MAY 2015 CHEN ET AL.

1849

Toward Improved Forecasts of Sea-Breeze Horizontal Convective Rolls at

Super High Resolutions. Part I: Configuration and Verification of a
Down-Scaling Simulation System (DS3)

GUIXING CHEN,* XINYUE ZHU, WEIMING SHA, AND TOSHIKI IWASAKI

Department of Geophysics, Graduate School of Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan

HIROMU SEKO AND KAZUO SAITO

Meteorological Research Institute, Tsukuba, and Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology,
Yokohama, Japan

HIRONORI IWAI AND SHOKEN ISHII

National Institute of Information and Communications Technology, Tokyo, Japan

(Manuscript received 23 June 2014, in final form 26 January 2015)

ABSTRACT

Horizontal convective rolls (HCRs) that develop in sea breezes greatly influence local weather in coastal
areas. In this study, the authors present a realistic simulation of sea-breeze HCRs over an urban-scale area at
a resolution of a few meters. An advanced Down-Scaling Simulation System (DS3) is built to derive the
analyzed data using a nonhydrostatic model and data assimilation scheme that drive a building-resolving
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model. The mesoscale-analyzed data well capture the inland penetration
of the sea breeze in northeastern Japan. The CFD model reproduces the HCRs over Sendai Airport in terms
of their coastal initiation, inland growth, streamwise orientation, specific locations, roll wavelength, secondary
flows, and regional differences due to complex surfaces. The simulated HCRs agree fairly well with those
observed by dual-Doppler lidar and heliborne sensors. Both the simulation and observation analyses suggest
that roll updrafts typically originate in the narrow bands of low-speed streaks and warm air near the ground.
The HCRs are primarily driven and sustained by a combination of wind shear and buoyancy forces within the
slightly unstable sea-breeze layer. In contrast, the experiment without data assimilation exhibits a higher
deficiency in the reproduction of roll characteristics. The findings highlight that CFD modeling, given reliable
mesoscale weather and surface conditions, aids in high-precision forecasting of HCRs at unprecedented high
resolutions, which may help determine the roll structure, dynamics, and impacts on local weather.

1. Introduction (Kuo 1963; Asai 1970; LeMone 1973; Weckwerth et al.

Horizontal convective rolls (HCRs) are a common
feature of mesoscale shallow convection (Etling and
Brown 1993; Atkinson and Zhang 1996; Young et al.
2002). HCRs typically form in the convective boundary
layer (CBL) with moderately unstable stratification
* Current affiliation: Department of Atmospheric Sciences, Sun
Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.
Corresponding author address: Dr. Guixing Chen, Department
of Atmospheric Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, 135 Xingangxi
Road, Guangzhou 510275, China.
E-mail: guixing_chen@yahoo.com
1997). The rolls are aligned in long parallel lines that
highly influence the local distributions of wind and
temperature. Roll convection also exhibits a coherent
updraft/downdraft, which provides an efficient means
of vertically transporting momentum, heat, humidity,
and air pollutants in the boundary layer (e.g., LeMone
1976; Wyngaard and Moeng 1992; Weckwerth et al.
1996; Inagaki and Kanda 2010). A unique type of roll
develops within the sea-breeze layer in coastal areas,
where cool marine air penetrates inland (Iwai et al.
2008; Oda et al. 2010). As sea breezes occur almost
daily during summer and a majority of the population
lives in coastal areas, further understanding and im-
proved modeling of sea-breeze HCRs are valuable for

DOI: 10.1175/MWR-D-14-00212.1

Ó 2015 American Meteorological Society

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1850 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW
forecasting local weather and for determining related
societal implications.
A general difficulty with numerical modeling of HCRs
has been resolving their finescale structure and meso-
scale evolution. High-resolution calculations, such as
large-eddy simulation (LES), are widely applied for
explicit resolutions of roll convection at the scale of the
CBL depth (Moeng 1986; Moeng and Sullivan 1994;
Khanna and Brasseur 1998; Liu and Sang 2011). Sea-
breeze HCRs have a particularly small wavelength of
several hundred meters (Iwai et al. 2008; Oda et al.
2010). Thus, numerical models must have a grid spacing
of tens of meters or smaller. At such a high resolution,
the complicated surface conditions (buildings and steep
topography) need to be described explicitly, for exam-
ple, by a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model
(Kanda et al. 2004; Ashie and Kono 2011; Castillo et al.
2011; Inagaki et al. 2012; Park and Baik 2013). More-
over, to elucidate the evolution of HCRs, numerical
models not only need a spatial resolution fine enough to
capture individual rolls, but also need to possess a domain
size large enough to capture their mesoscale features
(Atkinson and Zhang 1996). Such a high-resolution cal-
culation in a mesoscale domain requires a huge compu-
tational resource, which has only become available in
recent years. These calculations allow for the simulation
of roll clouds during cold air outbreaks over the ocean
(Liu et al. 2004; Gryschka and Raasch 2005; Eito et al.
2010) and of roll-like temperature patterns over urban
areas (Ashie and Kono 2011). However, realistic urban-
scale simulations of sea-breeze HCRs via building-resolving
models are sparse. The roll structure, evolution, and
dynamics over coastal lands are not fully understood.
Another difficulty in simulating HCRs involves the
representation of roll formation environment. Roll char-
acteristics vary considerably for different weather condi-
tions and underlying surfaces. For instance, the roll aspect
ratio (a ratio of the roll wavelength to the CBL depth)
tends to increase with CBL instability, while the roll ori-
entation may change with CBL wind direction (e.g., Asai
1970; Weckwerth et al. 1997). The structures of secondary
flows are also responsive to surface heating and the am-
bient wind speed and direction (Raasch and Harbusch
2001). As rolls evolve in a mesoscale area, they are likely
subject to the impacts of changes in the atmospheric and
surface conditions. Many previous studies performed
simulations using idealized conditions or typical profiles
on uniform surfaces; thus, these studies were limited to
examining the overall statistics of roll behaviors (e.g.,
Moeng and Sullivan 1994; Khanna and Brasseur 1998).
Recent studies suggested that including inhomogeneous
surfaces in models is important for the realistic simulation
of roll structures and their mesoscale evolution (Prabha
VOLUME 143
et al. 2007; Maronga and Raasch 2013). To describe ap-
propriate weather conditions, an option is to couple the
CFD model to a mesoscale model (Baik et al. 2009; Ashie
and Kono 2011), potentially through advanced nesting
strategies (Mirocha et al. 2014; Muñoz-Esparza et al.
2014). In coastal areas, the variations in winds and tem-
perature can be significant because of the land–sea con-
trast (Miller et al. 2003). Therefore, to achieve realistic
modeling of sea-breeze HCRs, coastal weather and sur-
face conditions should be precisely represented.
Considering the above-mentioned difficulties, fore-
casts of sea-breeze HCRs are a challenge. In this study,
we propose a solution with a numerical prediction sys-
tem based on advanced techniques. The system is built
to carry out two major tasks: represent the mesoscale
weather associated with roll formation and implement
a building-resolving CFD simulation to describe in-
dividual rolls over an urban-scale area. The goal is to
capture a specific sea-breeze event at a very high reso-
lution and to reproduce HCRs more realistically than
those reported previously. In Part I of this study, we
evaluate the system performance by comparing nu-
merical results with intensive observations; in Part II
(Chen et al. 2015, hereafter Part II), we examine the
detailed impacts of land use and buildings on roll char-
acteristics. Part I is organized as follows: Section 2 de-
scribes the configuration of the numerical prediction
system, the experiment design, and the verification data.
Section 3 estimates the ability of the mesoscale-analyzed
data to represent the inland progress of a sea breeze.
Section 4 extensively verifies the characteristics and
structure of the CFD-simulated rolls. Section 5 presents
a generation budget of the roll kinetic energy to verify
the reproduction of roll-forcing mechanisms. Then, the
conclusions are presented.
2. Numerical system, experiment design, and
observational data for verification
This section introduces the Down-Scaling Simulation
System (DS3), which is designed for a high-precision
forecast of mesoscale weather at a super high resolution.
The system features one-way nesting with a parallelized
CFD model coupled to a mesoscale model. In contrast to
other simple nesting systems, DS3 derives analyzed data
to describe the local weather using a convective-scale
data assimilation scheme in a mesoscale model, thereby
potentially improving the accuracy of multiple down-
scaling processes. The system applies high-resolution
analysis data to obtain a short-range forecast of weather
variables at even higher resolutions. Then, the system
employs a building-resolving CFD model to explicitly
describe complex surfaces and to simulate individual
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MAY 2015 CHEN ET AL.
HCRs over a suburban area near Sendai Airport. These
major components of DS3 are detailed in the following
subsections.
a. Meteorological model for mesoscale weather
DS3 employs the Japan Meteorological Agency
Nonhydrostatic Model (JMA-NHM) to perform the
mesoscale calculations for the data assimilation and
extended forecast. The JMA-NHM is a community
model designed for operational forecasts and research
studies on mesoscale weather (Saito et al. 2006). The
model is based on the fully compressible equations for
hybrid terrain-following coordinates. Many physical
processes, such as cloud microphysics, surface processes,
boundary layer scheme, convective parameterization,
and atmospheric radiation, are included in the model.
The operational runs have provided numerical weather
predictions for Japan since September 2004 (Saito et al.
2007). The model outperforms the preceding hydrostatic
model in many aspects of mesoscale weather prediction.
For further details on the operational and research ap-
plications of the model see Saito (2012).
b. Data assimilation scheme
The forecast accuracy of the mesoscale models is quite
sensitive to the initial conditions. One important method
for improving the quality of initial conditions is to link
observations with the numerical models via data assimila-
tion. Miyoshi and Aranami (2006) established a data as-
similation scheme for JMA-NHM using the local ensemble
transform Kalman filter (LETKF). Seko et al. (2011)
modified the scheme to assimilate dense observations, such
as radar radial winds and precipitable water vapor, to de-
rive more accurate data. Seko et al. (2013) recently ex-
tended the LETKF to a two-way nested system to obtain
analyzed data at the convective scale. The analyzed fields
were used to improve the forecast of local intense rainfall.
This nested system is incorporated into DS3 to obtain high-
resolution analyzed data. The system’s ability to represent
mesoscale weather in northeastern Japan is evaluated in
section 3 as one part of our verification effort. These
mesoscale-analyzed data are then used to initiate a short-
range weather forecast at a higher resolution.
c. CFD model for local weather
For downscaling to a 10-m resolution, DS3 employs
a local meteorological model based on a LES (Sha 2002).
The CFD model specifications are summarized in Table
1 and are detailed as follows. The model is established in
three-dimensional Cartesian coordinates to resolve
steep topography and buildings, rather than in terrain-
following coordinates that are subject to severe trunca-
tion errors at large slope angles. The fully compressible
1851
TABLE 1. Configuration of the CFD model SIMPLERgo.
Model parameters Specifications
Basic equations Nonhydrostatic (compressible)
Coordinate Three-dimensional Cartesian
Discretization approach Finite-volume method
Grid system Staggered
Spatial resolution Adaptive/uniform
Time integration scheme Fully implicit
Advection scheme Third upwind scheme (QUICK)
Equation solver SIMPLER algorithm
Surface geometries treatment Blocking-off method
Turbulence scheme Lilly–Smagorinsky LES model
Navier–Stokes equations are solved by an algorithm of
the Semi-Implicit Method for Pressure-Linked Equation
Revised code (SIMPLERgo; Patankar 1980; Sha et al.
1991). A full time-implicit scheme is applied; variable
fields are corrected iteratively until arriving at con-
verged solutions at each time step. A high-order upwind
advection scheme Quadratic Upstream Interpolation for
Convective Kinematics (QUICK; Leonard 1979; Hayase
et al. 1992) is employed. The discretization approach is
a finite-volume method on a staggered grid system. The
block-off technique is used to handle the complex ge-
ometries such as buildings and topography (Patankar
1980; Sha 2002). For more detailed treatments of real land
use and buildings see Part II. Regarding turbulence,
a classic Lilly–Smagorinsky LES is equipped to explicitly
resolve large eddies and to parameterize small eddies
(Lilly 1962; Smagorinsky 1963). Moisture and radiation
processes are excluded. Using this model, Sha (2008)
conducted a series of idealized experiments to illustrate
the impacts of steep orography, building arrays, and street
blocks on local wind and temperature. The results from
small-area calculations are encouraging for realistic ap-
plications on an urban-scale domain in this study.
d. Design of the numerical experiments for the
sea-breeze event
The numerical experiments are set up to examine the
sea-breeze event along the Pacific coast of northeastern
Japan and the HCRs over Sendai Airport (Fig. 1).
Downscale simulations are run on five domains centered
at Sendai Airport (38.1358N, 140.948E), with horizontal
resolutions of 15 km, 2 km, 400 m, 100 m, and 10 m, re-
spectively. The calculations for domains 1–4 are im-
plemented using the JMA-NHM with topography from
GTOPO30. For domain 5, the CFD modeling is per-
formed over realistic surfaces with high-resolution to-
pography and GIS building information retrieved from
the Zenrin Map Company.
The DS3 experiments with data assimilation (DS3_DA)
are conducted over domains 1–2 using the nested
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1852 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW VOLUME 143

FIG. 1. Domain setup of the DS3 experiments. (a) Outer domain with a 15-km mesh, (b) inner domain with a 2-km
mesh, (c) downscale domain with a 400-m mesh, (d) downscale domain with a 100-m mesh, and (e) CFD model domain
with a 10-m mesh. In (a)–(d), the dashed rectangle denotes the next nesting domain. In (a),(b), the shaded area denotes
topographic altitudes. In (c),(d), the shaded area denotes land-use categories. In (e), the yellow blocks mark buildings.

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MAY 2015 CHEN ET AL. 1853

LETKF system (Figs. 1a,b). Both domains have 80 3 80 e. Intensive observations during the study period
horizontal grid points and 12 ensemble members. The
We focus on a typical sea-breeze event along the Pa-
member number is limited here considering the com-
cific coast of northeastern Japan. The event occurred in
promise between local computational resources and
the daytime on 19 June 2007, when thermally induced
real-time runs at a reasonable efficiency (Seko et al.
low pressure was established over the Japan Islands
2011, 2013). The forecast-analysis cycles of all members
under fair weather (Fig. 2a). By 1300 JST, the south-
start at 0300 Japan standard time (JST; JST 5 UTC 1
easterly sea breeze had penetrated most land surfaces
9 h) 18 June 2007 (;1.5 days ahead the validation time of
along Sendai Bay (Fig. 2b). The strong cooling of the sea
the HCRs). The operational pressure-level analysis data
breeze led to a low temperature of 238–258C, which was
(5-km mesh over Japan) within 3 days before the ex-
approximately 58C lower than that on the unaffected
periments are used for the initial conditions of 12
inlands. Within the surge of the cool marine air over the
members in domain 1. Surface parameters, such as al-
heated land, the HCRs formed during the afternoon
bedo and wetness, are set using 100-m mesh land-use
hours (Iwai et al. 2008; Oda et al. 2010).
data from the Geospatial Information Authority of Ja-
In June 2007, an observation campaign on sea breezes
pan. The unperturbed boundary condition is applied to
was conducted over Sendai Airport. In addition to
domain 1, and a covariance inflation of 1.2 is used in the
conventional surface observations, intensive observa-
LETKF system. Data assimilation is conducted in a 6-h
tions from ground-based NICT and Electronic Navigation
cycle using conventional hourly observations, such as
Research Institute (ENRI) Doppler lidars (Komatsubara
sounding profiles and surface pressure. The ensemble
and Kaku 2005) and Japan Aerospace Exploration
forecasts of domain 1 provide initial/boundary condi-
Agency (JAXA) helicopter flights (Matayoshi et al. 2005)
tions for domain 2. The data assimilation in domain 2 is
were obtained. The lidar locations, helicopter flights,
conducted in 1-h cycle using 10-min surface records of
and measuring equipment were detailed in an early
pressure and winds in northeastern Japan, as well as
report by Iwai et al. (2008). The NICT and ENRI lidars
30-min wind profiles derived from the velocity–azimuth
have range resolutions of 90 and 30 m, respectively.
display (VAD) analysis of the National Institute of In-
Using these intensive observation data, we attempt to
formation and Communications Technology (NICT)
evaluate the mesoscale-analyzed data’s representation
lidar over Sendai Airport (Ishii et al. 2007). To highlight
of the sea-breeze intrusion during the daytime on
the effect of the analyzed data in DS3_DA, we conduct
19 June. For the observed surface conditions, we use
a parallel run without data assimilation (DS3_noDA).
10-min records of winds and temperature from the JMA
All parameters in DS3_noDA are the same as those in
Automated Meteorological Data Acquisition System
DS3_DA described above, except that no observational
(AMeDAS). For the vertical structure of the sea breeze,
data are input to the LETKF system in domains 1–2.
we use the 30-min wind profile from the VAD analysis of
Note that DS3_noDA can somewhat present the
the NICT lidar. We also verify the CFD-simulated
weather conditions but not as accurately as DS3_DA
HCRs over Sendai Airport at 1305 JST. To observe
because the initial and boundary conditions of domain 1
the structure of the sea-breeze HCRs, we use the radial
are given by operational analysis data.
velocities of 1-min plane position indicator (PPI) scans
The latest analysis data from domain 2 can be used to
from the ENRI lidar and the retrieved three-
initiate an extended short-range forecast in domains 3–4
dimensional winds from the dual-Doppler lidar. These
(Figs. 1c,d). Domain 3 (4) has 80 3 80 (120 3 120)
observational data are compared with the CFD simu-
horizontal grids and a forecast time of 1 h. The output
lations to verify the roll characteristics and structure. We
from domain 4 offers initial and boundary conditions for
also use high-resolution (;1.16 m) winds and tempera-
the CFD modeling in domain 5 for a horizontal size of
ture from helicopter measurements to verify the de-
10 km and a vertical extent of 500 m at a uniform 10-m
tailed dynamic and thermodynamic properties of the
mesh (Fig. 1e). In the CFD model, both the lateral and
HCRs, as well as the associated roll-forcing mechanisms.
upper boundary conditions are handled by an improved
Orlanski radiation condition that is free of reflection
from gravity wave propagation (Orlanski 1976), while 3. Verification of the sea-breeze event over
the bottom boundary condition (ground temperature) is northeastern Japan
fixed because it minimally changes over a short period.
a. Inland penetration of the sea breeze
The building wall temperature is set to the prescribed
ground temperature from domain 4. The time step is 1 s. We compare the hourly data from the DS3 experi-
The forecast time is 600 s, which is approximately 4–5 ments with the AMeDAS records to verify the system’s
large-eddy turnover times. representation of mesoscale weather. Figure 3 shows the

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1854 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW VOLUME 143

FIG. 2. A sea-breeze event over northeastern Japan on 19 Jun 2007. (a) Analysis
chart of the mean sea level pressure at 1200 JST; and (b) the surface temperature and
winds at 1300 JST as observed by AMeDAS. A full (half) wind barb is 2 (1) m s21. In
(b), the topography is shaded in gray.

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MAY 2015 CHEN ET AL. 1855

FIG. 3. Hourly variations in the surface wind and temperature trend. (a) AMeDAS observation, (b) analyzed data in
DS3_DA, and (c) forecast in DS3_noDA. The temperature trend is estimated as a temperature difference between the valid
hour and the following hour. In (a), the sea-breeze front at each valid hour is marked by the dashed line based on its passage
over the AMeDAS sites. In (b) and (c), a contour of 0.28C h21 outlines the approximate sea-breeze front, where the cooling
due to sea breeze is comparable to the surface heating due to solar radiation. A full (half) wind barb is 2 (1) m s21.

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1856 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW
progress of the sea breeze on 19 June 2007. At 0900 JST,
the onset of the sea breeze is recorded at Sendai Airport,
where a southeasterly wind of 4 m s21 is followed by
a temperature drop of 20.58C h21 (Fig. 3a). The tem-
perature at the other AMeDAS sites increases by ap-
proximately 18C h21. The numerical experiments of
both DS3_DA and DS3_noDA capture a narrow zone of
cooling along the coastline and extensive warming over
land (Figs. 3b,c). At 1000 JST, the sea breeze forms over
most of the coastal areas and begins to penetrate inland
(Fig. 3a). The progress is relatively fast to the west of the
airport, with an inland extent of ;16 km from the
coastline. A cooling rate of up to 218C h21 occurs along
the coastal areas. At this time, DS3_DA captures the
sea-breeze progress in terms of its penetration distance
and cooling rate near the airport (Fig. 3b). In contrast,
DS3_noDA presents a relatively slow progress of the sea
breeze and a weak cooling rate (Fig. 3c).
At 1100–1200 JST, the sea breeze continues to pene-
trate inland perpendicular to the coastline (Fig. 3a). The
progress is relatively fast to the northwest of Sendai
Airport, and the sea breeze gradually arrives at the
foothills of the Ou Mountains. An enhanced easterly or
southeasterly wind follows the passage of the sea-breeze
front, with the strongest cooling of approximately
228C h21 at the leading edge. At coastal areas near
Sendai Airport, the sea breeze increases to 4–6 m s21
and induces a gentle but continuous cooling. Such fea-
tures are well captured by the analyzed data in DS3_DA
(Fig. 3b). In contrast, DS3_noDA presents a delayed
cooling at the leading edge of the sea-breeze front
(Fig. 3c). Over coastal areas to the south of the airport,
both numerical experiments simulate a sea-breeze prog-
ress that is slower than the observed progress, probably
due to the orographic effects of coastal mountains.
For 3 h (1000–1200 JST), the sea breeze penetrates
30–35 km inland in both the AMeDAS observations and
DS3 experiments; this movement indicates a speed of
10–12 km h21. As suggested by Simpson (1969) and Sha
et al. (1991), the sea breeze is a typical gravity current,
whose speed can be given by U ’ 0.62(gDDT/T)1/2,
where g is the gravitational acceleration, D is the depth
of cool marine air, T is the temperature of cool marine
air, and DT is the temperature difference between ma-
rine and inland air. Given D 5 220 m from the lidar
analysis (Iwai et al. 2008; Oda et al. 2010) and DT 5 3–
4 K from the AMeDAS records at 1000–1200 JST, the
theoretical U is estimated as 10–12 km h21. Therefore,
the observed and simulated progress speeds in Fig. 3 are
consistent with the theoretical analysis.
At 1300 JST, the mature phase of the sea breeze is
characterized by a strong surge of southeasterly flow
from the Pacific coast (Fig. 3a). Extensive cooling is
VOLUME 143
experienced over most of the lowlands on the lee side
(east) of the Ou Mountains. Both DS3 experiments
produce a cooling pattern (Figs. 3b,c) very similar to the
surface observations (Fig. 3a), except that DS3_noDA
simulates a weaker cooling rate to the west of Sendai
Airport. From the overview in Fig. 3, it seems clear that
the downscale experiment (DS3_noDA) can offer
a reasonably good forecast, while the experiment with
data assimilation (DS3_DA) better captures the sea-
breeze event in terms of its timing and cooling rate.
b. Atmospheric conditions over Sendai Airport
The local weather over Sendai Airport is further
evaluated by comparing AMeDAS records with ana-
lyzed data. Figure 4 shows that the observed tempera-
ture increases rapidly after sunrise and reaches a peak of
23.28C at 0900 JST. Even under fair weather, the tem-
perature decreases in the daytime because of the sea
breeze, except for a small rebound at 1200 JST. Both
DS3 experiments reproduce the rapid temperature in-
crease after sunrise at 0600 JST but at a smaller ampli-
tude than the observations. DS3_DA produces both the
temperature maximum at 0900 JST and the secondary
minimum at 1100 JST, which are consistent with the
observations. DS3_noDA, however, produces a delayed
temperature peak at 1100 JST. Note that the wind speed
from DS3_DA is ;1 m s21 stronger than that from
DS3_noDA and becomes closer to the observations. The
well-simulated temperature and winds indicate that
DS3_DA produces a superior representation of the sea
breeze strength.
For accessing the vertical structure of sea breeze, the
profiles of horizontal winds by the DS3 experiments are
compared with those obtained using the 208 elevation
VAD scan from the NICT lidar over Sendai Airport.
Figure 5a shows that in the early morning before
0700 JST, the observed wind vectors are northerly above
1000 m AGL (above ground level) and northwesterly in
the lower layer. In the morning after 1000 JST, the
southeasterly wind becomes dominant in the layer be-
low 500 m AGL, while the westerly wind prevails above
1000 m AGL as the return flow of the sea-breeze circu-
lation. In the afternoon, the depth of the low-level
southeasterly wind continues to increase over time,
while the maximum wind speed remains at ;200 m
AGL and the wind direction below only slightly
changes, as also indicated by Iwai et al. (2008). Such
a wind pattern, with speed shear and little directional
shear in the CBL, is favorable for roll formation and
sustenance (e.g., Weckwerth et al. 1997).
Figure 5b shows that DS3_DA well reproduces the
establishment of the sea-breeze circulation in the day-
time. The analyzed data also display a gradual
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MAY 2015 CHEN ET AL.
FIG. 4. Hourly variations in the near-surface wind at 10 m AGL and the temperature at 2 m
AGL over Sendai Airport on 19 Jun 2007. A full (half) wind barb is 2 (1) m s21.
deepening of low-level southeasterly wind in the after-
noon, consistent with the lidar observations. Figure 5c
shows that DS3_noDA presents a persistent northwest-
erly wind above 1000 m AGL. The run reproduces
a southeasterly sea breeze near the surface at 0900–
1100 JST but with a weaker wind speed than that of the
observations and DS3_DA. These differences between
DS3_DA and DS3_noDA suggest that data assimilation
improves the representation of temperature and wind
variations associated with the sea-breeze event over
Sendai Airport.
4. Verification of the sea-breeze HCRs over
Sendai Airport
a. General features of the CFD-simulated HCRs
For an overview of the roll characteristics, we examine
the spatial pattern and temporal evolution of the CFD-
simulated HCRs. Figure 6a shows a full-domain snap-
shot of the simulated vertical motion by DS3_DA. It is
clear that vertical motion exhibits a streaky structure;
parallel convective bands are oriented from southeast to
northwest and are spaced several hundreds of meters
apart. All of the HCRs form over land at a distance of
1 km or more from the coastline. The major rolls con-
tinue to grow downstream and stretch several kilome-
ters inland. The rolls are more evident downstream of
the major buildup areas (A1, A2, and A4); some of them
1857
initiate early in the coastal villages (A6 and A7). In
contrast, the rolls are relatively suppressed or absent
from the rice paddy fields (A3 and A5).
Figure 6b shows that the simulated HCRs, based on
the forecast by DS3_noDA, also form at coastal areas
and develop over land. The rolls are aligned from
southeast to northwest but with a more northward
component than those in Fig. 6a. The specific roll lo-
cations over the airport and inland regions in Fig. 6b
seem to differ from those in Fig. 6a. For instance, the
rolls over area A4 are shifted northward and are lo-
cated near the rolls over area A2. The rolls over areas
A2/A4 and downstream are more widely spaced than
those in Fig. 6a. This finding is somewhat expected
because different initial/boundary conditions are ap-
plied in the two CFD experiments. To estimate fore-
cast accuracy, the simulated rolls are compared with
the observations. As indicated, we focus our verifica-
tion on the roll orientation, location, and wavelength,
and the associated regional differences over Sendai
Airport.
Figure 7a shows the temporal evolution of the vertical
velocity at X 5 3 km in DS3_DA. At the initial time step,
the condition corresponds to a forecast of the mesoscale
model at 100-m mesh. The updrafts have a magnitude
within 60.6 m s21 and behave like rolls with nearly
regular spacing. The updrafts are much weaker than the
observed updrafts as shown later; thus, the rolls are
partly resolved in the mesoscale model. A possible cause
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1858 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW
FIG. 5. Hourly variations in the vertical profile of the horizontal
winds over Sendai Airport during 0400–1500 JST 19 Jun 2007.
(a) VAD analysis of the NICT lidar from 208 elevation scans,
(b) analyzed data in DS3_DA, and (c) forecast in DS3_noDA.
VOLUME 143
FIG. 6. Vertical velocity at 100 m AGL over a full domain of the
CFD model at a forecast time of 300 s (valid at 1305 JST 19 Jun
2007). (a) Simulation based on 1-h forecast from the analyzed data
of DS3_DA. (b) As in (a), but based on the forecast from
DS3_noDA. Buildings are plotted in the gray contour. The major
distributions of land use in the vicinity of Sendai Airport are labeled
as follows: airport terminal (A1), industry compounds (A2), rice
paddy fields (A3 and A5), residential village (A4), and coastal
villages (A6 and A7).
is that mesoscale model, with a resolution ranging from
;O(1) km to ;O(100) m, may fall within the ‘‘gray
zone’’ or ‘‘terra incognita,’’ in which neither the 1D
vertical diffusion in boundary layer scheme nor the
subgrid-scale LES closure are appropriate (Wyngaard
2004; Dorrestijn et al. 2013; Shin and Hong 2013; Beare
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MAY 2015 CHEN ET AL. 1859

FIG. 7. Temporal variations in (a) the vertical velocity at X 5 3 km and (b) the turbulent
energy spectrum averaged over an area of X 5 3–5 km and Y 5 0.5–9.5 km. The estimate is
made for a south–north cross section at 100 m AGL from the DS3_DA experiment as shown in
Fig. 6a. In (b), the wavenumber has been multiplied by the Y distance along which the spectrum
is estimated. The dashed line denotes the K25/3 inertial range slope.

2014). The following series in the CFD model show that
the updrafts become strong and exhibit regional fea-
tures. From the initiation of weak and uniform pertur-
bations, the CFD model gradually reproduces the
strengthened updrafts, particularly downstream of the
village and airport runway (Y 5 3.8 and 5.5–8 km). Some
updrafts are displaced from their initial positions, re-
sulting in an uneven spacing between the rolls. An
analysis of the turbulence spectra also suggests that the
rolls become well developed after a forecast time of
;300 s, and the CFD simulation reaches a quasi–steady
state (Fig. 7b). The time scale is substantially shorter
than that in other studies on a typical CBL (1–2 km
deep), because the sea breeze layer is very shallow
(;200 m) in this particular case. Similar growth of the
rolls and turbulent energy occur in DS3_noDA (figure
omitted). In sections 4b–d, the instantaneous fields at
that time step are discussed.

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1860 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW
b. Roll orientation, location, wavelength, and
regional differences
Figure 8 shows the horizontal analysis of the wind
fields over Sendai Airport. The lidar-observed HCRs
are identified as the bands (CC0 –JJ0 ) of coherent up-
drafts (Figs. 8a,b). The bands extend from southeast to
northwest, parallel to the mean wind direction. The
CFD-simulated HCRs in the two CFD experiments are
also aligned streamwise (Figs. 8c–f). In particular, the
rolls from DS3_DA exhibit an orientation almost iden-
tical to the observed orientation, while those from
DS3_noDA are oriented more northward. The differ-
ence in roll orientations corresponds well to the average
wind direction, which has an azimuthal angle of ;1358
(lidar observations), ;1338 (DS3_DA), and ;1398
(DS3_noDA). Figure 8 also shows that the roll orienta-
tion change with height is small from 50 to 100 m AGL in
both the observations and simulations. Such a wind-
parallel roll orientation is expected when the CBL
directional shear is small and when the speed shear is
directed downwind (e.g., Asai 1970; LeMone 1973;
Weckwerth et al. 1997). A comparison with the next
volume of PPI scans 12 min later (figure omitted) in-
dicates that these observed rolls are persistent and
nearly steady, except for a slight displacement toward
the northeast (Iwai et al. 2008) likely due to a slow
veering wind direction (Figs. 4–5).
In addition to the roll orientation, the lidar measure-
ments allow us to verify the specific locations of in-
dividual rolls. In the southern zone of the dual-Doppler
lidar analysis domain, there are two elongated rolls ob-
served near the lidar sites, as marked by EE0 and FF0
(Figs. 8a,b). The roll locations are reproduced well by
the CFD simulation from DS3_DA (Figs. 8c,d). The
CFD simulation from DS3_noDA also captures the lo-
cation of roll FF0 (Figs. 8e,f). Although the roll EE0 is
reproduced on the upstream side, it moves northward
and merges with its northern neighbor. As a result, the
roll location does not match the observed roll EE0 on the
downstream side. A full-domain view of Figs. 6a and 6b
shows that the rolls EE0 and FF0 originate from the
coastal buildup area A6. The corresponding newly
formed rolls share similar locations in the two CFD
simulations, possibly because they are initially disturbed
by the same underlying surfaces. As the rolls evolve
inland with slightly different orientations in the two
simulations, their specific locations gradually differ in
the Sendai Airport area (Figs. 8c–f).
In the southernmost corner of the dual-Doppler lidar
analysis domain, there is a signature of two other rolls
(CC0 and DD0 ), with stronger updrafts observed in the
southern roll CC0 (Figs. 8a,b). The CFD modeling from
VOLUME 143
DS3_DA produces two rolls shifted slightly to the south
(Figs. 8c,d), while that from DS3_noDA yields two rolls
shifted northward with respect to the observations
(Figs. 8e,f). The shifted locations correspond well to the
deviated wind direction and roll orientation in the two
CFD simulations. These rolls can be traced back to
coastal village A7 (Figs. 6a,b). During its inland evolu-
tion, the southern roll mainly passes village A4, while
the northern roll extends over rice paddy field A3. Both
simulations reproduce a relatively strong updraft for the
southern roll that corresponds to the observed roll CC0
(Figs. 8c–f). The warm surfaces of buildup areas may be
conducive for roll growth and sustenance (Raasch and
Harbusch 2001; Miao and Chen 2008; Ashie and Kono
2011). The underlying physics are further investigated in
Part II.
In the northern zone of the dual-Doppler lidar anal-
ysis domain, there are four rolls GG0 –JJ0 observed in
Figs. 8a and 8b. The simulation from DS3_DA well re-
produces roll GG0 . Although the simulated rolls HH0 –II0
match the observations at the upstream locations, they
tend to shift westward on the downstream side, likely
because the mean flow is more westward than observed.
Roll JJ0 is weak in the observations and is barely dis-
tinguishable in DS3_DA. DS3_noDA also has a de-
ficiency in simulating the locations of rolls GG0 –JJ0
(Figs. 8e,f). The simulated rolls generally have a north-
ward shift following the mean wind direction. On the
other hand, these rolls observed in the northern zone are
somewhat weaker than those in the southern zone
(Fig. 8b). Such a gradient of vertical velocity is not
simulated immediately at the corresponding zones in the
CFD model, but it becomes clear in the downstream
areas near the NICT site (Figs. 8d,f). The simulated rolls
that are well defined near the NICT site appear to be
stronger than those detected by lidar, likely because of
the effectively lower resolution of the lidar retrieval.
Figure 8 also shows that the rolls are spaced at regular
intervals, which enables us to estimate the extent to
which the CFD simulations reproduce the roll wave-
length. In the northern zone of the dual-Doppler anal-
ysis, the observed rolls display a mean spacing of ;450 m
(Figs. 8a,b). In the southern zone, the mean spacing
between two major rolls (EE0 and FF0 ) is ;515 m. The
wavelength and regional difference are consistent with
those estimated by power spectral analysis (Iwai et al.
2008). Figures 8c and 8d show that the simulated rolls
from DS3_DA have a wavelength of ;415 m in the
northern zone and of ;475 m in the southern zone; these
values are slightly smaller than the observed values. The
difference in roll wavelength between the two zones is
;60 m, which is nearly the same as the lidar observa-
tions. Figures 8e and 8f show that, in the simulation from
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MAY 2015 CHEN ET AL. 1861

FIG. 8. Vertical velocity and horizontal winds over Sendai Airport at 1305 JST 19 Jun 2007. (a),(b) Dual-Doppler
lidar retrieval; (c),(d) CFD simulation from DS3_DA; and (e),(f) CFD simulation from DS3_noDA. The lines
CC0 –JJ0 mark the axis of the observed roll updrafts. In (b), the dashed line marks the helicopter flight in Fig. 11. In
(c), the dashed line AB marks the cross-roll section in Fig. 10.

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1862 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW VOLUME 143

DS3_noDA, the rolls have a wavelength of ;400 m in

the northern zone. However, the rolls exhibit a rather
large wavelength of ;625 m in the southern zone. The
roll wavelength difference between the northern and
southern zones is ;225 m, which is much larger than that
in the lidar observations and in the simulation from
DS3_DA.
c. Near-surface streaks of wind speed and their
relation to the HCRs
Because the HCRs develop in a shallow sea-breeze
layer, their relationship with the near-surface winds is
examined and verified in this section. Figure 9a shows
the radial velocity of the PPI scan from the ENRI lidar
at a low elevation angle. Clearly, the streaky wind per-
turbations are embedded in the mean flow, with the axis
oriented in the downwind direction. The velocity dif-
ference between the streaks of fast-moving and slow-
moving flows is ;2 m s21. Comparing Figs. 9a and 8a, the
velocity streaks roughly represent the perturbations of
the major streamwise flow, given that the cross stream-
flow is secondary and slightly displaces the streak loca-
tions (Oda et al. 2010). Figure 9a shows that low-speed
streaks are well collocated with roll updrafts, while high-
speed streaks are located at the interval between up-
drafts. Such a good relation between streaks and rolls is
due to the wind perturbations that distinctly manifest
the convergence–divergence pattern as revealed by Iwai
et al. (2008). On the other hand, Fig. 9a presents a much
wider scan than the dual-Doppler lidar analysis domain
of Fig. 8a. Specifically, the streaks are weak and less
organized in the coastal areas in the southeast. The
streaks become well defined at Sendai Airport and over
inland areas in the northwest. Given the close link to
updrafts, these near-surface streaks indicate coastal
initiation and inland growth of sea-breeze HCRs.
Considering the streak-roll relation, the simulation of
near-surface winds is a key issue for realistically mod-
eling HCRs. Figure 9b shows the radial velocity derived
from the DS3_DA simulation. Low-speed streaks are
distinctly embedded in the sea breeze. These streaks
experience inland growth from the coast and become
evident over Sendai Airport. These features agree with
those observed by the PPI scan from the ENRI lidar
(cf. Figs. 9a and 9b). Figure 9b clearly shows that the
low-speed (high-speed) streaks are well collocated with
the roll updrafts (downdrafts). The DS3_DA simulation
seems to reproduce the near-surface streaks associated FIG. 9. Radial velocity with respect to the ENRI lidar over
with roll-scale convection. For comparison, Fig. 9c Sendai Airport. (a) PPI scan of the ENRI lidar at an elevation
angle of 18 (22.0–63.6 m AGL) at 1302 JST 19 Jun 2007, (b) CFD
shows that the simulated streaks notably change from
simulation from DS3_DA at 50 m AGL at 1305 JST, and (c) CFD
those in Figs. 9a and 9b. The streaks tend to stretch much simulation from DS3_noDA at 50 m AGL at 1305 JST. In (a), the
farther to the north, following a change in the wind di- solid lines mark the axis of the observed roll updrafts similarly to
rection in DS3_noDA. The spacing between the streaks Fig. 8a, and the dashed line represents the runway of Sendai Air-
port. In (b) and (c), the contours of vertical motion (0.5 m s21)
mark the axis of the simulated roll updrafts.

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MAY 2015 CHEN ET AL. 1863

FIG. 10. (a),(b) The in-plane winds and potential temperature simulated by the CFD model in
a cross-roll section with respect to the NICT lidar at 1305 JST 19 Jun 2007. (right) The mean
profile of potential temperature is plotted, with a dashed line for the surface temperature. The
location of the cross section is marked by the dashed line AB in Fig. 8c.

in the southwestern quadrant becomes large (;625 m).
These features correspond to the deficiency of the roll
orientation, location, and wavelength in DS3_noDA
(Figs. 8e,f). However, the simulated velocity fields in
Figs. 9b and 9c are smoother than the observations in
Fig. 9a, indicating that less-developed small-scale tur-
bulence occurs in the CFD model.
d. Vertical structure of the HCRs and associated
secondary circulation
Figure 10 portrays the vertical structure of HCRs in
a cross-roll plane at 1305 JST. The HCRs are indicated
by the presence of several counter-rotating circulations
in the internal boundary layer (IBL). The updrafts
are strongest at ;80 m AGL, with a magnitude of
;1.5 m s21. The updrafts are closely associated with the
convergent (divergent) cross-roll flows in the lower
(upper) half of the IBL. Such a secondary circulation
simulated by the CFD model is similar to that observed
by the dual-Doppler lidar analysis [Fig. 3d in Iwai et al.
(2008)], except the maximum updrafts are at a slightly
lower level. In addition to dynamic features, Figs. 10a
and 10b show that the convective updrafts grow in
thermal plumes, with a temperature ;1 K higher than
the ambient air. Compensation downdrafts develop in
the spaces between updrafts, where cool air mass can
nearly reach the surface and absorb sensible heat. As the
heated surface flows converge toward convective zones,
they act to refuel the updrafts. Such a manner, in which
the thermally driven secondary circulation creates
a feedback to support roll sustenance, is consistent with
what has been reported for other types of roll convection
(Etling and Brown 1993; Atkinson and Zhang 1996;
Young et al. 2002; Liu et al. 2004; Miao and Chen 2008).
Figure 10 shows that the CFD-simulated rolls extend
throughout the entire IBL. The inversion of the air

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1864 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW VOLUME 143

temperature, along with near-surface temperature,

suggests an IBL depth of 140–200 m in Fig. 10a and 150–
240 m in Fig. 10b over Sendai Airport. These values are
comparable to or slightly lower than the lidar observa-
tion of ;220 m (Iwai et al. 2008; Oda et al. 2010).
Figure 10a also shows that the temperature contour
exhibits a wavelike pattern at the IBL top and implies
the possible existence of gravity waves. A gravity wave
may be triggered by an overshooting updraft, while its
persistence helps modulate roll vortices (Kuettner et al.
1987; Liu and Sang 2011). The gravity wave is most ev-
ident over the airport runway, and it corresponds to the
regularly spaced rolls. Figure 10b portrays a slightly
warmer IBL and a weaker IBL-top inversion compared
with that in Fig. 10a. This difference may be due to
the more northward wind direction in DS3_noDA. The
marine air mass is expected to travel farther over the
heated land surface before arriving at Sendai Airport.
The well-mixed IBL seems to allow updrafts to develop
higher in Fig. 10b. In contrast to the rolls near the NICT
lidar site, the rolls exhibit relatively low heights in
the northeastern region, where the IBL is shallow near
the shore in the CFD simulations. Therefore, a good
relation between the roll height and IBL depth, as re-
ported by previous studies, is also observed in the sea-
breeze HCRs.
Combining the roll wavelength (;515 m) and IBL
depth (;220 m) near the NICT lidar site, the aspect ratio
of the observed rolls is estimated to be 2.34, as also in-
dicated in early analyses (Iwai et al. 2008; Oda et al.
2010). Correspondingly, the aspect ratios of the CFD-
simulated rolls are estimated to be 2.38–3.39 in DS3_DA
and 2.60–4.17 in DS3_noDA. These values are slightly
larger than the lidar observations but are rather small
compared with the typical values (ranging from 2 to 20)
of roll family (Atkinson and Zhang 1996; Young et al.
2002). Many previous studies that use satellite cloud
images have only counted the well-developed rolls with
clouds to estimate the roll wavelength (Rao et al. 1999).
In this particular case, the roll updrafts do not induce
cloud formation because they occur in a shallow sea-
breeze layer with relatively dry land conditions. Thus,
sea-breeze HCRs, while likely common in coastal areas
in summer, are not well detected by conventional ob-
servations because of their small wavelengths, shallow
structures, and lack of clouds.
To illustrate the detailed structure of HCRs, Fig. 11a
portrays the high-resolution variables measured by a heli-
copter flight over Sendai Airport. The west–east-oriented
flight path is 5450 m long, with a spatial resolution of
FIG. 11. Vertical motion, along-roll wind speed, and temperature
1.16 m. The flight height of ;95 m AGL is nearly in the perturbations in a west–east section over Sendai Airport at 95 m AGL.
middle of the sea-breeze layer, where the strongest up- (a) Observations from a helicopter flight for 112 s starting at 1310:50
drafts occur. Figure 11a shows that updrafts are active JST 19 Jun 2007, with the original (smoothed) series in thin (bold)
lines. The flight path is plotted in Fig. 8b. (b) CFD simulation from
DS3_DA and (c) CFD simulation from DS3_noDA at 1305 JST.

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MAY 2015 CHEN ET AL. 1865

FIG. 12. Energy spectrum estimated from the data contained in Fig. 11 at the helicopter flight
path. The dashed line denotes the K25/3 inertial range slope. The wavenumber has been
multiplied by the path distance; the wavelength has been projected to the cross-roll plane.

over the concrete surface of the airport runway, while
they are less pronounced over the rice paddy fields and
shore regions. The major updrafts are generally spaced
over several hundreds of meters; thus, the IBL convection
has a roll-scale mode. The updrafts are overlapped by
small-scale turbulence that spans tens of meters (the thin
line in Fig. 11a). For a roll-scale mode (bold line), the
small-scale turbulence is filtered out by a running window
of 100 m. Figure 11a shows that roll updrafts (downdrafts)
coincide with the perturbations of low speed (high speed)
and high temperature (low temperature), with a correla-
tion coefficient of 20.37 and 10.69, respectively. Based
on the eddy correlation method, the roll-scale momen-
tum and heat fluxes are estimated as 20.148 m2 s22 and
0.134 K m s21, respectively. These fluxes account for
two-thirds of the total fluxes estimated from the per-
turbation quantities (thin lines in Fig. 11a when re-
moving the background value of linear regression).
Therefore, roll convection may be effective in trans-
porting momentum and heat vertically within the IBL.
Figure 11b shows that the CFD simulation from
DS3_DA appears to capture the major mode of the rolls.
The simulated updrafts are evident over the airport runway
but less pronounced over the rice paddy fields, which are
consistent with helicopter measurements. The updrafts/
downdrafts also concur with the fluctuations of the wind
speed and temperature. The resolved vertical transport
of momentum and heat are estimated as 20.085 m2 s22
and 0.077 K m s21, respectively. These values are somewhat
smaller than the fluxes estimated from the helicopter
data when filtered to roll mode. We also note that the
CFD simulation reproduces smooth variables and tends
to underestimate small-scale turbulence. An analysis
of the turbulence spectra (Fig. 12) confirms that the
CFD model captures roll-scale energy peak but falters in
the reproduction of turbulence at an inertial range of
;100 m or smaller, despite some improvement com-
pared to mesoscale model. A possible reason is that the
transition from smooth mesoscale to resolved turbulence
in a LES model does not guarantee rapid growth of tur-
bulence in the nested LES area (Mirocha et al. 2014;
Muñoz-Esparza et al. 2014). The relatively stable inflow
may also hinder high-frequency turbulence over the
upstream ocean surface in the LES domain. Other causes
involve the numerical dissipation sources from the subgrid
model in LES and the diffusion in the advection scheme
(Lilly 1962; Smagorinsky 1963; Beare 2014). Although this
study focuses on roll-scale convection, it calls for im-
proved nesting strategies in the future to reproduce small-
scale turbulent flows under actual weather conditions.
Figure 11c shows that the cross section from DS3_noDA
shares many common features with that from DS3_DA.
DS3_noDA generally reproduces the roll-scale per-
turbations, the relation between the updrafts and
warm/low-speed air, and the regional differences over
inhomogeneous surfaces. We note in Fig. 11c that the
amplitudes of the major updrafts, wind speed, and
temperature fluctuations are slightly larger than those in

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1866 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW
Fig. 11b. The spacing between the updrafts over the
airport runway is also larger than that in Fig. 11b. These
features manifest stronger rolls that develop in a well-
mixed IBL in DS3_noDA. The resolved vertical trans-
port of momentum and sensible heat are 20.095 m2 s22
and 0.092 K m s21, respectively. These values are slightly
larger than those in DS3_DA and are more similar to the
observed roll-scale fluxes.
On the other hand, the helicopter measurements in-
dicate that most of the major updrafts have a maximum
speed of more than 2 m s21, while the downdrafts are
approximately 21 m s21 (Fig. 11a). The updrafts are
confined to local sharp peaks, while the weak downdrafts
are more extensive; the updrafts and downdrafts are thus
asymmetric (Deardorff et al. 1969; Raasch and Harbusch
2001). The updraft peaks are clearly coincident with the
narrow bands of low wind speed and high temperature
perturbations. Note that these features are not identified
in the lidar-retrieval data at an effectively lower resolu-
tion (Figs. 8a,b). Figures 11b and 11c show that the sim-
ulated updrafts are more intense and narrower than the
downdrafts; this finding is consistent with the helicopter
measurements. Such asymmetric features are also ob-
served in the other CFD simulations at a high resolution
(Liu et al. 2004). These features are closely related to the
narrow convergent zones, as indicated by the low-speed
streaks (Figs. 9b,c). The convective updrafts develop in
the narrow convergent zones of the thermally unstable
air, while the downdrafts behave like passive compensa-
tion flows (Fig. 10). The CFD model appears to re-
produce the intense/asymmetric roll-scale updrafts,
despite the originally weak/uniform rolls in the absence
of resolved smaller turbulence.
5. Forcing mechanisms of the sea-breeze HCRs
To illustrate roll-forcing mechanisms, we estimate the
production terms of the resolved roll-scale turbulent
kinetic energy (TKE) budget. Following LeMone (1973)
and Moeng and Sullivan (1994), the terms of the roll-
scale TKE budget are given by
 
› 0 g 0 0 ›U ›V ›w0 E0
E 5 uy w 2 u0 w0 1 y 0 w0 2 Sullivan 1994; Weckwerth et al. 1997). Here the evidence
›t uy ›z ›z ›z
1 ›w0 p0
2 2 D, (1)
r0 ›z
where the primes denote roll-scale perturbations and the
overbars denote regional means. The roll-scale pertur-
bations, as a kind of low-frequency turbulence, can be
defined as the deviations from the spatially averaged
means (Weckwerth et al. 1997). The term u0y w0 is the
VOLUME 143
kinetic buoyancy flux; and u0 w0 and y 0 w0 are the along- and
cross-roll kinetic momentum fluxes, respectively. The first
term on the right is the TKE production by buoyancy, and
it represents the thermal forcing on rolls. The second term
is the TKE production by wind shear, and it expresses the
shear forcing on rolls. The third (fourth) term is the TKE
change induced by turbulence (pressure) transport. These
two transport terms only redistribute TKE vertically and
do not contribute to the TKE source; D is the TKE loss by
viscous dissipation. The TKE production terms are dis-
cussed here as we focus on roll formation mechanisms
(Weckwerth et al. 1997), whereas the effects of all of the
production and transport terms on the vertical growth of
the rolls are investigated in Part II of this study.
To estimate the observed TKE budget terms, the mo-
mentum and heat fluxes are derived using either lidar-
retrieved winds or helicopter measurements; the IBL
wind shear is given by the lidar-retrieved wind profile.
The shear production term derived from the lidar data is
valid from 25 to 175 m AGL. The shear and buoyancy
production terms are also derived from three helicopter
flights along a west–east route over the airport runway at
45, 95, and 145 m AGL. The filtered helicopter data are
used in this TKE analysis to consider the roll-scale mode
of the perturbations. Because the time lag between flights
is ;6 min, we assumed that the change in mesoscale en-
vironment is small during the helicopter measurements.
Figure 13a shows that, in the observation analysis, the
roll-energy production by shear is visible throughout the
IBL, with a maximum near the surface. The roll pro-
duction by buoyancy is clearly observed in the middle of
the IBL. Figures 13b and 13c show that the budget profiles
derived from the two CFD runs exhibit magnitudes and
vertical structures that are similar to those in Fig. 13a,
except that the level of maximum buoyancy is relatively
lower. This similarity indicates that the CFD model well
reproduce the roll dynamics. Figures 13a–c illustrate that
shear and buoyancy effects are comparable in producing
roll kinetic energy near the surface, while buoyancy
dominates most of the IBL above 40 m AGL. Such a shear
effect in roll convection is distinct from the unorganized
or cellular convection in which buoyancy dominates both
near the surface and throughout the CBL (Moeng and
from the observations and simulations consistently sug-
gest that a combination of dynamic and thermal effects
acts to drive and sustain roll convection in the sea breeze.
Figures 13b and 13c show that an IBL integration of
the TKE production by buoyancy is approximately 2–3
times greater than that produced by shear. Thus, buoy-
ancy serves a major energy source of convection: it
manifests an evident thermal effect induced by the cool
air intrusion over the heated surface to drive CBL
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MAY 2015 CHEN ET AL. 1867

FIG. 13. Vertical profiles of the TKE production by buoyancy and shear over Sendai Airport. (a) Lidar (square with lines) and helicopter
(square only) measurements during 1300–1318 JST 19 Jun 2007, (b) CFD simulation from DS3_DA, and (c) CFD simulation from
DS3_noDA. The triangles mark the mean IBL height, which is estimated either from the NICT lidar observation of the signal-to-noise
ratio gradient (Iwai et al. 2008) or from the CFD-simulated inversion near the NICT lidar site (Fig. 10).

convection. The maximum buoyancy is located at ;60 m
AGL, where roll updrafts significantly strengthen; the
buoyancy decreases by half at ;100 m AGL. With the
diminishing buoyancy aloft, the roll updrafts weaken with
increasing height, as shown in Fig. 10a. The buoyancy
reduces to near zero at the IBL top and above, where the
updrafts dissipate. A comparison of Figs. 13b and 13c
shows that the maximum buoyancy in DS3_noDA is 10%
larger than that in DS3_DA. These values correspond to
slightly stronger updrafts in DS3_noDA, as shown in
Figs. 10b and 11c. Another feature of Fig. 13c is that
buoyancy is still observable at the levels of 150–230 m
AGL and is distinct from a near-zero value in Fig. 13b.
This extra buoyancy might explain the higher extent of the
roll updrafts in DS3_noDA. Buoyancy due to thermal
instability greatly determines whether any convection will
occur (Etling and Brown 1993; Atkinson and Zhang
1996). Here, thermal instability also has a strong influence
on the intensity and vertical extent of roll updrafts.
Figures 13a–c show that the shear production of roll
energy is most evident near the surface. The maximum
production is mainly due to the near-surface shear
(likely related to surface roughness) that is several times
larger than the IBL shear (Figs. 14a–c). The profile is

FIG. 14. As in Fig. 13, but for the wind speed, momentum fluxes, and heat fluxes.

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1868 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW
similar to that reported by other analyses, suggesting
that the low-level shear is more important than the CBL
shear in producing roll energy (Pennell and LeMone
1974; Kristovich 1993; Weckwerth et al. 1997). Wind
shear also serves to organize convection into along-
shear sheets and to suppress modes that are transverse
to it (e.g., Kuo 1963; Asai 1964, 1970). In the case of the
sea breeze, the role of wind shear in maintaining roll
structures is most efficient near the surface, as shown in
Figs. 13a–c. This effect is thought to accumulate warm
fluid into low-speed streaks at the lowest level, localizing
buoyancy forces to sustain convective bands (Lin et al.
1997; Khanna and Brasseur 1998). Therefore, the dy-
namic effect due to near-surface shear plays a key role in
organizing and maintaining the onshore HCRs within
the sea breeze. Such shear and buoyancy forcings, while
experiencing a gradual inland evolution, also generally
hold for inland rolls, which are further discussed in
Part II of this study.
Figures 13a–c show that the shear production of roll
energy occurs above 40 m AGL and helps sustain the roll
structure throughout the IBL. Note that the shear pro-
duction term consists of wind shear and momentum
fluxes. This production of roll energy in the IBL mostly
arises from momentum flux, as the IBL shear is as low as
;4 3 1023 s21 in the sea breeze (Figs. 14b,c). As re-
vealed previously, the interaction between rolls and
streaks is primarily responsible for the strong momen-
tum flux. The roll–streak interaction thus contributes to
the production of roll energy, even under a low-shear
sea breeze. These findings support an early analysis of
Weckwerth et al. (1997): although wind shear is neces-
sary for roll convection, rolls may occur in a very low
CBL shear condition. We note that coherent downdrafts
persisting in the IBL are crucial for transporting high
momentum from the IBL top to the surface (Fig. 14).
Because the downward momentum transport tends to
increase wind speed in the downdraft zone, it provides
a continuous kinetic source for sustaining the streaky
flow patterns near the surface (i.e., Foster et al. 2006).
In this respect, the IBL momentum fluxes and near-
surface streaks may work together to maintain roll-type
convection.
Just as in many theoretical and observational works,
roll formation involves the combined effect of dynamic
and thermal instabilities. The CBL instability parameter
2zi/L, where zi is the CBL depth and L is the Obukhov
length, is often used to measure the roles of dynamic and
thermal instabilities in determining roll shape. Here L is
calculated from the surface fluxes as in Stull (1988) and
Weckwerth et al. (1997), which has a value of 2107 m
in DS3_DA and 2103 m in DS3_noDA. With zi within
140–200 m in DS3_DA (150–240 m in DS3_noDA), the
VOLUME 143
parameter 2zi/L is estimated as 1.31–1.87 (1.46–2.38)
over Sendai Airport. The values are comparable to that
derived from lidar and helicopter measurements (1.79)
(Iwai et al. 2008). Both the observation and simulation
analyses manifest a moderately unstable CBL that fa-
vors the existence of roll convection (Deardorff 1972). A
relatively large instability in DS3_noDA is consistent
with the increased buoyancy-to-shear ratio in the roll-
energy production (Fig. 13c). This enhancement corre-
sponds to the roll aspect ratio that increases from 2.38–
3.39 in DS3_DA to 2.60–4.17 in DS3_noDA. The results
agree with previous studies that report rolls with larger
aspect ratios developing with larger 2zi/L parameters
(e.g., Kuo 1963; Kelly 1984; Weckwerth et al. 1997). We
also note that DS3_DA, compared with DS3_noDA,
reproduces a more realistic roll aspect ratio observed
over the airport (2.34). Therefore, capturing the CBL
structure may be related to roll-forcing mechanisms,
which contribute to realistic simulations of roll features.
6. Conclusions and future perspectives
Forecasting sea-breeze HCRs over coastal cities is
a challenge. We addressed this issue using an advanced
numerical prediction system that integrates a mesoscale
model with convective-scale data assimilation and
a building-resolving CFD model. We performed exper-
iments on a typical sea-breeze event in northeastern
Japan, and we validated the numerical results using in-
tensive observations around Sendai Airport. The results
indicate that a realistic simulation of HCRs can be
achieved by combining reliable mesoscale weather
forecasts with explicitly resolved individual rolls. The
findings are summarized as follows:
1) A nested LETKF system is applied to perform data
assimilation experiments. The mesoscale-analyzed
data adequately capture the sea-breeze progress
during the daytime on 19 June 2007. Consistent with
surface records, the sea breeze exhibits a southeast-
erly surge of 4–6 m s21, it penetrates inland with
a speed of 10–12 km h21, and it induces extensive
cooling of ;218C h21. Compared with a simple
downscale forecast without data assimilation, the
analyzed data more accurately capture the passage
of sea-breeze front and consequent cooling at most
observational sites. In particular, the analyzed data
well represent the temporal variations in the surface
temperature and low-level winds over Sendai Air-
port. The data assimilation scheme thus provides an
improved representation of the mesoscale weather
associated with the sea-breeze event in this particular
case study.
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MAY 2015 CHEN ET AL.
2) The characteristics and structure of the HCRs simu-
lated by the nested CFD model are verified using dual-
Doppler lidar and helicopter measurements over
Sendai Airport. The simulated rolls form along coastal
areas and develop over land. The rolls become active
over buildup areas but are less pronounced over rice
paddy fields; thus, they clearly respond to inhomoge-
neous surfaces. The rolls are oriented from southeast
to northwest, parallel to the CBL wind direction and
shear vectors. The rolls exhibit a wavelength of 400–
500 m and extend through the entire IBL with a depth
of ;200 m. The intense updrafts are typically rooted in
the narrow bands of low-speed streaks and high-
temperature perturbations near the ground, while
the downdrafts are collocated with the high-speed
streaks and low-temperature perturbations. The up-
drafts (downdrafts) are associated with cross-roll
secondary flows that are convergent (divergent) in
the low levels of the IBL. These simulated HCRs
better agree with lidar and helicopter observations
than those in the experiment without the data assim-
ilation. Even the specific locations of individual rolls
can be reproduced with reasonably good precision. To
our knowledge, this research produces the first re-
alistic simulation of observed sea-breeze HCRs with
a high accuracy and super high resolution over an
urban-scale domain.
3) The TKE production is estimated to elucidate the
roll-forcing mechanisms. The simulated budget pro-
files are quite similar to those derived from the lidar
and helicopter measurements; thus, the roll dynamics
are well reproduced in the CFD model. Similarly to
many theories of roll formation, wind shear and
buoyancy forces work together to drive and sustain
roll convection in the sea breeze with moderate
instability and wind speed shear. Specifically, buoy-
ancy provides a major energy source for convection
occurrence and influences the strength and depth of
updrafts. Buoyancy reflects the intrusion of cool
marine air over warm land that produces thermal
instability driving convection. The dynamic effects of
wind shear and momentum fluxes also produce a large
amount of roll-scale kinetic energy, particularly near
the surface. This process greatly regulates the streaky
pattern of the winds and temperature at the lowest
level; thus, it plays a key role in maintaining roll-type
convection. Considering that the IBL structure and
surface conditions closely relate to roll-forcing phys-
ics, their adequate representation in the CFD model
explains the improved forecast of the sea-breeze
HCRs. The application of high-precision downscal-
ing may lead to the more realistic HCRs simulations
in this study, in contrast to previous idealized studies.
1869
In this study, HCRs are strongly dependent on com-
plex surfaces, as also noted in Iwai et al. (2008). The rolls
over Sendai Airport thus present a good opportunity to
study the influence of land use/buildings on roll structure
and evolution. Other studies also reported that roll
convection tends to occur over urban areas, where the
surface conditions are distinct from the surrounding
areas (Kropfli and Kohn 1978; Newsom et al. 2008; Miao
and Chen 2008; Inagaki and Kanda 2010; Oda et al.
2012). Complex surfaces are known to involve thermal/
dynamic effects that greatly regulate turbulent struc-
tures and local circulations (Kanda et al. 2004; Prabha
et al. 2007; Ashie and Kono 2011; Castillo et al. 2011;
Kang and Bryan 2011; Inagaki et al. 2012; Park and Baik
2013; Maronga and Raasch 2013). Additional effort is
required to quantify the detailed impacts of complex
surfaces on roll behaviors. Using explicit resolutions of
individual buildings, the CFD model can serve as a use-
ful tool to describe these effects. In Part II of this study,
we will perform additional experiments to illustrate how
the sea-breeze HCRs respond to land-use heterogeneity
and building morphology under actual weather condi-
tions (Part II).
Because the mesoscale model output is fed into the
CFD domain, the forecast error may introduce un-
certainty. This study produces an improved forecast
through a downscaling framework with convective-scale
data assimilation. It is also noted that a further im-
provement in the framework may involve two other is-
sues: the ‘‘gray zone’’ and strategies to bridge mesoscale
and microscale models. To improve the mesoscale
modeling at gray-zone resolutions, the parameterization
of the turbulent fluxes can be optimized using several
methods (Wyngaard 2004; Dorrestijn et al. 2013; Shin
and Hong 2013). Beare (2014) recently proposed
a length scale to quantify the effect of numerical dis-
sipation at gray-zone resolutions. Ching et al. (2014)
suggested options for handling the convectively in-
duced secondary circulations that are poorly resolved
in mesoscale models. On the other hand, downscaling
from smooth mesoscale flows does not necessarily lead
to rapid growth of turbulent flows in the nested LES
domain. Mirocha et al. (2014) noted that nesting of
a finer LES within a coarse LES helps accelerate tur-
bulence growth. Muñoz-Esparza et al. (2014) de-
veloped a new method based upon the use of potential
temperature perturbations near the inflow boundaries
in the LES domain that substantially accelerates the
development of turbulence at a low computational
cost. Their idealized experiments also indicate that the
turbulence growth in a nested LES depends on
boundary layer stability and surface geometry. These
results motivate us to evaluate and improve the
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1870 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW
downscaling framework for a wide range of realistic
weather and surface conditions.
This study is one part of the Strategic Programs for
Innovative Research (SPIRE) of Japan that aims to
improve high-precision mesoscale forecasts (Saito et al.
2013). Here we evaluated the performance of a down-
scaling system for one typical weather case. Because the
sea breeze is a common phenomenon in summer, veri-
fication should be conducted for more cases to estimate
the extent to which we can improve local weather
forecasts by better modeling HCRs. In addition to sea-
breeze events, the nested system of data assimilation is
a powerful tool to improve forecast accuracy for a vari-
ety of mesoscale weather, including extreme events such
as heavy rainfalls and typhoons (Seko et al. 2011, 2013).
Here a combination of reliable mesoscale forecasts and
the CFD model is feasible for the super-high-resolution
modeling of regional weather over complex surfaces.
One of the most valuable applications of this concept is
to simulate mesoscale weather in large cities with many
tall buildings. Because DS3 can explicitly resolve
buildings, it is potentially applicable for realistic mod-
eling of finescale winds and temperature within a city.
Further verification of DS3 or similar downscaling sys-
tems is warranted to improve the forecast skill regarding
urban weather and to establish operational numerical
prediction at a resolution of a few meters in the future.
Acknowledgments. The authors thank the three
anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments and
constructive suggestions. This study was supported by
the Strategic Programs for Innovative Research (SPIRE)
funded by the Japan Ministry of Education, Culture,
Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). The numerical
calculations were performed using the K computer at
RIKEN Advanced Institute for Computational Science
(Proposals hp120282, hp130012, and hp140220) and the
supercomputing resource SX-9 at the Cyberscience
Center, Tohoku University. The observational data were
collected in a field experiment funded by the MEXT (PI:
Prof. T. Iwasaki, 19204046) through the collaboration of
NICT, ENRI, JAXA, and Tohoku University.
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