ENROLMENT NO: TCA2009012 NAME : DIVYANSH JAIN

PRACTICAL-1

Aim:
 
1. To determine the Hall voltage developed across the sample material.
2. To calculate the Hall coefficient and the carrier concentration of the sample material.
 

Apparatus:
 
Two solenoids, Constant current supply, Four probe, Digital gauss meter, Hall effect apparatus (which consist of Constant Current Generator
(CCG), digital milli voltmeter and Hall probe).
 
 

Theory:
 
If a current carrying conductor placed in a perpendicular magnetic field, a potential difference will generate in the conductor which is
perpendicular to both magnetic field and current. This phenomenon is called Hall Effect. In solid state physics, Hall effect is an important tool
to characterize the materials especially semiconductors. It directly determines both the sign and density of charge carriers in a given sample.
 
Consider a rectangular conductor of thickness t kept in XY plane. An electric field is applied in X-direction using Constant Current Generator
(CCG), so that current I flow through the sample. If w is the width of the sample and t is the thickness. There for current density is given by
 
 
Jx=I/wt (1)
 

Fig.1 Schematic representation of Hall Effect in a conductor.

CCG – Constant Current Generator, JX – current density
ē – electron, B – applied magnetic field
t – thickness, w – width
VH – Hall voltage
 
 
If the magnetic field is applied along negative z-axis, the Lorentz force moves the charge carriers (say electrons) toward the y-direction. This
results in accumulation of charge carriers at the top edge of the sample. This set up a transverse electric field Ey in the sample. This develop a
potential difference along y-axis is known as Hall voltage VH  and this effect is called Hall Effect.
 
 A current is made to flow through the sample material and the voltage difference between its top and bottom is measured using a volt-
meter. When the applied magnetic field B=0,the voltage difference will be zero.
We know that a current flows in response to an applied electric field with its direction as conventional and it is either due to the flow of holes
in the direction of current or the movement of electrons backward. In both cases, under the application of magnetic field the magnetic Lorentz

force,  causes the carriers to curve upwards. Since the charges cannot escape from the material, a vertical charge imbalance builds up.
This charge imbalance produces an electric field which counteracts with the magnetic force and a steady state is established. The vertical
electric field can be measured as a transverse voltage difference using a voltmeter.
In steady state condition, the magnetic force is balanced by the electric force. Mathematically we can express it as
eE=eVB…………(2) 

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Where 'e' the electric charge, 'E' the hall electric field developed, 'B' the applied magnetic field and 'v' is the drift velocity of charge carriers.
And the current 'I' can be expressed as,
I=neAV……(3)
 
 
Where 'n' is the number density of electrons in the conductor of length l ,breadth 'w' and thickness 't'.
Using (1) and (2) the Hall voltage VH can be written as,

Vh=Ew=VBw=IB/net…………
Vh=Rh TB/t…………(4)
by rearranging eq(4) we get
 
RH=VH*t/I*B……..(5) 
 
 
 
 
Where RH is called the Hall coefficient.
RH=1/ne (6)

Observation table
Trial Thickness (t) Hall current, Hall Voltage
    RH          
No: m mA mV
 1  0.009 0.001  0.003695  0.0194 
 2  0.2  1  21.567  0.0194 
 3  0.1  1  28.756  0.0194 
 4  0.2  1.5  32.350  0.0194 
 5  0.3  2  38.341  0.0194 
 
Result
Hall coefficient of the material=0.0194

Carrier Practical-2
Aim
Determination of Planck’s constant.

Apparatus
0-10 V  power supply, a one way key, a rheostat, a digital milliammeter, a digital voltmeter, a 1 K resistor and different known
wavelength LED’s (Light-Emitting Diodes).

Theory
Planck’s constant (h), a physical constant was introduced by German physicist named Max Planck in 1900. The significance of Planck’s
constant is that ‘quanta’ (small packets of energy) can be determined by frequency of radiation and Planck’s constant. It describes the
behavior of particle and waves at atomic level as well as the particle nature of light.

An LED is a two terminal semiconductor light source. In the unbiased condition a potential barrier is developed across the p-n junction
of the LED. When we connect the LED to an external voltage in the forward biased direction, the height of potential barrier across the
p-n junction is reduced. At a particular voltage the height of potential barrier becomes very low and the LED starts glowing, i.e., in
the forward biased condition electrons crossing the junction are excited, and when they return to their normal state, energy is
emitted. This particular voltage is called the knee voltage or the threshold voltage. Once the knee voltage is reached, the current

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may increase but the voltage does not change.

The light energy emitted during forward biasing is given as ,

                                          (1) E=hc/lambda
Where
c -velocity of light.
h -Planck’s constant.
λ -wavelength of light.

If V is the forward voltage applied across the LED when it begins to emit light (the knee voltage), the energy given to electrons
crossing the junction is,

                                          (2)E=ev

Equating (1) and (2), we get

                                       (3) ev=hc/lambda
The knee voltage V can be measured for LED’s with different values of λ (wavelength of light).

                                (4)v=hc/e(1/lambda)
Now from equation (4), we see that the slope s of  a graph of V on
the vertical axis vs. 1/λ on the horizontal axis is

                                              (5)S=hc/e
To determine Planck’s constant h, we take the slope s from our graph and calculate
h=e/c(S)
e/c=5.33x10^-28 cs/m

using the known value Alternatively, we can write equation (3) as h=e/c (lambda V)

COLOUR WAVELENGTH KNEE RHEOSTAT PLANK’S

OF LED VOLTAGE VALUE CONSTANT
Red 6.50 00.261 58 6.566x10^-
34

Results
Planck’sconstant=6.566x10^-34Js.
 Wavelength of IR LED    =    650  nm.

PRACTICAL-3

Aim:
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 ENROLMENT NO: TCA2009012 NAME : DIVYANSH JAIN

To revise the concept of interference of light waves in general and thin-film interference in particular.
To set up and observe Newton’s rings.
To determine the wavelength of the given source.

Thin film interference:

A film is said to be thin when its thickness is about the order of one wavelength of visible light which is taken to be 550 nm.  When
light is incident on such a film, a small portion gets reflected from the upper surface and a major portion is transmitted into the film.
Again a small part of the transmitted component is reflected back into the film by the lower surface and the rest of it emerges out of
the film. These reflected beams reunite to produce interference.  Also the transmitted beams too interfere.  This type of interference
that takes place in thin films is called interference by division of amplitude.

Θ1    angle of incidence at medium 1 to medium 2 boundary.

Θ2    angle of refraction at medium 1 to medium 2 boundary.
Θ3    angle of refraction at medium 2 to medium 3 boundary.
r12    reflected light from medium 1 to medium 2 boundary.
r23    reflected light from medium 2 to medium 1 boundary.
r21    reflected light from medium 2 to medium 3 boundary.
t21    transmitted light from medium 2 to medium 1 boundary.
t23    transmitted light from medium 2 to medium 3 boundary.
d       thickness of the film.

In the above figure the rays r12 and t21 interfere and results in a constructive or destructive interference depending on their path
differences, given as,

Where,      refractive index of the  medium 2 and      the order of interference.

The transmitted light from t23 can also interfere and result in constructive or destructive interference.

Thin film interference with films of

various interference:
Rings are fringes of equal thickness.  They are observed when light is reflected from a plano-convex lens of a long focal length placed
in contact with a plane glass plate.  A thin air film is formed between the plate and the lens.  The thickness of the air film varies from
zero at the point of contact to some value t.  If the lens plate system is illuminated with monochromatic light falling on it normally,
concentric bright and dark interference rings are observed in reflected light.  These circular fringes were discovered by Newton and
are called Newton’s rings.

A ray AB incident normally on the system gets partially reflected at the bottom curved surface of the lens (Ray 1) and part of the
transmitted ray is partially reflected (Ray 2) from the top surface of the plane glass plate.  The rays 1 and 2 are derived from the
same incident ray by division of amplitude and therefore are coherent.  Ray 2 undergoes a phase change of p upon reflection since it
is reflected from air-to-glass boundary.

The condition for constructive and destructive interferences are given as;
for normal incidence  cos r = 1 and for air film     = 1.

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   constructive interference

   destructive interference

Central dark spot: At the point of contact of the lens with the glass plate the thickness of the air film is very small compared to the
wavelength of light therefore the path difference introduced between the interfering waves is zero. Consequently, the interfering
waves at the centre are opposite in phase and interfere destructively. Thus a dark spot is produced.

Circular fringes with equal thickness: Each maximum or minimum is a locus of constant film thickness. Since the locus of points
having the same thickness fall on a circle having its centre at the point of contact, the fringes are circular.

Fringes are localized: Though the system is illuminated with a parallel beam of light, the reflected rays are not parallel. They
interfere nearer to the top surface of the air film and appear to diverge from there when viewed from the top. The fringes are seen
near the upper surface of the film and hence are said to be localized in the film.

Radii of the mth dark rings:  rm=square root of m+R

Radii of the mth bright ring: rm=square root of (2m+1)R lambda/2

The radius of a dark ring is proportional to the radius of curvature of the lens by the relation,   .

Rings get closer as the order increases (m increases) since the diameter does not increase in the same proportion.

In transmitted light the ring system is exactly complementary to the reflected ring system so that the centre spot is bright.

Under white light we get coloured fringes.

The wavelength of monochromatic light can be determined as,   .

Where,  Dm+p is the diameter of the (m+p)th dark ring and

Dm is the diameter of the mth dark ring.

Observations:

Result:
Wavelength of light from the given source is found to be  =6.01nm

concentration of the material=3.22165e+20 m-3

PRACTICAL-4

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 ENROLMENT NO: TCA2009012 NAME : DIVYANSH JAIN

Aim -To determine the angle of the given prism.

Apparatus: Spectrometer, prism, magnifying glass, sodium vapor lamp.

Principle: When a beam of light strikes on the surface of transparent material (Glass, water, quartz
crystal etc.), a portion of the light is transmitted and the other portion is reflected. When a beam of light
strikes on a plane surface, the angle of reflection will be the same as angle of incidence.

Fig (1)

Fig (i)

Fig(ii)

If the angle between two reflected ray is measured as θ, then the angle of the prism is

A= θ/2

PRACTICLE-5

AIM- To find V-I characteristics of diode

THEORY-

1. Explain the structure of a P-N junction diode

2. Explain the function of a P-N junction diode

3. Explain forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Silicon diode

4. Explain forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Germanium diode

WHAT IS A DIODE-

The diode is a device formed from a junction of n-type and p-type semiconductor material. The lead
connected to the p-type material is called the anode and the lead connected to the n-type material is
the cathode. In general, the cathode of a diode is marked by a solid line on the diode.

Figurer:1

Figure:2

FUNCTION OF PN-JUNCTION IN FORWARD BAISE-

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) and the negative terminal of battery is
connected to the N side(cathode) of a diode, the holes in the p-type region and the electrons in the n-
type region are pushed toward the junction and start to neutralize the depletion zone, reducing its
width. The positive potential applied to the p-type material repels the holes, while the negative
potential applied to the n-type material repels the electrons. The change in potential between the p side

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and the n side decreases or switches sign. With increasing forward-bias voltage, the depletion zone
eventually becomes thin enough that the zone's electric field cannot counteract charge carrier motion
across the p–n junction, which as a consequence reduces electrical resistance. The electrons that cross
the p–n junction into the p-type material (or holes that cross into the n-type material) will diffuse into
the nearby neutral region. The amount of minority diffusion in the near-neutral zones determines the
amount of current that may flow through the diode.

Figurer:3

FUNCTION OF PN-JUNCTION IN REVERSE BAISE-

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the negative terminal of battery
is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode. Therefore, very little current will flow until the diode
breaks down.

Figurer:4

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the negative terminal of battery
is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode, the 'holes' in the p-type material are pulled away from the
junction, leaving behind charged ions and causing the width of the depletion region to increase.
Likewise, because the n-type region is connected to the positive terminal, the electrons will also be
pulled away from the junction, with similar effect. This increases the voltage barrier causing a high
resistance to the flow of charge carriers, thus allowing minimal electric current to

cross the p–n junction. The increase in resistance of the p–n junction results in the junction behaving as
an insulator.

The strength of the depletion zone electric field increases as the reverse-bias voltage increases. Once
the electric field intensity increases beyond a critical level, the p–n junction depletion zone breaks down
and current begins to flow, usually by either the Zener or the avalanche breakdown processes. Both of
these breakdown processes are non-destructive and are reversible, as long as the amount of current
flowing does not reach levels that cause the semiconductor material to overheat and cause thermal
damage.

FORWARD AND REVERSE CHARECTERSTICS OF SILICON DIODE-

In forward biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side and the negative terminal
of battery is connected to the N side of the diode. Diode will conduct in forward biasing because the
forward biasing will decrease the depletion region width and overcome the barrier potential. In order to
conduct, the forward biasing voltage should be greater than the barrier potential. During forward
biasing the diode acts like a closed switch with a potential drop of nearly 0.6 V across it for a silicon
diode. The forward and reverse bias characteristics of a silicon diode. From the graph, you may notice
that the diode starts conducting when the forward bias voltage exceeds around 0.6 volts (for Si diode).
This voltage is called cut-in voltage.

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Figurer:5

In reverse biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side and the negative terminal
of battery is connected to the P side of a diode. In reverse biasing, the diode does not conduct
electricity, since reverse biasing leads to an increase in the depletion region width; hence current carrier
charges find it more difficult to overcome the barrier potential. The diode will act like an open switch
and there is no current flow.

FORWARDAND REVERSE CHARECTERSTICS OF GERMANIUM DIODE-

In forward biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side and the negative terminal
of battery is connected to the N side of the diode. Diode will conduct in forward biasing because the
forward biasing will decrease the depletion region width and overcome the barrier potential. In order to
conduct, the forward biasing voltage should be greater than the barrier potential. During forward
biasing the diode acts like a closed switch with a potential drop of nearly 0.3 V across it for a germanium
diode. The forward and reverse bias characteristics of a germanium diode. From the graph, you may
notice that the diode starts conducting when the forward bias voltage exceeds around 0.3 volts (for Ge
diode). This voltage is called cut-in voltage.

Figurer:6

In reverse biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side and the negative terminal
of battery is connected to the P side of a diode. In reverse biasing, the diode does not conduct
electricity, since reverse biasing leads to an increase in the depletion region width; hence current carrier
charges find it more difficult to overcome the barrier potential. The diode will act like an open switch
and there is no current flow.

Diode Equation

In the forward-biased and reversed-biased regions, the current (IfIf), and the voltage (VfVf), of a
semiconductor diode are related by the diode equation:

If=Is×(expVfn×VT−1)If=Is×(expVfn×VT−1)

where,

IsIs is reverse saturation current or leakage current,

IfIf is current through the diode(forward current),

VfVf is potential difference across the diode terminals(forward voltage)

VTVT is thermal voltage, given by

VT=k×TqVT=k×Tq

and

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k is Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38x10−23 J /°Kelvin,

q is the electronic charge = 1.6x10−19 joules/volt(Coulombs),

T is the absolute temperature in °Kelvin(°K = 273 + temperature in °C),

At room temperature (25 °C), the thermal voltage is about 25.7 mV,

n is an empirical constant between 0.5 and 2

The empirical constant, n, is a number that can vary according to the voltage and current levels. It
depends on electron drift, diffusion, and carrier recombination in the depletion region. Among the
quantities affecting the value of n are the diode manufacture, levels of doping and purity of materials.

If n=1, the value of k×Tqk×Tq is 26 mV at 25°C.

When n=2, the value of k×Tqk×Tq becomes 52 mV. For germanium diodes, n is usually considered to be
close to 1. For silicon diodes, n is in the range of 1.3 to 1.6.

Note

1. Ideal Diode Model:Diode is a simple switch that is either closed (conducting) or open (non
conducting). Specifically, the diode is a short circuit, like a closed switch, when voltage is applied in the
forward direction, and an open circuit, like an open switch, when the voltage is applied in the reverse
direction.

2. Offset Voltage Model:The offset voltage model adds the barrier potential to the ideal switch model.
When the diode is forward biased it is equivalent to a closed switch in series with a small equivalent
voltage source equal to the barrier potential (0.6 V for Silicon, 0.2 for germanium) with the positive side
towards the anode. When the diode is reverse biased, it is equivalent to an open switch just as in the
ideal model.

3. Complete diode Model:It is the most accurate of the diode models. The Complete diode model of a
diode consists of the barrier potential, the small forward dynamic resistance and the ideal diode. The
resistor approximates the semiconductor resistance under forward bias. This diode model most
accurately represents the true operating characteristics of the real diode.

4. When a diode is reverse biased a leakage current flows through the device. This current can be
effectively ignored as long as the reverse breakdown voltage of the diode is not exceeded. At potentials
greater than the reverse breakdown voltage, charge is pulled through the p-n junction by the strong
electric fields in the device and large reverse current flows. This usually destroys the device. There are
special diodes that are designed to operate in breakdown. Such diodes are called zener diodes and used
as voltage regulators.

When is each Model used ?

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Ideal Diode Model: This is primarily used in troubleshooting. Is the diode working or not. The greatest
utility of the ideal diode model is in determining which diodes are on and which are off in a multi-diode
circuit.

Offset Voltage Model:This is used when a more accurate determination of load current or voltage is
required.

Complete Diode Model:This is use during the actual design of circuits using diodes.

PRACTICAL-6

AIM- To determine the specific rotation of a sugar using a polarimeter.

THEORY-

Chiral molecules have an asymmetrical center which respond to light as a lens and rotate the light. The
ability to rotate light is termed optical activity and substances that exhibit this property are called
optically active substances. Optically active organic molecules have a spiral structure like a right-handed
or left-handed screw. It is this spiral nature of the molecule, which rotates the plane of polarization of
light passing through it. Right-handed molecules will rotate the plane of polarization clockwise as viewed
in the direction of the beam, while left-handed molecules rotate the plane in a counter clockwise
direction. If right-handed and left-handed species of a given molecule occurred with equal abundance,
then there would be no net effect on the polarization of light passing through. However, naturally
occurring biological molecules of a given species are always either purely right-handed or purely left-
handed. However, these enantiomer compounds rotate light by exactly the same amount but in the
opposite direction. The degree to which a substance rotates light may be used to determine a) the
identity of the substance, b) the enantiomer purity of the substance or c) the concentration of a known
substance in a solution. In order to observe rotation, the light which is passed through the solution must
be plane polarized. Ordinary light has waves which are oriented in all directions. Plane polarized light is
made up of waves which are oriented parallel to a defined plane.

When a beam of plane polarized light passes through a solution of optically active material the light will
rotate.

This is because, when light interacts with matter, two basic phenomena occur, namely, absorption and
the decrease in the velocity of light. Absorption is the decrease in the intensity of light because a part of
the incident light is absorbed by the material. The decrease in velocity of light is due to refractive index
of the material, because the velocity of light is smaller in the material than in the vacuum.

How do chiral molecules exhibit Optical Rotation?

Interestingly, a monochromatic linearly polarized light beam can be considered as a superposition of two
circularly polarized electromagnetic waves that are propagating in the same direction with the same
frequency but the opposite sense of rotation. The plane of polarization of the resulting linearly polarized
wave thus prepared can be changed (rotated) by applying a phase shift between its two circularly

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polarized components. With the help of this concept we can explain the phenomenon of optical
rotation: We have seen that chiral molecules interact slightly differently with the two circularly polarized
components of a linearly polarized light beam. This is true both for absorption and refraction. Left- and
right hand circularly polarized light beams also have slightly different refractive indices in a chiral
medium. This means that even if they are not absorbed they travel at different speeds through the
medium. Therefore, this causes a phase shift between the two circularly polarized components which
increases proportional to the path length that the light travels through the chiral medium. This phase
shift manifests itself as a rotation of the plane of polarization of the resultant linearly polarized light
beam - optical rotation.

The degree of rotation of the plane polarized light depends on the wavelength of the light (usually, the
yellow sodium D line near 589 nm wavelength is used), the optical path length, the concentration of the
solution, and the chemistry of the molecule. Under identical conditions, some molecules rotate
polarized light more than the others do. In order measure how good chiral molecules rotate plane-
polarized light, a term called as the "specific rotation" was coined. The specific rotation of a substance is
an intrinsic characteristic similar to other properties such melting point, or solubility. By convention, the
specific rotation of a chemical is defined as the observed rotation when light of a specified wavelength
passes through sample path length of one decimeter (1 dm = 10 cm) and a sample concentration of 1
g/mL.

Circular birefringence and optical rotation

Chiral molecules exhibit circular birefringence, which means that a solution of a chiral substance
presents an anisotropic medium through which left circularly polarised (L-CPL) and right circularly
polarised (R-CPL) propagate at different speeds. A linearly polarised wave can be thought of as the
resultant of the superposition of two circularly polarised waves, one left-circularly polarised, the other
right-circularly polarised. On traversing the circularly birefringent medium, the phase relationship
between the circularly polarised waves changes and the resultant linearly polarised wave rotates. This is
the origin of the phenomenon known as optical rotation, which is measured using a polarimeter.
Measuring optical rotation as a function of wavelength is termed optical rotatory dispersion (ORD)
spectroscopy.

Circular birefringence:the orange cuboid represents the sample

Functioning of the polarimeter

A)

B)

Fig. 1: Schematic representation of the functioning of the polarimeter.

OBJECTIVE- The purpose of this lab is to use optical rotation as a method for determining the identity of
unknown sugars. By doing this experiment the user will be able to:

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1. Understand the interaction of plane polarized light with solutions of chiral substances

2. Understand various processes and techniques involved in measuring the optical activity of sugar
solutions using polarimeter.

3. Understand the step-by-step procedure including most details from preparing the sample to
identification of sugar solution used as part of the experiment.

OBSERVATION TABLE-

Observations for unknown sugar No.

Experiment No. Concentration of the sugar solution(in g/100mL) Length of polarimeter tube

(in dm) *Possible total optical rotation

(αtotal )(in degrees) #Specific rotation (in degrees)

1 30 1 153 510

333 1110

-207 -690

-27 -90

2 60 1 125 208

305 508

-235 -392

-55 -92

3 100 1 88 88

268 268

-272 -272

-92 -92

*Note:From the experiment we can notice that if the maximum intensity of light is observed at x°
degree, it is also observed at (180+ x)° degree. From a single experiment, it is not possible to infer which
the value for total rotation αtotal actually is. Then again, the observation only tells us about the
orientation of the plane of polarization of the emergent light relative to that of the incident light.
However, one can not off hand say anything about what is the actual total rotation the plane has
undergone. Thus, for example, the observation of maxima at x° and at (180 + x)° may mean that the
value of αtotal could also be (360n + x) °; where n = 0, 1, 2, … Similarly, it could also be that αtotal is -

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(360 - x)° or –(360 - (180 + x))° depending on whether the rotation of the light has taken place in the
anticlockwise or clockwise direction. For example if the maximum intensity is observed at α value of 30°
and 210° , then could be any one of the values: 30°, 210°, -330°, -150° or even 390° or 570°. To confirm
the actual value of αtotal, one needs to repeat the experiment using different concentration and
variable path lengths. Though there would be an ambiguity regarding the αtotal for each of these
experiments, the correct choices would provide the same specific rotation or

# Formula for calculating specific rotation is The value of ‘l’ will be in dm, and ‘c’ in g/100mL

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