Physics

Electromagnetic
Induction
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Chapter Outline
I- Prerequisites:
A- Magnetic Field
B- Electromagnetic Force
II- Magnetic Flux
III- Electromagnetic Induction
IV- Laws of EM Induction:
Lenz’s law
Faraday’s law
V- Variation of Magnetic Flux
Variation of magnetic field ⃗⃗⃗𝑩
Variation of surface S
Variation of angle theta
VI- Equivalent Generator
VII- Power distribution in a magnet – coil system

I- Prerequisites:

A- Magnetic Field

Magnetic field created by a magnet ⃗⃗

𝑩
A magnetic field is a region created around a magnet; where magnetic
forces exist and where magnets can produce their effects .
N S
⃗⃗
𝑩 ⃗𝑩
⃗
Characteristics of⃗⃗⃗𝑩:
 Line of action: tangent to the field lines; ⃗𝑩
⃗
 Direction: from the north pole (N) to the south pole (S) outside the magnet;
 Magnitude: Expressed in Tesla T.
Note:
If the vector is directed out of the page
To indicate the direction of a vector (towards the observer):
perpendicular to the plan of the paper we use
If the vector is directed into the page
the following symbols:
(away from the observer) :

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Magnetic Field Created by Electric Current

The electric current creates, in the space around it, a magnetic field whose characteristics at a certain
point depend on the geometry of the current, its direction, value, and the nature of the medium.

1) Magnetic field created by a rectilinear conductor

Consider a rectilinear conductor (wire) traversed by a current i, vertical
upward, as shown in the adjacent figure. The current creates around it a
magnetic field whose characteristics at point M at a distance d of the
conductor are:

Characteristics of⃗⃗⃗𝑩 at point M:

 Point of application: point M;
 Line of action: perpendicular to the plane formed by the wire and
the point M;
 Direction: specified by the right hand rule (directed into the page ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝒊𝒏
in this case);
𝑩𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝝁 𝑰 𝑰
 Magnitude: 𝑩 = 𝟐𝝅𝟎 × 𝒅 = 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒅 (T) M
With:
 d: distance between point M and the wire;
 𝜇0 = 4π × 10−7 : magnetic permeability in vacuum (constant).

2) Magnetic field created by a flat coil:

A coil has a small thickness 𝑙 w.r.t its radius 𝑅 (𝑙 ≪< 𝑅).

Characteristics of⃗⃗⃗𝑩:
 Point of application: center of the coil;
 Line of action: perpendicular to the plane of the coil;
 Direction: specified by the right hand rule;
𝝁𝟎 𝑵𝑰 𝑵𝑰
 Magnitude: 𝑩 = × = 𝟐𝝅 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 (T)
𝟐 𝒅 𝑹
With:
 d: distance between point M and the wire; I
 𝜇0 = 4π × 10−7 : magnetic permeability in vacuum
(constant).
⃗⃗
𝑩

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3) Magnetic Field Created by a Solenoid:

A solenoid has a small radius R with respect to its length 𝑙 (𝑅 < 𝑙).

Characteristics of⃗⃗⃗𝑩:
 Point of application: any point inside the solenoid;
 Line of action: parallel to the axis of the solenoid;
 Direction: specified by the right hand rule;
𝑵𝑰 𝑵𝑰
 Magnitude: 𝑩 = 𝝁𝟎 × = 𝟒𝝅 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 = 𝟒𝝅 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒏𝒍 (T) ⃗⃗
𝑩
𝒅 𝒍
With:
 𝒍: length of the solenoid;
 𝜇0 = 4π × 10−7 : magnetic permeability in vacuum (constant
𝑁
 𝑛= is the “loop density” expressed in 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑠/𝑚.
𝑙

B- Electromagnetic Force (Laplace’s Force)

 An electromagnetic force is created when a current
traversing a conductor is introduced into a region of a
magnetic field.
 The direction of this force is indicated using the
right hand (3-fingers rule).
For a rectilinear portion of a wire having a useful
length L, it is given by:
⃗ ×𝐵
𝐹 = 𝐼. 𝐿 ⃗ → 𝐹 = 𝐼. 𝐵. 𝐿. |𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼|
𝜋
𝐼𝑓 𝛼 = → 𝐹 = 𝐼. 𝐵. 𝐿
2
𝑰
Characteristics of⃗⃗⃗𝑩:
⃗𝑭
 Point of application: center of the rod;
 ⃗ );
Line of action: perpendicular to the plane of the (rod; 𝐵
 Direction: specified by the right hand rule; ⃗𝑩
⃗
 Magnitude: 𝑭 = 𝑰. 𝑩. 𝑳|𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜶|

II- Magnetic Flux 𝜱 ⃗

𝒏
1- Surface vector: ⊕

In mathematics, a plane in space is defined by its normal vector, thus, a surface

area can also be written as a vector: ⃗𝑺 = 𝑺. ⃗𝒏
⃗
𝑛⃗ : is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of (S).

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Sense: Based on the arbitrary choice of the positive direction, the direction of 𝑛⃗ is determined by the right-
hand rule.
2- Definition of magnetic flux:
The magnetic flux through a surface S is the amount of magnetic field lines crossing that surface.
⃗ . ⃗𝑺 = ⃗𝑩
It is calculated by : 𝜱 = ⃗𝑩 ⃗ . 𝑺. ⃗𝒏 = 𝑩. 𝑺. 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝑩
⃗⃗ ; ⃗𝒏
⃗)
𝜱 = 𝑩. 𝑺. 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽)
Where:

 𝛷 : magnetic flux in Weber (Wb).

 𝐵 : magnetic field in Tesla (T).
 𝑆: Surface area in m2.
1 Weber is equivalent to 1 T.m2 (a 1 T of magnetic field crossing
perpendicularly a square area of side 1m)

Note:
In the case of a coil comprising N turns, the magnetic
flux through the coil is :
𝛷 = 𝑁. 𝐵. 𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃)
Magnetic flux is a scalar quantity.

Application 1:
A circular loop of radius R = 10 cm is placed in a uniform magnetic field B =
0.2 T. For an arbitrarily chosen positive direction, calculate the magnetic flux
crossing the loop. Note that the angle between the normal unit vector and 𝐵 ⃗ is
𝑜
𝜃 = 30 .
Solution:
The magnetic flux through the loop of surface S is: Φ = 𝐵. 𝑆. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
where the surface of circular loop is 𝑆 = 𝜋. 𝑅 2
√3
Then, 𝛷 = 𝐵. 𝜋. 𝑅 2 . cos 30 => 𝛷 = 0.2 × 𝜋 × (0.1)2 × => 𝛷 = 5.44 × 10−3 𝑊𝑏.
2

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Particular Cases

𝜽 = 𝟎 → 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = 𝟏; then: 𝝓 = 𝑵. 𝑩. 𝑺 = 𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙

𝝅
𝟎<𝜽< then: 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 > 𝟎 → 𝝓 > 𝟎
𝟐

𝝅
𝜽= → 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = 𝟎
𝟐
𝝓𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟎

𝝅
< 𝜽 < 𝝅 then: 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 < 𝟎 → 𝝓 < 𝟎 𝜽 = 𝝅 → 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = −𝟏; then: 𝝓 = −𝑵. 𝑩. 𝑺 = −𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝟐

Application 2:
Determine the value of the magnetic flux in a solenoid (S), containing 200
loops, of radius 10 cm. Supposing that a uniform magnetic field traverses
the solenoid and makes an angle of 60o with the axis of the solenoid. The
intensity of the magnetic field is 0.05 T.
Solution:
The magnetic flux through the solenoid: Φ = 𝑁. 𝐵. 𝑆. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
where the surface of circular loop is 𝑆 = 𝜋. 𝑅 2
1
Then, 𝛷 = 𝑁. 𝐵. 𝜋. 𝑅 2 . cos 60 => 𝛷 = 200 × 0.05 × 𝜋 × (0.1)2 × 2 => 𝛷 = 0.157 𝑊𝑏.

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III- Electromagnetic Induction

Electromagnetic induction is the phenomenon of producing a voltage or an electric current in a
conductor when the magnetic flux varies through that conductor.
Note:
Voltage is always produced in induction; however electric current depends on whether the circuit including
the conductor is closed or open. When the circuit is closed, an electric current is observed.
The magnetic flux depends on three parameters:

The intensity of the magnetic field 𝑩.

Φ = 𝐵.𝑆.cos(𝜃)
The area of the surface S.

The angle 𝜽 made by the magnetic field

vector and the normal surface vector 𝑛.

Note:
The circuit where variation of flux occurs is referred to as “Seat of induction” or “induced circuit” and the
source of magnetic field is called the “inducing source”.

IV- Laws of EM Induction:

Lenz's Law:
Definition:
The variation of magnetic flux in a closed loop, produces (induces) an induced electric current whose
effect opposes this variation.
Lenz’s law can be used to find the direction of the induced current.

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Case 1: When the magnet is approached towards the coil (fig. a)

 The magnetic field inside the coil varies

(increases). Then the magnetic flux
varies (increases).
 And as the circuit is closed so there is an
Fig. a
appearance of an electric current which
⃗ 𝑖 opposing this variation (according to
by its electromagnetic effects creates an induced magnetic field 𝐵
Lenz's law).
 The induced current traverses the coil clockwise;
 ⃗ 𝑖 is determined by the right hand rule ;
The direction de 𝐵
 ⃗ 𝑖 is in the opposite sense to 𝐵
𝐵 ⃗. Fig. b

Note:

We get the same result if the south pole is moved away of the coil (fig. b).

Case 2: When we move the north pole away from the coil (fig. c)

 The magnetic field inside the coil varies

(decreases), then the magnetic flux varies
(decreases), hence the appearance of an emf.
 And as the circuit is closed, there is an induced
electric current which by its electromagnetic
Fig. c
⃗𝑖
effects creates an induced magnetic field 𝐵
opposing the cause which gives rise to it (according to Lenz's law).
 The induced current traverses the coil anticlockwise;
 ⃗ 𝑖 is determined by the right hand rule ;
The direction of 𝐵
 ⃗ 𝑖 has the same direction as 𝐵
𝐵 ⃗.
Fig. d

Note:

We get the same result if the south pole is approached of the coil (fig.d).

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Faraday's Law:
The variation of magnetic flux in a loop, induces an electromotive force "𝑒“ that is opposite to this
variation with respect to time :
𝒅𝜱
𝒆=−
𝒅𝒕
𝑑𝛷
• If Φ increases, then > 0 => e < 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝛷
• If Φ decreases, then < 0 => e > 0
𝑑𝑡
∆𝜱
On average: 𝒆=− ∆𝒕

Where:
 Φ is in webers (Wb)
 t is in seconds (s)
 e is in volts (V)

1- Variation of Magnetic Field:

When the magnetic field B crossing a coil varies, the magnetic
flux 𝜱 through it varies. Then an induced electromotive force
“e” appears in the coil. (If the magnet is at rest, then e = 0)

𝒅𝜱
𝒆=−
𝒅𝒕

Where: 𝜱 = 𝑵. 𝑩. 𝑺𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽)

𝒅[𝑩.𝑵.𝑺.𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽)] 𝒅𝑩
Then 𝒆 = − = −𝑵𝑺𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽)
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

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Application 3:
The coil of the adjacent figure contains 100 turns of surface 𝑠 = 10 𝑐𝑚2 each.
The following graph represents the variation of the magnitude of magnetic field
as function of time in three different phases for 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 5 𝑠.
1- Determine the expression of the magnetic flux in terms of time t in each of
the three phases.
2- Determine the value of the electromotive force (e.m.f) in each phase
3- Draw, during the interval [0; 5 s], the variation of e as a function of time.
Solution:
Part 1:
𝛷 = 𝑁. 𝐵. 𝑆. cos 𝜃;
⃗ ) = 0𝑜
By the right hand rule on the chosen positive sense 𝜃(𝑛⃗; 𝐵 2

𝛷 = 100 × 𝐵 × (10 × 10−4 ) × cos 0 => 𝜱(𝑾𝒃) = 𝟎. 𝟏 𝑩(𝑻)

 First phase for 𝑡 ∈ [0; 1] 1 3 5

0
The graph is a straight line passing through the origin
∆𝐵 2−0
So, 𝐵1 = 𝑎. 𝑡; 𝑎 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = = = 2 𝑇/𝑠
∆𝑡 1−0

Then: 𝐵1(𝑇) = 2 𝑡(𝑠) => 𝜱𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟐 𝒕(𝒔) 𝑖𝑛 𝑊𝑏

 Second phase for 𝑡 ∈ [1; 3]

The magnetic field is constant so : 𝐵2 = 2 𝑇 => 𝜱𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟐 𝑾𝒃
 Third phase for 𝑡 ∈ [3; 5]
The graph is a straight line not passing through the origin.
∆𝐵 0−2
So, 𝐵3 = 𝑎. 𝑡 + 𝑏; 𝑎 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = = 5−3 = −1 𝑇/𝑠 ; then: 𝑩𝟑 = − 𝒕 + 𝒃 𝑖𝑛 𝑇
∆𝑡

For 𝑡 = 5 𝑠 ; 𝐵 = 0 𝑇 => 0 = −5 + 𝑏 => 𝑏 = 5 𝑇

Then: 𝐵3 = −𝑡 + 5 𝑖𝑛 𝑇 => 𝛷3 = 0.1 × (−𝑡 + 5) => 𝜱𝟑 = −𝟎. 𝟏 𝒕 + 𝟎. 𝟓

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𝑑𝛷
Part 2: According to Faraday’s law: 𝑒 = − 𝑑𝑡

 First phase: 𝛷1 = 0.2 𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑊𝑏 => 𝒆 = −𝟎. 𝟐 𝑽

 Second phase: 𝛷2 = 0.2 𝑊𝑏 => 𝒆 = 𝟎 𝑽
 Third phase: 𝛷3 = −0.1 𝑡 + 0.5 𝑖𝑛 𝑊𝑏 => 𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟏 𝑽
Part 3: Graph of the variation of e as a function of time.

2- Variation of the Surface:

As the rod moves along the rails, the area swept by the rod
changes, causing the magnetic flux to vary across the swept
surface. The rod is the seat of the electromotive force "e" and
an electric current circulates in the circuit, because it is closed.
Note:
The electromagnetic force acts as a resistive force (opposite to
motion)

Application 4:
Consider a copper rod of length ℓ. The rod moves, with a
constant speed 𝑉, on two horizontal, parallel and conducting ⃗⃗
𝑩
rails. Whose plane is within a vertical uniform magnetic field of
magnitude B as shown in the figure. Determine the expression
of induced electromotive force “𝑒” in terms of 𝐵, ℓ and 𝑉.
⊕
Solution: ⃗𝑽
𝑑Φ
𝒙′ 𝒙
𝑒=− where Φ = 𝑁. 𝐵. 𝑆. cos(𝜃)
𝑑𝑡

𝑁 = 1 and 𝜃 = 0 => Φ = 𝐵. 𝑆
In this case the surface of the loop is variable, so:
𝒅𝑺
𝒆 = −𝑩 𝒅𝒕

The rod moves along the 𝑥′𝑥 axis with a uniform rectilinear motion of constant speed V such that: 𝑥 = 𝑉𝑡 + 𝑥0
𝒅𝜱 𝒅[𝑩.𝑺] 𝒅[𝓵(𝑽𝒕+𝒙𝟎 )]
Then, 𝑆 = ℓ. 𝑥 = ℓ(𝑉𝑡 + 𝑥0 ) ; 𝒆 = − 𝒅𝒕 = − 𝒅𝒕
= −𝑩 𝒅𝒕
=> 𝒆 = −𝑩𝓵𝑽

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⃗⃗ )
⃗ ;𝑩
4- Variation of angle 𝜽(𝒏
• The angle between the uniform magnetic field
⃗𝑩
⃗ and the normal vector ⃗𝒏
⃗ changes;
• The magnetic flux through the loops changes;
• The rod becomes the seat of an electromotive
force “e”;
• An electric current flows in the circuit, if it is
closed.
𝒅𝜱
𝒆=− where 𝜱 = 𝑵. 𝑩. 𝑺. 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽)
𝒅𝒕

𝑑Φ 𝑑[𝑁. 𝐵. 𝑆. cos(𝜃)]
𝑒=− =−
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
= −𝑁𝐵𝑆 = 𝑁𝐵𝑆 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

In the case of a uniform circular motion:

𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃0 ; where: 𝜔 = 𝜃 ′ = cst: the angular speed
𝜃′ = 𝜔 ; then : 𝑒 = 𝑁𝐵𝑆𝜔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃0 )
The e.m.f “e” is a sinusoidal function of time which varies between
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 .

Application: Alternator (Dynamo)

The principle of the alternator is to vary the magnetic flux by rotating a coil between
the fixed poles of a magnet. According to Lenz’s law, when the coil is rotated in a
specific sense, the induced current flows in the coil in a direction such that the created
electromagnetic forces tend to oppose this rotation.

V- Coil Equivalent to a Generator

If a coil or any conductor traversed by a variable magnetic flux, acts as a generator, the characteristics of
this generator are:
𝑑Φ
• The electromotive force: 𝑒 = − (induced emf)
𝑑𝑡

• The internal resistance "r" which is the resistance of the wire forming the coil.

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The coil then plays the role of an ideal generator of electromotive force "e" and a resistor of resistance "r".

Example:
Consider the circuit of the following figure To produce such a current the coil can be replaced by
where 𝒊𝒊𝒏 is shown a resistor and a generator whose positive pole is at B

General expression of the voltage across a generator

+
+ 𝒆 −
𝑩 𝑨
r
𝑖𝑖𝑛
𝑖𝑖𝑛

R
R

In general, the voltage across the seat of induction taken in the positive chosen orientation (sense) is:
𝑼𝒔𝒆𝒂𝒕(+) = 𝑼𝑨𝑩 = 𝒓𝒊 − 𝒆 then : 𝑼𝑩𝑨 = −𝒓𝒊 + 𝒆

In addition, the voltage across the resistor R:

 𝑈𝐴𝐵 = −𝑅. 𝑖 The direction from A to B is opposite to the positive sense.
 𝑈𝐵𝐴 = 𝑅. 𝑖 The direction from B to A is the same as the positive sense.

General expression of the induced current across a generator

𝑼𝑨𝑩 = 𝒓𝒊 − 𝒆 and 𝑼𝑨𝑩 = −𝑹. 𝒊
𝑒
𝑟𝑖 − 𝑒 = −𝑅𝑖 => 𝑟𝑖 + 𝑅𝑖 = 𝑒 => 𝑖 = 𝑟+𝑅
𝒆
In general : 𝒊 =
𝑹𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍

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Note:
The induced current and the induced electromotive force always have the same sign (e.i > 0)
• If e > 0, i flows in the induced circuit in the chosen positive sense;
• If e < 0, i flows in the induced circuit opposite to the chosen positive sense.

Application 5:
A flat coil of resistance r = 50 Ω is placed in series with an ammeter A of
negligible resistance and a resistor of resistance R. The coil is supposed to
be oriented positively from C to D.
The absolute values of 𝑖 and 𝑒 at an instant t are respectively
4 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 A and 2.2 V. We suppose that the induced current
traverses the coil from D to C; calculate:
1) The potential difference 𝑉𝐶𝐷 .
2)The resistance of resistor R.
Solution
1) The current 𝑖 traverses the coil in a direction opposite to the positively
chosen direction, then 𝒊 < 𝟎.
The coil acts as a generator: e.i > 0 => 𝑒 < 0, so 𝑖 = − 4 × 10−3 𝐴 and 𝑒 = −2.2 𝑉.
Apply Ohm’s law for the coil:

𝑽𝑪𝑫 = 𝒓𝒊 − 𝒆 = 𝟓𝟎 × (−𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 ) − (−𝟐. 𝟐) = 𝟐 𝑽 > 𝟎

−𝑽𝑪𝑫 −𝟐
2) Apply Ohm’s law for the resistor:𝑽𝑪𝑫 = −𝑹𝒊 => 𝑹 = = −𝟒×𝟏𝟎−𝟑 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝛀
𝒊

VI- Power Distribution in a Magnet - Coil System

Principle of conservation of energy:
The law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed. Energy can be
converted from one form to another.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑡 + 𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
The following figure is an equivalent diagram of a coil. The coil is positively oriented from A to B.
Then : 𝑼𝑨𝑩 = 𝒓𝒊 − 𝒆

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So 𝒆 = 𝒓𝒊 − 𝑼𝑨𝑩 => 𝒆 = 𝒓𝒊 + 𝑼𝑩𝑨

Multiply the preceding equation by 𝒊 : 𝒆. 𝒊 = 𝒓. 𝒊𝟐 + 𝑼𝑩𝑨 . 𝒊
𝑷𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑷𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 + 𝑷𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒇𝒖𝒍

 𝑷𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝒆. 𝒊
It is the total electric power induced in the equivalent generator.

 𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕 = 𝒓. 𝒊𝟐
It is the power lost by Joule effect in the internal resistance of the coil.
 𝑷𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒇𝒖𝒍 = 𝑼𝑩𝑨 . 𝒊

It is the useful electric power supplied by the generator equivalent to the external circuit.
 The unit of power is the watt (W).
 Depending on the nature of the external circuit, this electrical energy can be transformed into
mechanical energy, light energy, thermal energy…
 The magnet-coil system is a converter which converts mechanical energy into electric energy.

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Summary
A magnetic field is an invisible region of space created by:
 A magnet (Bar magnet, U-shaped magnet, needle, …).
Magnetic field
 Current carrying-wire
 Earth
Magnetic field created by a Current
The intensity of the magnetic field created by a wire is directly proportional to the intensity of the current traversing it:

Created by a
Created by a coil Created by a solenoid
rectilinear conductor

𝝁𝟎 𝑰 𝝁𝟎 𝑵𝑰 𝑵𝑰
𝑩= × 𝑩= × 𝑩 = 𝝁𝟎 ×
𝟐𝝅 𝒅 𝟐 𝒅 𝒅

⃗𝑭 = 𝑰. ⃗𝑳 × ⃗𝑩
⃗
⃗ × ⃗𝑩
𝑭 = 𝑰. 𝑩. 𝑳. |𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜶| with 𝜶 = (𝑳 ⃗)
Electromagnetic force
(Laplace’s force)  The electromagnetic force is perpendicular to
It is a force acting on conductor the plane containing 𝐿⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
⃗.
MN:  The direction of the electromagnetic force is
 Placed in a magnetic field. determined by applying the right hand rule..
 Traversed by an electric current
⃗ . ⃗𝑺 = 𝑵. ⃗𝑩
𝜱 = 𝑵. ⃗𝑩 ⃗ . 𝑺. 𝒏 ⃗⃗ ; 𝒏
⃗⃗ = 𝑵. 𝑩. 𝑺. 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝑩 ⃗⃗ )
𝜱 = 𝑩. 𝑺. 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽)
The magnetic flux is the amount
Magnetic Flux of magnetic field lines  𝛷 : magnetic flux in Weber (Wb).
penetrating a loop.  𝐵 : magnetic field in Tesla (T).
 𝑆: Surface area in m2.

Electromagnetic Induction
The variation of magnetic flux 𝜱 = 𝑵. 𝑩. 𝑺. 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽)can be
It is the generation or establishment of an e.m.f. due to:
in a circuit when the magnetic flux crossing it is  Variation in the magnetic field 𝐵
⃗
varied.  Variation of the surface S
 Variation of the angle theta
Faraday’s law:
the induced electromotive force ''e'' at any
Lenz’s law:
instant is equal to the opposite of the derivative
the direction of the induced current is such that its
with respect to time of the magnetic flux
electromagnetic effects always oppose the cause that has
crossing the circuit.
established this current.
𝒅𝜱
𝒆=−
𝒅𝒕
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Equivalent Generator
A conductor traversed by a variable magnetic If the coil is positively
flux, plays the role of an ideal generator of oriented from A to B.
electromotive force "e" and a resistor of Then : 𝑼𝑨𝑩 = 𝒓𝒊 − 𝒆
resistance "r".

Power Distribution in a Coil-Magnet System

𝑷𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝒆. 𝒊 : It is the total electric power induced in the

Across the equivalent generator: 𝑼𝑨𝑩 = 𝒓𝒊 − 𝒆
equivalent generator.
=> 𝒆 = 𝒓𝒊 − 𝑼𝑨𝑩 => 𝒆 = 𝒓𝒊 + 𝑼𝑩𝑨
𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕 = 𝒓. 𝒊𝟐 : It is the power lost by Joule effect in the
then: 𝒆. 𝒊 = 𝒓. 𝒊𝟐 + 𝑼𝑩𝑨 . 𝒊
internal resistance of the coil.
𝑷𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑷𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 + 𝑷𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒇𝒖𝒍
𝑷𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒇𝒖𝒍 = 𝑼𝑩𝑨 . 𝒊: It is the useful electric power

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