)

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 Wave Propagation on a TL
❑ The two equations (5a) and (5b) can be solved simultaneously to give
wave equations for V (z) and I(z) :
d2 V (z)
− γ 2 V (z) = 0 (8a)
dz 2
d2 I(z)
− γ 2 I(z) = 0 (8b)
dz 2
where p
γ = α + jβ = (R + jωL)(G + jωC)
is the complex propagation constant, which is a function of frequency.
❑ Traveling wave solutions to (8) can be found as
V (z) = V0+ e−γz + V0− eγz (9a)
I(z) = I0+ e−γz + I0− eγz (9b)

❑ The e−γz term represents wave propagation in the +z direction, and the
eγz term represents wave propagation in the −z direction.

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 Wave Propagation on a TL
❑ From (5a) and (9) we can write

1 dV (z) γ
I(z) = − = (V + e−γz − V0− eγz )
R + jωL dz R + jωL 0
V+ V−
= 0 e−γz − 0 eγz (10)
Z0 Z0
❑ Z0 is the characteristic impedance and can be defined as
s
R + jωL R + jωL
Z0 = =
γ G + jωC

to relate the voltage and current on the line as follows:

V0+ −V0−
+ = Z0 =
I0 I0−

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 Wave Propagation on a TL
❑ The equation (9) can be written in a general form as
V (z) =V0+ e−αz e−jβz + V0− eαz ejβz (11a)
V0+ V0−
I(z) = e−αz e−jβz − eαz ejβz (11b)
R0 + jX0 R0 + jX0
where Z0 = R0 + jX0 = |Z0 |∠ϕ0 .
❑ In time domain the above voltage and current wave are written as
v(z, t) = V0+  cos ωt − βz + ϕ+ e−az
 

+ V0−  cos ωt + βz + ϕ− eαz

 

(12a)
 +
V 
i(z, t) = 0 cos ωt − βz + ϕ+ − ϕ0 e−az


|Z0 |
|V − |
+ o cos ωt + βz + ϕ− − ϕ0 eαz


(12b)
|Z0 |
2π
❑ The wavelength and phase velocity of the wave can be define as λ = β
and vp = ωβ = λf.

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 The Lossless Line
❑ Setting R = G = 0 in γ gives the propagation constant as
√
γ = α + jβ = jω LC

❑ The characteristic impedance Z0 reduces to

r
L
Z0 =
C
❑ The general solutions for voltage and current on a lossless transmission
line can then be written as

V (z) = Vo+ e−jβz + Vo− ejβz (13)

Vo+ −jβz Vo− jβz
I(z) = e − e . (14)
Z0 Z0
2π 2π
❑ The wavelength is λ = β = √
ω LC
ω √1
❑ The phase velocity is vp = β = LC

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 Distortion Less Line
❑ A distortionless line has no frequency and no delay distortion.
❑ For a distortionless the attenuation constant (α) and velocity of
propagation (v) should not be a function of frequency.
❑ β should be a direct function of frequency.
❑ The required condition for a distortionless line can be derived from the
expression of propagation constant (γ).
❑ Since, p
γ = α + jβ = (R + jωL)(G + jωC)
s   
jωL jωC
= RG 1 + 1+
R G
If, then,
ωL ωC
=
R G
s 2
√
  
jωL jωL
γ= RG 1 + = RG 1 +
R R

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 Distortion Less Line
❑
√ L√ √
r
G
γ= RG + jω RG = RG + jωL
R R
so, √
α = q . . . ( not function of ω)
RG
β = ωL GR . . . ( direct proportional to frequency)

❑ Thus α and β satisfy required condition of distortionless transmission line

under assumption of
L C
=
R G

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TL as Two port network

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 TL as Two port network
❑ The voltage and currents at the input V1 and I1 can be written in terms of
output voltage and current V2 and I2 as
    
V1 A B V2
= . (15)
I1 C D −I2
or

V1 =AV2 − BI2 (16a)

I1 =CV2 − DI2 (16b)

I1 I2
+ +
Two-port
V1 V2
− Network −

Figure 1: Two-Port Network

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 TL as Two port network
❑ For a TL of length l, starts at z = 0 and ends at z = l, the input voltage
and currents are
V1 =V0+ + V0− (17a)
V0+ V0−
I1 = − (17b)
Z0 Z0

❑ The output voltage and current are

V2 =V0+ e−jβl + V0− ejβl (18a)
V0+ e−jβl V0− ejβl
I2 = − + (18b)
Z0 Z0
❑ The solution of V0+ and V0− from the above equations are
1
V0+ = (V2 − Z0 I2 )ejβl (19a)
2
1
V0− = (V2 + Z0 I2 )e−jβl (19b)
2

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 TL as Two port network
❑ Substituting the value of V0+ and V0− in (17), we have
V2 jβl Z0 I2 jβl
V1 = (e + e−jβl ) − (e − e−jβl ) (20a)
2 2
V2 jβl I2
I1 = (e − e−jβl ) − (ejβl + e−jβl ) (20b)
2Z0 2
❑ Which simplifies to
V1 =V2 cos βl − jZ0 I2 sin βl (21a)
jV2
I1 = sin βl − I2 cos βl (21b)
Z0
❑ Therefore, the ABCD matrix of TL is
     
A B cos βl jZ0 sin βl cos θ jZ0 sin θ
= = (22)
C D jY0 sin βl cos βl jY0 sin θ cos θ
where Y0 = 1/Z0 is characteristic admittance and θ = βl is the electrical
length.

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 Terminated TL
❑ We can write the ABCD-parameters as
V1 =AV2 − BI2 (23a)
I1 =CV2 − DI2 (23b)

❑ The termination condition is

V2 = −ZL I2 (24)

I1 I2
+ 
A B
 +
V1 V2 ZL
− C D −

Figure 2: Terminated Two-Port Network: As one-port network

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 Terminated TL
❑ Substituting (24) into (23), we have
V1 = − I2 (AZL + B) (25a)
I1 = − I2 (CZL + D) (25b)

❑ Therefore, the input impedance of terminated two-port can be given as

V1 AZL + B
Zin == (26)
I1 CZL + D
❑ The input impedance of terminated TL can be given as
ZL cos θ + jZ0 sin θ
Zin = (27)
jZL Y0 sin θ + cos θ
❑ For open and short circuited TL, we have
Zin |ZL =0 = jZ0 tan θ Zin |ZL =∞ = −jZ0 cot θ (28)
❑ If ZL = Z0 ,
Zin |ZL =Z0 = Z0 (29)
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THE TERMINATED LOSSLESS TRANSMISSION
LINE

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 Terminated Lossless TL

❑ The total voltage on the line can be written as a sum of incident and
reflected waves:

V (z) = V0+ e−jβz + V0− ejβz (30)

❑ Similarly, the total current on the line is described by

V0+ −jβz V0− jβz

I(z) = e − e (31)
Z0 Z0

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 Terminated Lossless TL
❑ The total voltage and current at the load are related by the load
impedance, so at z = 0 we must have
V (0) V + + V0−
ZL = = 0+ Z0 (32)
I(0) V0 − V0−
❑ Solving for V0− gives
ZL − Z0 +
V0− = V (33)
ZL + Z0 0
❑ The amplitude of the reflected wave normalized to the amplitude of the
incident voltage wave is defined as the voltage reflection coefficient, Γ :
V0− ZL − Z0
Γ= + = (34)
V0 ZL + Z0
❑ The total voltage and current waves on the line can then be written as
V (z) = V0+ e−jβz + Γejβz


(35)
+
V
I(z) = 0 e−jβz − Γejβz .


(36)
Z0
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 Terminated Lossless TL
❑ The voltage and current on the line consist of a superposition of an
incident and a reflected wave; such waves are called standing waves.
❑ Only when Γ = 0 is there no reflected wave.
❑ To obtain Γ = 0, the load impedance ZL , must be equal to the
characteristic impedance Z0 of the TL.
❑ Such a load is said to be matched to the line since there is no reflection
of the incident wave.
❑ Now consider the time-average power flow along the line at the point z :
 2
1 1 V0+ 
Pavg = Re {V (z)I(z)∗ } = Re 1 − Γ∗ e−2jβz + Γe2jβz − |Γ|2

2 2 Z0
2
1 |Vo+ |
1 − |Γ|2


= (37)
2 Z0
The total power
❑   delivered to the load (Pavg
) is equal to the incident power
 + 2
V  /2Z0 minus the reflected power V + 2 |Γ|2 /2Z0 .

0 0

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 Return Loss
❑ When the load is mismatched, not all of the available power from the
generator is delivered to the load.
❑ This "loss" is called return loss (RL), and is defined (in dB ) as

RL = −20 log |Γ|dB

❑ So that a matched load (Γ = 0 ) has a return loss of ∞dB (no reflected

power), while a total reflection (|Γ| = 1 ) has a return loss of 0 dB (all
incident power is reflected).
❑ Note that return loss is a nonnegative number for reflection from a
passive network.

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 Standing Wave Ratio
❑ If the load is matched to the line, Γ = 0 and the magnitude of the voltage
on the line is |V (z)| = |Vo+ |, which is a constant.
❑ When reflection is there
|V (z)| = Vo+  1 + Γe2jβz  = Vo+  1 + Γe−2jβl 
     

= Vo+  |1 + |Γ|ej(θ−2βl) |
 
(38)
❑ The maximum value occurs when the phase term ej(θ−2βl) = 1 and is
given by
Vmax = Vo+  (1 + |Γ|).
 

❑ The minimum value occurs when the phase term ej(θ−2βℓ) = −1 and is
given by
Vmin = Vo+  (1 − |Γ|).
 

❑ As |Γ| increases, the ratio of Vmax to Vmin increases, so a measure of the

mismatch of a line, called the standing wave ratio (SWR), can be defined
as
Vmax 1 + |Γ|
SWR = = .
Vmin 1 − |Γ|
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 Input Impedance
❑ At a distance l = −z from the load, the input impedance seen looking
toward the load is
V + ejβℓ + Γe−jβℓ


V (−ℓ) 1 + Γe−2jβℓ
Zin = = o+ jβℓ Z 0 = Z0
I(−ℓ) Vo (e − Γe−jβℓ ) 1 − Γe−2jβℓ

❑ A more usable form may be obtained by using Γ = (ZL − Z0 )/(ZL + Z0 )

(ZL + Z0 ) ejβℓ + (ZL − Z0 ) e−jβℓ

Zin = Z0
(ZL + Z0 ) ejβℓ − (ZL − Z0 ) e−jβℓ
ZL cos βℓ + jZ0 sin βℓ
= Z0
Z0 cos βℓ + jZL sin βℓ
ZL + jZ0 tan βℓ
= Z0
Z0 + jZL tan βℓ
ZL cos βℓ + jZ0 sin βℓ
= Z0 .
Z0 cos βℓ + jZL sin βℓ

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 Short Circuited TL

❑ Consider the TL circuit is terminated in a short circuit, ZL = 0.

❑ From Γ = (ZL − Z0 )/(ZL + Z0 ), it is seen that the reflection coefficient for
a short circuit load is Γ = −1;
1+|Γ|
❑ It then follows from SWR = VVmax
min
= 1−|Γ| that the standing wave ratio is
infinite.
❑ The voltage and current on the line are
V (z) = Vo+ e−jβz − ejβz = −2jVo+ sin βz,


(39)
+ +
V 2V
I(z) = o e−jβz + ejβz = o cos βz.


(40)
Z0 Z0
❑ The input impedance is Zin = jZ0 tan βℓ.

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Short Circuited TL

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 Open Circuited TL

❑ Consider the open-circuited line with ZL = ∞ or YL = 0.

❑ From Γ = (ZL − Z0 )/(ZL + Z0 ) = (1 − YL Z0 )/(1 + YL Z0 ), it is seen that
the reflection coefficient for a open circuit load is Γ = 1.
❑ The standing wave ratio is again infinite.
❑ The voltage and current on the line are

V (z) = Vo+ e−jβz + ejβz = 2Vo+ cos βz

(41)
+
−2jVo +
V
I(z) = o e−jβz − ejβz = sin βz (42)
Z0 Z0
❑ The input impedance is Zin = −jZ0 cot βℓ

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Open Circuited TL

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 TL Terminated by Resistive load
❑ Consider the a TL is terminated by resistive load ZL = nZ0 .
❑ From Γ = (ZL − Z0 )/(ZL + Z0 ), it is seen that the reflection coefficient is
Γ = (n − 1)/(n + 1).
❑ The standing wave ratio is n if n > 1 and 1/n if n < 1.
❑ The voltage and current on the line are

V (z) =Vo+ e−jβz + Γejβz = Vo+ ((1 + Γ) cos βz − j(1 − Γ) sin βz)

2Vo+
= (n cos βz − j sin βz) (43)
n+1
V+
V+
I(z) = o e−jβz − Γejβz = o ((1 − Γ) cos βz − j(1 + Γ) sin βz)
Z0 Z0
+
2Vo
= (cos βz − jn sin βz) (44)
(n + 1)Z0

❑ The input impedance is Zin = Z0 ncos cos βℓ+j sin βℓ Z0 


βℓ+jn sin βℓ = n βl=π/2 = nZ0 |βl=π

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 TL-TL Junction

❑ Consider a TL of characteristic impedance Z0 feeding a line of different

characteristic impedance, Z1 .
❑ If it is terminated in its own characteristic impedance, so that there are no
reflections from its far end, then the input impedance seen by the feed
line is Z1 , so that the reflection coefficient Γ is
Z1 − Z0
Γ= (45)
Z1 + Z0
❑ Not all of the incident wave is reflected; some is transmitted onto the
second line with a voltage amplitude given by a transmission coefficient.
❑ The voltage for z < 0 is
V (z) = Vo+ e−jβz + Γejβz , z < 0,

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 TL-TL Junction
❑ The voltage wave for z > 0, in the absence of reflections, is outgoing only
and can be written as

V (z) = Vo+ T e−jβz for z > 0.

❑ Equating these voltages at z = 0 gives the transmission coefficient, T , as

Z1 − Z0 2Z1
T =1+Γ=1+ = .
Z1 + Z0 Z1 + Z0
❑ The transmission coefficient between two points in a circuit is often
expressed in dB as the insertion loss, IL,

IL = −20 log |T |dB.

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Smith Chart or Reflection Chart

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 Smith Chart
❑ If a lossless line of characteristic impedance Z0 is terminated with a load
impedance ZL , the reflection coefficient at the load can be written as
zL − 1
Γ= = |Γ|ejθ ,
zL + 1
where zL = ZL /Z0 is the normalized load impedance.
❑ This relation can be solved for zL in terms of Γ to give

1 + |Γ|ejθ
zL =
1 − |Γ|ejθ
❑ This complex equation can be reduced to two real equations by writing Γ
and zL in terms of their real and imaginary parts, Γ = Γr + jΓi , and
zL = rL + jxL , giving
(1 + Γr ) + jΓi
rL + jxL = .
(1 − Γr ) − jΓi

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 Smith Chart
❑ The real and imaginary parts of this equation can be separated by
multiplying the numerator and denominator by the complex conjugate of
the denominator to give

1 − Γ2r − Γ2i
rL = 2
(1 − Γr ) + Γ2i
2Γi
xL = 2
(1 − Γr ) + Γ2i

❑ Rearranging above equations gives

 2  2
rL 1
Γr − + Γ2i = ,
1 + rL 1 + rL
 2  2
2 1 1
(Γr − 1) + Γi − = ,
xL xL

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Smith Chart

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National Institute of Technology
Rourkela

Thanks.