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Aranovitch1983 Chapter SolarThermalCollectors
Aranovitch1983 Chapter SolarThermalCollectors
E. ARANOVITCH
INTRODUCTION
2000
1500
1000
500
UV
~m
G. Beghi (ed.). Performance of Solar Energy Converters: Thermal Collectors and Photo voltaic Cells. 65-102.
Copyright © 1983 ECSC. EEC. EAEC. Brussels and Luxembourg
extracted energy will be the difference between the absorbed
energy and the energy losses:
(USEFUL ENERGY) = (ABSORBED ENERGY) -
(ENERGY LOSSES).
- 66-
TRANSPARENT COVER _ _
i:-""
FRONT LOSSES r
(RADIATION+NATURAL
CONVECTION) .....,0
0'1'
<J
~'v"2
EDGE LOSSES
(1 )
5( CZ/,\T )
). e -1
-16 Z
=3.7405xlO W/m
0.0143879 mK
energy per unit area and per unit time for a given
wavelength
A = wavelength, m
T = absolute temperature, K.
1000
500 100
E (3) ,
(4 ).
(5 ).
- 68-
(6 ).
4
e crT •
(7 ).
Example 1.
E.
1
= 0.87 T1 273 + 40 313 K
E.2 o. 96 T2 273 + 85 358 K.
1
E. =--~--~--~------ = 0.84.
g 1/0.87 + 1/0.96 - 1
The heat transfe r is:
-8 4 4 2
Q = (0.84)(5.67) x 10 ((358) - (313) ] = 325 W/m .
- 69-
WAVELENGtH (MICRONSl
,.) • 9 10 11
'liAVElENGT 1-1 tNICRONS)
house effect" can be achieved and that solar collectors can hope
to attain acceptable efficiencies (for instance polyethylene re-
mains transparent to infra-red radiation).
U d
cn
Nu = (9)
20 ~
25
T(MPE><ATlJRE °C
Gr (10)
Example 2.
V = 17.5x 10- 2 cm 2 /s
Gr = (981)(2.5)3(30)
----"--'---'-'----''--'~_L__ _
= 45670.
(17.5 x 10- 2 )2(328)
0.281
Nu = 0.152 (Gr) 4 7 (11)
for s = 0 and 10 <. Gr <: 10
0.310
Nu = 0.093 (Gr) (12)
for s = 45 0 C and 10 4 <:. Gr <. 10 7
0.381
Nu = 0.033 (Gr) 4 5 (13)
for s = 90 0 and 1. 5 x 10 <. Gr < (1.5)10
0.327
Nu = 0.062 (Gr) (14)
for s = 90 0 and 1. 5 x 10 5 ..c:. Gr <. 10 7
Dropkin-Somerscales recommend:
Nu = [0.060 - 0.017 (s/90)] (Gr)1/3 (15)
with Gr > 2.10 5 .
Nu
16
HORIZONTAL
16
16
VERTICAL
Example 3.
Gr=45670 1/
Nu = [ 0.078 - O. 026(45/90)J (45670) 3 = 1. 67
s = 45 0
- 73 -
U _ NU.h _ (1. 67)(Z. 81) x 10- 4 = -4 Z
1.88 x 10 W/cm °c
cn - d - 4 Z.5
'\ . =Z.81x10- W/cmoC.
Aalr
)..gl/3 ] 1/3
U = [ Z/3 1/3 [ O. 078 - o. 0 Z6 (s /90)J x (a T )
cn V T (17).
~~~~~~e_~:.
Assuming a slope of 45 0 and referring to example 1, what is
the heat transfer by natural convection between the two planes?
-74 -
the absorber plate. For Grashof numbers inferior to 2000 it can
be assumed that air remains stagnant and that heat losses are
due only to conduction through the air.
(A . )L\T
aIr
q = ---';;;.....;:..-- (20 ).
e
2000 T 2) 1/3
Gr ..( 2000 that is d.(. ( 1\
gLl T
10 000 T 2) 1/3
Gr> 10,000 that is d > ( _-,-I-'---'---=---
gf::::.T
~
f!i \
; 100 STAGNANT ~R~N~'~ON CONVECTION
~ j
Gr .. 2000 Gr .. 1ODOQ
SPACING em
(21)
q ~ h (T - T ) (22).
b -0 P a
The heat losses from the transparent cover to the ambient air
are due to radiative and convective exchanges which are affected
by the wind velocity.
Radiative exchanges are not only influenced by the ground and
surrounding conditions (snow, reflective windows, etc.), but
also by long wave radiation from the sky; especially in the case
of a very clear sky when the "sky temperature" can be signifi-
cantly lower than the ambient air temperature.
1. 5 ( K )
T sky =O.0552T. (23).
aIr
T = T - 6 (24).
sky air
-76 -
ing. Except in very special cases (involving snow for instance)
it is recommended, for design purposes, to use a single formula
which accounts globally for radiative and convective losses.
u = 5. 7 + 3.8 V (25)
a
fits well with the values recommended by Tabor, when the wind
velocity is in the range of 2 - 5 m/ s.
so
,
,
,
I 10.
TABOR
~AC ADAMS
~/
, !
V
~I
~
~ I
'/--- I !
, I
I
i
I
8 Ym/.
-77-
iT
eA - 2 + ~ - U1 (T - T a ) = 0 (26 )
dx s
- A dT = 0 when x = 0 (27)
dx
- A dT
dx
= U bd (T - T
m
) when x =L (28).
_x
., -.2 -.1'.,
·.l.l£-),+.l.(~)'+d' "[U1IT.Ta)'.s]d,
2
~.
d x'2
J!..L [T-Ta •
l).
.h.]
Ul
L = length of fin,
e = thickness of fin,
x = abscissa,
T = temperature of fin, function of x,
T = average temperature of fin,
TP = temperature of fluid,
Tm = ambient temperature,
a
-78 -
= heat transfer coefficient between abS0.l oer
plate and ambient air,
= heat transfer coefficient for the bond between
absorber plate and fluid tube,
= absorber solar cadiation per unit surface,
= thermal condu\-dvity of the fin.
p - U (T - T )
s 1 a cosh mx
(29)
~s - U I (T m - T a) - ( Am) sinh mL + cosh mL
Ubd
2
U I
with m - (30 ).
Ae
tanh mL
F = (33 ).
mL
If Ubd =00, the thermal resistance due to the bond is null and
the efficiency factor F "is equal to the fin efficiency F. Expe-
rience shows that a simple clamping or wiring of the fluid tubes
to the absorber plate can result in an important loss of perform-
ance.
Example 5.
Calculate the efficiency factor, F, and the factor F" for an alu-
minium fin with the following cha racte ristic s:
tanh o. 548
F = = 0.91,
0.548
_ LUI 10 x 6
fJ --=
eU bd 0.1 x 6000
= 0.1,
, F 0.91
F = 1 +~F = 1 + (0.1)(0.9 1 ) = 0.83.
The total heat los~es, <1 1 , per unit surface, can be d,ivided into
the front losses, qf' consisting of radiative losses, q , and
convective losses, q ,from the absorber plate to th~ transpa-
cn .
rent cover, and of the back losses, qb' through the thermal in-
sulation. The front los ses are in turn transmitted from the
transparent cover to the ambient air.
<I = V (T - T ) (36 )
f a c a
- 4 4 -
qf = E a(T - T )
g p c
+ L 1 - o. 33(s/90)] x [T _ T ] 4/3 =
c
p
qr + q cn (37)
<ib = Vb (T p - T) (38)
1
E:.
g
= liE:. + l/E. - 1
(40 )
p c
Ab
V~- (41 )
b eb
From these equations. the front losses, qf' the back losses, . qb'
and the total losses, ql' can ~e calculated as a function of the
plate temperature T , assummg that the other parameters
(6, €., T , V, Ab,Pe , s) are known. The cover plate tempera-
tufe, ~ , lias to be cafculated as an intermediate step.
c
- 81 -
characteristic of a solar collector is defined by:
U1 = ( 43).
T -T
P a
.00
300
200
100
°OL---L---L---~30--~'O~~5~O--~6~O--~7~O~(T~p_~Ta)
'C
1
U =------ (46 ).
1 1 1
---"--+ -
U
r
+ U cn U
a
- 82-
a-
(r,096, Cc ·086
·c
Not all the incident radiation reaches the absorber plate. Due to
the Fresnel reflections and the absorption within the cover ma-
terial, only a portion of the incident energy is transmitted.
(47)
2 2 2 2 4 _~
rF = (1 - p) + (1 - p).p + (1 - p).p + ... - 1 + P
( 48).
1 - P
r F,N ( 49).
1 + (2N - l)p
(52 ).
- 84-
For radiation at normal incidence:
e1 ::; ne 2 - 0 (53)
Combining equation (54) with equations (48) and (49), the Fresnel
transmission coefficients, at normal incidence, are:
'7'" 2n
L (0)==-- (55 )
F 2
n +1
2n
(56 ).
2
2n+N(n-l)
Example 6.
----------
Calculate the Fresnel transmission coefficients in the case of
1, 2 and 3 glass covers, at normal incidence, assuming that the
refractive index of glass is 1.53. From equation (56):
2 x 1. 53
N == 1 r (0) == == O. 92
F, 1 2 x 1. 53 + 1 (1. 53 _ 1)2
N == 2 -L (0) == _ _--=2_x_l-=-.-=-5-=-3- - - -
== O. 8 4
F, 2 2 x 1 . 53 + 2 ( 1. 53 _ 1)2
2 x 1. 53
N == 3 r (0) == == 0.78.
F, 3 2 x 1. 53 + 3 ( ) -2
1. 53 1
Example 7.
sin 70 0
e2 == arc sin - - -
1. 53
== 37 89
.
- 85-
= s in 2 (3 7 • 89 - 7 0 ) = O. 3 1 2
PI 2
sin (37.89 + 70)
2
= tan (37.89 - 70) = 0.041
P2 2
tan (37.89 + 70)
=1 - O. 312 = O. 524
1 + 0.312
(t ) =1 - 0.041 = 0.921
r 2 1 + 0.041
0.524 + 0.921
= 2 = 0.72.
Absorption of radiation
r = e -KL ( 57),
a
where K is the extinction coefficient which can vary from 0.04/
cm for an excellent glass to O. 32/cm for a poor glass; L is the
actual path of radiation through the medium.
Example 8.
- 86-
N = 3; L = 1. 2 cm; r = e -(0.18)(1.2) = 0.81
a
Example 9.
----------
Calculate the absorption coefficient, r , in the case of a glass
cover of 4 mm thickness with an extinc'hon coefficient of 0.18/ cm
for an incident radiation at 70 0 •
( 58).
Example 10.
N = 1; l= T
r
. L
a
= (0.92)(0.93) = 0.86
N = 2; L= ...
t. r = (0.84)(0.87) = 0.73
r a
N = 3; L= r
r
. La = (0.78)(0.81) = 0.66.
Remark:
It has been as sumed that the transmittance is independent of the
- 87-
TRANSMITTANCE
0.8
0.6
04
10
0.2
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
INCIDENT ANGLE 0
r =o ( 59).
~100lCC
~ 80 LOW IRON CONTENT
~ 60
i 40
III
~ 20
~ a
3.4 .5.6 .1tS 3.1 ~7 63 7.9
WAVELENGTH, pm
WAVELENGTH. ~m
- 88-
THE TRANSMITTANCE-ABSORPTANCE PRODUCT
L
n =X> 7:0(
(to() = (rex) [(l-O()p 1 n = --,----- (60 ).
e d 1 - (l-O<)Pd
n=O
q = ("tC() I - U l (T
- T ) (61 ).
u epa
- 89-
If A is the surface of the collector exposed to the incident radia-
tion, the useful energy becomes (assuming steady state condi-
tions) :
qu = A(7CX) I - AU 1 (T
- T )
epa
(62 ).
qu (T - T )
'1 = - = (Lot) - U
P a
(63).
AI e 1 I
'): EF"FICIENCY
- 90-
THE TEMPERATURE PROFILE IN THE FLOW DIRECTION
(65)
where
fJ -mFp'
(66 )
mf = mass flow,
(67)
(t'O()e I - U l (T fe - T) = e -F~f3
(68).
(to() I - Ul(Tfo - T )
e 1 a
- 91 -
I OUTLET
INLET
(69).
-F"fl
_2_ (1 - e )
F"I) x -F"{3
. (1 + e )
T
m
The mean fluid temperature, T ,is very near the average tem-
perature derived from the inlet~nd outlet temperature, except
for very small mass flows.
- 92-
In the preceding sections, the heat losses and efficiency of a
"normal" collector have been determined. The next sections
will be devoted to various ameliorations which can be considered
to inc rease the efficiency of a solar collector.
ro
[-----~---
SSS\~J
- - - _ _ _ _ ..!sJ _ _ _
qf = h (T 1 - T )
a c a
(70)
4 4 4/3
qf = C (T -T ) +[ 1 - 0.33 (s/90)]x (TcZ-T el ) (71)
gl c2 el
- 93-
4 4
q = c (T - T ) +[ 1 - 0.33 (s/90)J (T _T )4/3
f g2 P c2 p c2 (72)
qb = Ub(T p - T) (73)
ql = qf + qb (74)
1
f: gl = 2/e. -1 (75)
c
1
E. g2 = 1 1 (76 )
-+ - - 1
€ E
A p c
... b
U -- (77)
b eb
U = 5. 7 + 3.8 V (78 ).
a
In Figures 19 and 20 the heat los ses and the overall heat trans-
fer coefficient have been represented versus the temperature
difference (Tp - Ta). It can be seen that they have been consider-
ably reduced compared to the case of the single glass collector.
For the single glass collector the average overall heat transfer
coefficient was of the order of 6. 5 W /m 2 °e and for the double
glass collector it is reduced to 4.4 W/m 2 °e.
T -T
N = 2 1'1 = 0.71 - 4.4
P a (80 ).
I
- 94-
HEAT LOSSES W 1m 2
I.()o·_-
300 -
200
100 -
'C
DOUBLE GLASS
o 10 20 30
'C
The curves are plotted in Fig. 16. The double glass collector
becoll1es ll10re effective than the single glass collector only for
values of
T - T
P a
> 0.06 .
I
The nUll1erical exall1ple has been treated for a low value of the
wind velocity. For high wind velocities, the superiority of the
double-glass collector would be ll10re evident.
- 95-
SELECTIVE SURFACES
-1/2
r). = 1 - O. 365{AX) (82)
where A = wavelength in urn,
x = conductivity in ohms per mm 2 per m length,
r A = reflectivity.
- 96-
For a given wavelength A, the relations:
(83 )
(84)
... 0.95
£.0.05
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _7-I____________ ~m
3 WAVE LENGTH
500
SELECTIVE SURFACE
400
300
200
'00
( Tp-Tol
- 98-
HONEYCOMB STRUCTURES
.. 90'
.. .
000000
'
60'
45'
..,.'· 30'
. .·
·.
o·
-100 -
in the case of Mylar honeycombs, for incident angles greater
than 30 0 , the reduction in transmission is not negligible.
o.
NO~MAL J:lEFI..ECTII/ITY GL,ASS
;! O.B
f~ 0,1
~
~ 0.6
~ NORNAl REFLECTI .... ITY GLASS
~ 05 MYl~1LbONEYCOMB"t.liQYER GLASS
z
r'
o
~
0'
>
g
~ 02
01
°0~-~--~--~-~60
CONCLUSIONS
The choice of the basic materials for the absorbe r, the trans-
parent cover and the insulating material will play an important
role in the determination of the quality of the collectors. How-
ever, it should not be forgotten that the quality of a collector is
not only based on its thermal performance but also on its cost
- 101 -
and durability. The final product should be the result of a care-
ful balance between these three aspects.
BIBLIOGRAPHY