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    IVERSIDAD COMPLUTENSE C > AE 203 JOR Poe et R-126.117 APPLIED SOCIAL RESEARCH | pameen tas = = PARTICIPANT are OBSERVATION A Methodology for Human Studies Danny L. Jorgensen ener | Shtrasev a eer ‘Applied Social Research Methods Serley i P10 S205" = brweron tara | Volume 15, 9 Rama cn | SAGE PUBLICATIONS Pires oe crams see | ‘The htematens Profession! Pushers fon sone Newbury Park London” New Oe use ‘eno Copyright © 1989 by Sage Publications, Ie All rights reserved. No pat ofthis book may be reproduced or utilized in any form of by any means, electonic of mechanical, including ‘photocopying, recording, oF by any information storage snd retieal system, without permission in wing from the publisher For information address: Seer Satie onan ate Rigo SAGE ros aa Po at ‘Ne Dh 11008 tna Printed inthe United States of Americe ‘Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data gen Dae ald wok. Secil oe Rese Seo Pree see : ISBN 809826979 ney 96 97 98 99 00 OL 17 16 15 4 13 12 At CONTENTS Preface 1 1. The Methodology of n ‘Pariipant Observation ‘Uses of Participant Observation Features of Participant Observation ‘The Insiders" Viewpoint ‘The World of Everday Life Interpretative Theory and Theorizing ‘An Open-Ended Logic and Process of Inquiry In-Depth Case Studies The Participant Role Methods of Colecting Information Summary Exerisee 2. The Process of Defining «Problem ‘The Sociocultural Context of Research Gating Started ‘An Ongoing Defining Process Formulating Concepts and Speciying Indicators Summary Exercises 3. Gaining Entrée to Setting Selecting Setting Features of Settings Entre Strategies ‘Comprehensive and Selective Observation 4, Patipating in Everyday Life Location and Perpetive Images of Participation Outsider Rois From Outsider to Tesider Roles Insider Role ‘Becoming the Phenomenon ‘Team Strategies and Using Assistants Sommary Ener, ce ee eee eee 5. Developing and Sustaining Feld Relationships ° PREFACE “Tras and Cooperation © Reciprocity and Exchange n ‘Thisbook providesanintroduetion to bate principles and strategies Strategies for Developing Relations a of parutpant observation. Ii intended for students, professionals, Stratepes for Overcoming Obstacles w scademics, and scholars without previous background or expetience Summary #0 with this methodology. Using the materials contained inthis book, you Exercises 8 can begin conducting participant observational research. This is an fe outa ae Genes aes 7 Imatonis come ami vind rate tnqwetolny Observing While Parpating 2 ‘Thete are several diferent conceptions of participant observation Tnuerviewing as From a posiivitiestandpoint—the view that human sdies mort ‘Documents and Human Arifacts 31 ‘sonform tothe methodology af the physical sciences, suchas phyics— Personal Experience 33 participant observation sometimes is regarded as noascente (Eas Sommary o% hope, 1971). Mote commonly, however, tis viewed postvstically at Exercses os se ding etnias ofsenilngy oreooaon and description (Lazarteld, 1972; Babbi, 1986). Qualitative deseip- teraeeene is tions geacrated by participant observation are ured to formulate [Notes and Records 96 ‘concepts for measurement, as wel as genctalzaions and hypotheses Recording Technologies 100 ‘that with further testing may be wed to construct explanatory theories. ‘Records and Files to4 -nshor, then, from a psiivstie viewpoint, partiipantobrevation is Sommary 105, ‘Simply a special form of observation, a unique method of collecting Exercises 10s data, but not otherwise uelul for the ultimate scientific goal of explanatory theorizing ae eee a "Mor aden advcsie ofthis mcthodlog sometimes have cepted “The Analytic Cycle 17 ‘his imited conception of participant observation ae a method of Gta Coding and Ping 108, collection, o otherwise attempted to reconcile participant observation Sorting, Sifting, Constructing, and ith a positvisticconception of humanstudies. Participant observation, Reconstructing uo | for instance, has been Seen as wef for measuring concepts, testing ‘Theory and Theorizing ney hypotheses, andor constructing causal explanations (Gee McCall, 1978; Summary tise] Lofland and Lofland, 1984). More generally, however, participant Exercises 6 ‘observation has been conceptalized as fundamentally diferent from ‘the methodology of the physical siences, asa special methodology, 9 Leaving the Feld and Communicating Reuls a ‘nigel adaped to the diinctve character f human exisene Leaving the Everyday Life Setting ur ‘Though 20 less “seni than other reearch methods, arpant Communicating Findings 9 tpervaon—in other wordsconstess umantrimetbodloga Summary 2 teosuary adaptation of sac to the iinive subject mater a Erercne 13 aman studs e Bray, 1965 Johnson, 197; Dougan, 1970, Some Reterences, recet advocates of ehnogtaphicrveatch sects dete over the = ‘sent aa of partpan obserauon as. premodern phe oft Intex About the Author 13 u Z PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION bistory (se Denzin forthcoming: Clifford and Marcus, 1986; Rabinow, 1977, Van Maanen, 1983) isnot entirely clear, however, sto prositely wa is involved wth ‘the humanistic methodology of participant observation. There ae at leat two reasons for this station. One, practitioners af parelpast ‘observation have resisted formulating definitive procedures end eek, nigues. Ts practice hasbeen reparded ae artfl and laapprosnate fry any Kind of linear, mechanical presentation. People fateread oc learning participant observation have been encourged te beens textbooks, a fail diverse set ofcharactrsis have been empheage Dimensions such as the insiders’ world of meaning, thy note Ezvonment of dally lie, gaining eae, developing rlaonip cakivating informant, participating, observing, and her forse ot {tering information igi of discovery and indiction,and interprets, tie theorizing have recived selective and diferent tains tor ‘Hinkle and Hinkle, 1956; Lindeman, 1923; Palmer, 1928; Webb od ebb, 1932; Junker, 1960; MeCall and Simmons, 1963; Lailand, 1971, ‘Schatzman and Straws, 1973; Spradiey, 1980; Hammersley and ‘Atkinson, 1983) Developing conception of participant observation for presentation her nectar required making certain decision and compronines eotcupaion—i ott way of ife—ad an importante ‘ey oslidetiy Youneed notmakerichacomatness ene ce ‘se participant oburvaion appropri and profane Al forms of sent ingury neviably inate tide arty of onrtonal extencentie factor, and depend on are eat aa essions and skis (ee Watson, 968, Clmurs ou, aoe hat Gatinkl 1967, Koor-Catina and Millay, 19). esa tee for parcipaatobecration bree te practice anlar, eee ecco eee people without these abilities. For these same reasons, some people make better participant observers than other people. ‘Thelogicof participant observations nonlineay, ts practice requies the researcher to exereise a wide variety of ills mae judgments, and be creative, and many nonrational factors influence most sspecs of actual study (see Johnson, 1975; Douglas, 1976; Reimer 197). Participant observation cannot be presented simply asaseries ofhighly ‘mechanical steps that, when followed erally by just anyone, wll eit without exception in competent participant observational research, [None ofthis to say, however, that partiipant observation cannot of should not be presented in a suaightlorward aad entirely practical fashion, The conception of participant observation developed here explicitly treats nonrational influences on the rescrcher snd escarch by alerting the practitioner to them aad encouraging him of her 62 ‘adres thee influences openly and honestly, expecially when presenting findings. Likewise, the arf character of participant obscrvtion readily acknowledged, and practitioners are encouraged to cultivate appropriate interpersonal skills aswell at related abilities to think and set with seastiiy and creative judgment inthe ed. 1 has not been posible 10 reconlle positivist and humanist conception of cence. The editors of this tries would have preferred ‘that I present a more catholic or generic conception of participant ‘observation Ihave toned dowa polemics between participant obser. ‘ion and positivist methods, suessing the distinctive character of Participant observation without developing certain comparisons end ontasts. Theteis nothing to prevent the reader from using pariipant ‘observation simply a8 a method of collecting data within an otherwise Postviatc conception of theory and research, Such aus of parcipant observation fal t0 utilize the full power ofthis methodology, ut ‘otherwise nothing bad happens if you do thi thas not been posible to present participant observation, however, ‘ss anything buta thoroughly humanistic methodology wale maining true to myself and longstanding traditions of its practice Direct Involvement in he here and now of people's daly lives provide otha ‘point of reference or the logic an proces of participant observational {inquiry anda strategy for geining acess to phenomena that commonly ‘are obscured from the standpoin’ ofa monparticipant. This pint sod ‘elated dimensions of participant observation depend heavily on ‘xistng literature and rations, especially as developed in Ametican snthropology and sociology (ee Hinkle and Hinkle, 1954; Wax, 1971; Emerson, 1983). The conception of participant observation presented here isitended, however, to provide coherent, unified porspenne oc {his methodology, not merely an elec collecion af boctoned ements. Lagree with Denzin orthoming tha participant observation trenily is undergoing radial ansformatio ats practtionssoce to integrate ideas of the postmodern ea. I strongly siseges that is requites a complete rection of exiting traditions, ot that there ne Jonger wll be ned fr methods and methodology, ‘conception of participant observation is presented in Chapter 1 ‘Chapter 2 discusses and iustrats the unique losic of parteipant observational inquiry, Subsequent chapters discus specific aspen ot {he methodology of participant observation: gaining catute fe hanioe fetings (Chapter 3 parcpating(Chapter4) developing and sustaining fed relations (Chapter 5); observing and gathering intormaang (Chapter making and maintaining note, ecrds, ands (Chaps 2; analyzing findings (Chapter 8); and leaving the eld and common, ‘ating findings (Chapter 9), “Many people deserve mention n connection wth this work, Marprette 1 Nelson encouraged my eatly involvement in sociology and ee of pattcipant observation. These interests were further noured, ine ‘gorated and pivenscrtcl dimension by Gisela Mink The deat {his book orginaly wat suggested by Stephen P Tuer who prone ‘2couragement throughout the projet. John M.Johnsovand Daya Althede dreeiy influenced my thinking about and practice of pars !eipant observation. They introduced me to ack D. Douglas seg hs rigs, many of which ae extremely important for cutest sndeneants ings ofthis methodology. ‘They also constitute the center of ma ‘mmportant irk of contemporary feld-workers, with whom Ihave been rleged to participate Joveph A. Kotaba, Peer Ader, and Carlo § ils ead and provided valuable comments onthe manuscript rel Rambo’ experiences with becoming the phenomenon requied sercy ‘rethink this strategy, 1am hopelessly indebted the very talented Berson responsible for typing eling, and othernie seine ihe ‘manuscript in readable form. Thapil and gratefully acknowledge ie debt even while Thonor her reques not tobe named here Tgatflly acknowledge the invaluable assistance of Sam Fustukjian, Dest of the Nelson Poynter Memorial Library of the Uaiesiy of Seane Florida at St.Petersburg and the stalf—especilly Helen Alteroor, ackic Shewmaker, and’ Tina Nevile—in locating and obtaining ‘elevantIeratore, Julie, Greta, Adrean, Erie, and Mikkey keep ie a sonstany in touch with the realities of daily life Lin spirited ‘companionship ensures that my life lately i meaning. “This works dedicated to the memory of Bruce Eaward (November, 1955-March 15, 1980), who wat unable to. make meaningful his continued existence, Danny L Sorgensen The Methodology of Participant Observation ‘is chariots ei the mtd of pcp orn end ian partner anes ee, The mcg {Brcpunt servation dened tad Bey seen thang ee "onto hs hag; porcastobran ie sepae nd ote oe ‘etal alma, ee pt rey, USES OF PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION The methodology of participant observation i appropratefor studies of almost every aspect of human existence. Through participant ‘observation, its posible to describe what goes on, who or whats involved, when and wher things happes, how they occur, and what leas rom the standpoint of participant things happen as they Join particular situation. The methodology of participant observation is exceptional for studying processes, relationships among people and vents, the orzanzation of people and events, continuities aver time, and Pate 8 welas the immediate socccuturl contents in whichiuman existence unfolds Pasticpant observation is especially appropriate for schol prot: Jems when Iie is known about the phenomssoa (2 newly formed grup of ‘Boveen, emotion work, fundamentalist Clvnien schoo, neovd an coeds ‘—thereae important ifeeoces betwen viewsof ines oposed to ‘outsiders (ethnic proups, bor union, manage, suber tack sults, poker player, ot ude bacer and even eccpations he Physician, mints, newscaster oct) ~theptenomenon ssomhow obscre fom the ew of ouider (iat, {atinate inacions and groups, sach at phy and meta ne ‘eens sexual, amy eo religoue ay oF rT a . | the phenomenon sien fom plc vew (ine and devine rete ‘obps ond organs, such ax drag ae and deer, cle and ‘esas ign) ‘The methodology of participant observation i not appropriate, however, for every scholarly problem. Questions about fairly large populations, the precise causal relationships among limited sts of "atabes, and measurable amounts ofsomething ar beter addresed by other methods, such as surveys or expeiments. Patcipant observation most appropiate when eta minimal condition are presen the research problems concerned with hunan meaning and interactions viewed rom te te renacher ble togun aces oa appropiate etn: — the phenomenonissulicenty Emad ine sndoctonto bead ata study questions ar appropriate for eae study: and ‘esearch pobim can be dared by qeaistv data pred by iret observation ad other means pene othe fd etn Participant observation is especialy appropriate for exploratory studies, descriptive studies, and studies sed at generating theoretical Interpretations, Though les uefa for texting theories, ndings of ‘participant observational research cetainl are apropriteforcritcally ‘examining theories and othe claims to knowledge FEATURES OF PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION ‘The methodology of participant observation consists of principles, strategies, procedures, methods, and techniques of esearch. Partipant observation is defined here i terms of seven bai eatares: (0) spi interest in hasan ming nd iteration ewe rom he Pespetveot people who ae imdes or members of parla statins ‘nd wings, 0) cation the hereand now of rryay estas and ating sthe Iounton of ier and method: (9) atoum of tery and theories tzeing interpretation and undertand- ng of human existence, "PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION (4) ogi and proces finn hati open-ended fib opportuni, nd requzes constant rdeiition of what problema, boa ac, {thre in concrete setigy of human exatnce (3) aniepi, quale, cae dy apponth and dees; (6 the peformanc of» parpan fle or rls that inves eabising ‘ad mananingretaonship with ates thes sod (© the ws of dct observation alongwith cher methods of ptering| ‘slrmaton Ubimatly, the methodology of participant observation aims to ‘generate practical and theoretical rhe sbout human lif rounded in the reais of daily existence ‘THE INSIDERS’ VIEWPOINT the course of daly ie, people make sense ofthe world around ‘them; they give it meaning and they interact on the basis of these ‘meanings (Schur, 1967; Blumer, 1969; Denzin, 1978) I people define a situation as tel it is real in its consequences (Thoms and Thotnss 1928), People, of couse, may be “mistaken” about what something ‘means, yt even eroneous bells have esl consequenocs. The world ot everyday life constitutes reality fo ts inabitants, natives, aides, or ‘members (Lyman and Scot, 197, 1975; Berger and Luckinann, 1986) ‘The insides’ conception of reality isnot directly acess talons, outsides, oF nonmembers, al of whom necessarily expevener fall, 5 astranger Schutz, 1967; Simmel, 1950), isnot posible to acquire more than a very rude notion ofthe insiders’ world, for instance, untl you comprehend the eure and language that is wsed to communicate is meanings (Hal, 1939, 1960, Greater comprehension requires that you understand the words of language as they are used in particular situations (sce Hall 1976, Insiders manage, manipulste, and negetine meanings in pariulat situation, intentionally and unintentionally obscuring, ding, ot concealing these meanings further feom the viewpoint of outsiers (Goffman, 1959, 1974; Douglas, 1976). ‘The methodoiogy of participant observation focuses onthe mesnings ‘ot human existence as sen fom the standpoint of insiders (neice, 1934; Spradiey, 1980). The world of everyday ife ax vewed from the Sandpoint of insiders i the fundamental reality to be dscribed by a ‘THE METHODOLOGY s participant observation, Put sil diferent, the methodology of participant observationseeksto uncover, make accssble, and evel te ‘meanings (realities) people use to make vase out of hit dally ives In placing the meaning of everyday ie ist, che methodology of participant ‘observation differs from approaches that begin with concepts ‘eine by way of existing theories and hypotheses, lis (1986) became a participant observer in two Chesapeake communities for the purpost of deseribng everyday life setvites within thes fishing communities fom the perspective of te members. Latout 1nd Woolgar (1979) and Lynch (1985 desribed the insides'concepion ‘of laboratory siene using participant observational methods. Through participant observation, Michell (1983) described the experiences and meanings of mountsacrig from the imiers viewpoint. Kiinman (4984) used a paricpant observational methodology to reveal the ‘meanings of seminary life from the standpoint of insiders. Chenitz and Swanson (1986) advocated participant observation for developing ‘cori grounded in practice that are vaca for nussng. Gallet (0987, forthcoming) focused on meanings and experiences of pro- fessional hockey players on the ass ofpatiipant observation ofthis sport. In short, then, the methodology of paticipant observation provides direct experiential and observational accese to the insiders" ‘world of meaning ‘THE WORLD OF EVERYDAY LIFE ‘The world of everday Ife i for the methodology of pastcipant ‘observation the ordinary usual, typical routine, ornaturalenvionitent of human existence. This world stands in conta 10 environments created and manipulated by researchers, as illutrated by experiments and surveys. In comparison with thei natural habitat, enim are known to behave and interact diferent in environment (such as az00 ‘or a laboratory) constructed ané manipulated by researchers. Human beings ikewise behavediferenty whenthey know they are being studied, specially when the researcher is very obtruively sanipulating the environment (4e Roethlisberger and Dickson, 193% Dougls, 1976, Douglas et al, 1980) ‘Thehere and now of everyday ile isimportant tothe methodology of Participant observation in at least two fundamental ways. One, this Where the researcher bins withthe proces of defining and refining issues and problems for study, Two, they are where the researcher pariipatesNomatter te original soutce ofthe study problem abstract theory, practical experience, coincidence, or whatever) precisely What Wil be studied and how it willbe segarded a problematic must be latified and refined by reference to human existence in everday ie situations Simialy, the esearch participate and observesineverday life stutions. Every effort must be madeto minimize the extent to which the researcher disrupts and otherwise intrudes asa alien or noapic ‘ant inthe stations studied. Taking the role of participant provides ‘he searcher wth ameans of conducting uly umobinsve observations Sanders (1986), for instance, partcipated directly in four tattoo parlors asa segue” while observing this everyday ie environment. To study the social word of preschool eld, Mandel (1988) prtipaed ‘with and observed children on playgrounds, in classrooms, hallvae, bathrooms, and lunchrooms af two day-care centers, Hockey (1986) studied the culture of enlisted menin the Bish Army from the conerete situations and stings of nil reruitment and basic taning, to dally life in an infantry bataion, patrol in Northern Ireland, and rambune- tious offduty socal lie. To study suess and mental ath a wel as design an appropriate intervention strategy in a southern ‘Black ‘community, Dreier (1987) partipated in and observed this environ ‘ment, gathered information from key informants, and recruited research ‘ssstanis and consultants from the community being sade. INTERPRETATIVE THEORY AND THEORIZING ‘The methodology of participant observation aims to provide pastel and theoretical rus about human existence. From this standpoint, a “ory” may be defined as a set of concepts and generalizations, ‘Theories provide a pespactive, away of seeing, of aa interpretation aimed at understanding some phenomenon (eee Blumer, 196%, Agar, 1986). The methodology of participant observation provokes concepts and generalizations formulated asinterpretative theories, These concepts ‘and generalizations may beusedtexamine critically existing hypotheses and theories. Concepts, generalizations, and interpreta through participant observation areuseoifor making practical decisions (Gee Chestz and Swanson, 1986, Wiliams, 1986) Tntecpretative theory ditles from conceptions of theory aimed at «explanation, prediction, and consol of human phenomena (ee Douglas sir METHODOLOGY ” tal 1980 Potkinghocne, 1983; Agar, 1986). Explanatory theories are ‘composed of logically interelaed propositions. Ideally, they contain lawlke proposition providing causal explanations. Explanatory p= ‘proaches to theorizing sess the testing of propositions (or hypotheses) {otcpating relations among concepts (ce Wallace 1971; Gibbs, 197, Blalock, 197. Explanatory theorizing, expecially inthe frm of hypothesis testing, involves a "lope of verification” (Kaplan, 1968) This logic operates by (i the definition ofa problem for stdy in the form ofa hypothe ot hypotheses derived from or otherwise related to an abstract body of theoretical knowledge, (2 the definition of concept contained in thee hypotheses by procedures for mesuring them (called operationalza- tion), and (3) the precise measurement of concepts, preferably quanta tivel (by degrees or amounts) Experiments and many form of sare research fr instance, are employed forte purpose of testing hypotheses ‘nd explanatory theories “Althede (1976), to Wustrats, conducted a study of television news through participant observation He wa interested ibis or istotions ln news making. Having reviewed relevant scholriy erature, Alteide ‘nas aware of several diferent perspectives on this sue, swell as specie ‘contentions (aypotbess) explaining way or how news is biased. He Suspected that bias was somehow related to how nens workers put {oper television news programs. With this general ida, but without specie hypotheses (operational definitions ot measures), Altede set ‘ut to describe news worker images of heir jobe and how they actly Ai their work. His Findings dese in qualitative detail how practical and organizational features of doingnews work promote waysofooking st events that distor them. The emergent, interpretative theory ofthe ‘ews perepetie a bis provided soli, expircal basis for questioning the accuracy of some previous claims (i not the complete rejection of these hypotheses) and renterpreting other theoretical hime. The tad, furthermore, resltedin subsequent esearch nd efinement of Alteide's Interpretative theory of news making (ee Altheide, 1985; Altheide and Snow, 1979, “The participant observational study of delinquents by Emerson (1965 esulted inthe more general concep of "art reorts” (Emerson, 1961). Suites (1968) participant observational study of slums led to theorising about communities Sutles, 1972). lewis (199) participant ‘observational study of prisoners resulted in a typology of felons and a ‘theoretical critique of contemporary prisoas. Fox's (1987) participant * PARTICIPANT ORSERVATION observational study of “punks” resuted ina typology of punkstatus and 8 general conception of the informal stratification of ths anestblsh- ‘ment subcuture, Goffman’ (1961 highly influential theoretical concept ‘of “otal institutions” emerged from participant observation in ¢ hospital ee also Richard, 1986) AN OPEN-ENDED LOGIC AND, [PROCESS OF INQUIRY, Participant observational inguiry may proceeé onthe bass of some more or les abstractidea ori may derive from involvement with fed setting. Ether way, what i problematic must be defined or redefined specifically by reference tothe actual study setng. The methodology of artcipant observation suesses a “logic of discovery"a process aimed atinstigating concepts, generalization, and theories (Kaplan, 1964. in thet words, aims to build theories grounded in conersie human ‘alte (Glazer and Straus, 1967; Agar, 1986) This requires flexible, ‘open-ended processor identifying and defining a problem or problems for study, concepts, and appropriate procedures for calecting and evaluating evidence, ‘The methodology of participant observation encourages the 1e- searcher to begin with the immediate experience of human lie in concrete situations and settings, and make the most of whatever ‘opportunities are presented (See Whyte, 1984). Scott (1968), for Instance, took advantage of a longstanding interest in hore racing to ‘conduct a participant observational study ofthe racing game, While the researcher may have a theoretical interest in being thet, exaely what concepts are important, how they are or are not relate, and what therefore is problematic should main open and subject. refinement ‘and definition based on what the researcher i able 0 uncover and observe. This proces and logic of inquiry sequies the reseaichet 10 define the problem of sty and be constantly open oi redefinition based on information eoleted inthe eld It further encourages the researcher to define conceps by proviingclaborate qualitative deseipe tions of them in terms of what people do and say in everyday life ‘Walls (1977), for instance, used participant observation to gather information on Scientology concerning ast of “broad themes” athet than hypotheses. Weppner (1983) partisipated nan addiction treatment _rme METHODOLOGY » program prio to defining problems precisely for further study. Much lke Weppner, Sudnow (1978) studied and played jazz piano before ‘aking the organization ofimprovied conduc the subject of study In ‘other words, Sudnow’ specie interest in how improvised conduct is ‘oxganized and accomplished partly derive from and wa informed by his piano-playing experiences. IN-DEPTH CASE STUDIES. (Case studies take a varity of forms, most of which do not involve participant observations ee Yin, 1984), The methodology of participant observation, however, generally is practied asa form of case study ‘This involves the detailed description and analy of an individual ease (Becker, 1968, pp. 232-38). Case studies sess the holsdc examination ofaphenomenon, andthe seck to avoid th separation of components ftom the langer conten to which these matters may be related The case studied may bea culture, society, community, subculture, organization, ‘br0up, or phenomenon such as belles, practi, or iterations a Well 4 almost any other aspect of human existence. Gans (1962), for Instance, studied the case of urban villagers. Loland (1966) sie the se ofteligious conversion. Becker et al, (1961) sted the case of Student medical school cule (Case studies conducted byway of participant observation tempt to

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