Journal of Cleaner Production: A. Badji, A. Benseddik, H. Bensaha, A. Boukhelifa, I. Hasrane

Journal of Cleaner Production 373 (2022) 133753
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro
Review
Design, technology, and management of greenhouse: A review

A. Badji a, b, A. Benseddik a, *, H. Bensaha a, A. Boukhelifa b, I. Hasrane a, c
a
Unité de Recherche Appliquée en Energies Renouvelables, URAER, Centre de Développement des Energies Renouvelables, CDER, 47133, Ghardaïa, Algeria
b
Laboratoire d’Instrumentation, Faculté de Génie Electrique, Université des Sciences et de la Technologie Houari Boumediene, BP 32 El-Alia, 16111 Bab-Ezzouar, Alger,
Algérie
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Applied Sciences, KASDI MERBAH University, Algeria
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Handling Editor: Panos Seferlis Today, advancements in greenhouse technology and modifications have pushed science-based solutions for
optimal plant production in all seasons worldwide by adjusting internal climate growing factors such as tem
Keywords: perature, humidity, light intensity, and CO2 concentration. Solar greenhouses increase crop yield and quality,
Greenhouse addressing global food security concerns. This paper presents an overview of current design trends in con
Microclimate
struction, current development technology for controlling and monitoring greenhouse microclimates, and the
Design
various systems available for managing greenhouse environments. First, it discusses different processes of the
Management
Control greenhouse geometry, orientation, and cladding material for different climates. This paper also examines the
Sensing network various strategies in the greenhouse control environment, sensing networks, different wireless gateway used in
Wireless monitoring systems, and the many control approaches. The last section of this review presented the system for
managing climate in the greenhouse. The results of this research are the best selection of geometry, orientation,
and covering material of the greenhouse also achieves a suitable environment, as well as the strategy of control
and management of climate, plays a vital role in achieving high crop production and decreasing the cost and the
energy consumption.
management systems.
1. Introduction In the last decades, many researchers have been interested in
greenhouse management technology to find the ideal solution consid
Nowadays, global food production and agriculture are facing chal ering the widely discussed cost reduction and energy consumption
lenges due to the predicted global population of 9.6 billion by 2050 (Sahdev et al., 2017). On the other hand, other researchers focus on the
(Chaurasia, 2020), growing urbanization, limited arable land, and design trends in construction, geometry, various climate management
weather extremes induced by climate change. As a result, new horti systems, and the indoor climate requirements of agricultural green
cultural research technology should be applied to boost future efficiency houses (Syed and Hachem, 2019). Another published work investigates
and production, improve nutrition, provide food security, and deal with the design challenge of agricultural greenhouses in the harsh climate, as
crises such as COvid-19. Today, advancements in greenhouse technol well as arid and hot regions (Ghani et al., 2019), tropical, and urban
ogies have pushed science-based solutions for optimal plant production environments (McCartney, L. and Lefsrud, M., 2018a). The authors
by adjusting internal climate growing factors such as temperature, light (Iddio et al., 2020); provide energy-saving tips and modeling. Trends in
intensity, and CO2 concentration. Greenhouses are structures designed this field of study include technological advancements in modern sus
to manage the most critical components of agricultural growth, which tainable greenhouse cultivation to achieve precision agriculture (Achour
allow crop production in climates and seasons where growth would et al., 2021). Nevertheless, the greenhouse is still one of the essential
otherwise be impossible. Greenhouses consume much energy compared topics in modern agriculture methodologies, where the technique of
to other agricultural businesses; thus, reducing energy use in agricul management and control is considered the principal area of investiga
tural greenhouses has been identified as an essential industrial sustain tion for achieving a high yield with reducing cost and energy
able development target. An automatic greenhouse system provides consumption.
monitoring and control capabilities that do not require human interac This paper provides an in-depth examination of greenhouse design
tion, using a wide range of sensors and actuators for greenhouse challenges as well as new greenhouse environment monitoring and
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: abdelouahabbenseddik@gmail.com (A. Benseddik).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.133753
Received 22 March 2022; Received in revised form 4 August 2022; Accepted 19 August 2022
Available online 28 August 2022
0959-6526/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Badji et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 373 (2022) 133753
Abbreviation MPC Model Prediction Control

N–S North-south
AI Artificial Intelligence NVAC Natural ventilation augmented cooling
ANN Artificial Neural Network PAR Photosynthetically active radiation
CO2 Carbon dioxide PCM Phase change material
E-W Est-West PE Polyethylene
FLC Fuzzy Logic PID Proportional Integral Derive
GA Genetic algorithm PSO Particle swarm optimization
GWO GREY WOLF OPTIMIZATION RH Relative humidity
HVAC Heating ventilation and air conditioning SA simulated annealing
IOT Internet of things SMPC Sliding predictive mode controller
LED Light-emitting diode SVM Support vector machine
MIMO Multiple input, multiple outputs WSN Wireless sensors networks
wireless gateway technologies regarding the diversity of greenhouse changes based on its location; the critical environmental factors
climate management systems based on location and type of cultivation. impacting greenhouse production are (Ponce et al., 2014): (i) Solar
Additionally, this work attempts to assist greenhouse engineers, re irradiation intensity and duration; (ii) Carbon dioxide CO2 concentra
searchers, and farmers in achieving higher yields with low cost and tion; (iii) High and low temperatures, (iv) high and low humidity.
energy. As shown in Fig. 1, this overview is divided into three sections.
Section one discussed the different criteria of geometry, the second
section different techniques of controlling internal climate, and the last 2.1. The humidity effects
part discussed different systems of management of the greenhouse
environment. The transpiration of plants and the evaporation of soil enhance the
air humidity in the greenhouse. Such factors have a variety of effects on
2. Microclimate of greenhouse crop growth (transpiration rate, latent heat) and health. The high
amount of RH can fall on plants, creating in conditions that are espe
Many elements impact the greenhouse’s environment, including the cially conducive to developing fungal and bacterial infections. Normal
cladding material’s nature and qualities, air conditioning, greenhouse plant development occurs at relative humidity levels of 20–80 percent;
structure (design, orientation, and size), plant canopy, and evapo however, if plants have a well-developed root system, air moisture in
transpiration(Berninger, 1989). The microclimate of the greenhouse most greenhouses commonly ranges from 40 to 100 percent(Prasad
et al., 2022; Stone, 1957; Yildiz, 2021).
Relative humidity changes as the air temperature changes, this
adjustment is generally around a 5% increase or reduction for each one-
degree Celsius drop or rise, as illustrated in Fig. 2 (Berninger, 1989).
This is especially essential when greenhouse set point temperatures shift
during the day and night.
Furthermore, a reduction in relative air humidity caused by a rise in
air temperature can cause water stress in plants. RH also impacts pollen
movement and germination for fertilization and optimal fruit size (Yil
diz, 2021). Nevertheless, there are far more alternatives for managing
humidity in a greenhouse than in open fields. When it comes to reducing
humidity levels, aeration or ventilation is required. We used the misting
system or turned the heat down the other way.
Fig. 2. Relative humidity changes with each degree Celsius increase in air
Fig. 1. Structure of the review paper. temperature.
2
2.2. The temperature effects Table 2

Temperature Requirements for some crops (Paltineanu et al., 2007; Saadi et al.,
The temperature rise obtained is caused by solar rays, so it would be 2015).
ideal to regulate the temperature to keep it within the desired range for Crops Temperature(◦ C) Crops Temperature(◦ C)
plant growth and development. Table 1 shows the best crop combina Tomatoes 18–23 Honeydew melon 13–18
tions. Temperatures between 18.5 ◦ C and 26.5 ◦ C are ideal for average Lettuce 10–18 Pepper 18–23
growth, with day and nighttime temperature ranges of 21–29 ◦ C and Black radish 20–26 Cabbage 15–23
18.5–21 ◦ C, respectively (Hanan, 1998; Madan, 2011). Cucurbitaceous Green beans 18–25 Aubergine 22–26
Paksoi 20–24 Cucumber 22–26
crops, for example (melon, watermelon, cucumber, and other crops, are
summarized in Table 2).
Temperature influences various plant activities, including the rate at
which sugar is produced by photosynthesis and respiration, the devel
opment of roots, leaves, and flowers, the size and shape of leaves, and
the relative humidity in a greenhouse (Pawlowski et al., 2009). Low
temperatures may improve leaf quality, but plants grow more slowly
and require considerably longer to mature completely. The temperature
influences CO2 concentration as well, with the temperature for maximal
development rising as CO2 concentration rises (ASHRAE, 1997). The
impact of temperature and carbon dioxide on photosynthesis is depicted
in Fig. 3. In cold weather, higher interior air temperatures are necessary
for optimum plant development, which may be achieved by maintaining
effect or using any system heating technology (Choab et al., 2019).
2.3. Influence of dioxide carbon on greenhouse
The presence of CO2 is one of the three components required for

photosynthesis. The higher the CO2 concentration, the greater the
Fig. 3. Effects of temperature and carbon dioxide on photosynthesis (Yil
photosynthesis (Farquhar et al., 1980). The atmosphere includes a high
diz, 2021).
quantity of CO2, with a typical atmosphere containing around 300 mg/L
(300 ppm) of carbon dioxide (Kumar et al., 2014). Photosynthesis is the
reversal of glucose combustion, such as in this process (1), and requires
light energy.
Light Energy + 6CO2 +6H2O + C6H12O6 + 6 O2 (1)
When the CO2 content in the air rises, plants consume lighter and
perform more photosynthesis. This is seen in Fig. 4. Excessive intensity
may also cause the greenhouse temperature to increase, resulting in
decreased plant output.
In addition, when high CO2 concentrations are paired with high
temperatures and intense light, the period between germination and
harvest is halved. In a greenhouse, boosting CO2 levels to 800–1300
Table 1
Optimum range (Ponce et al., 2014).
Factors Growth Range Optimum
Range Fig. 4. Photosynthesis and the effects of light and carbon dioxide (Ber
Air temperature Germination to seedling 24–26 ◦ C ninger, 1989).
stage
Sunny daytime Seedling to termination 24–27 ◦ C
ppm during the day boosts plant growth by 15–20% (Yildiz, 2021).
Cloudy daytime Seedling to termination 22–24 ◦ C
Night air temperature Seedling to termination 18–20 ◦ C
Root temperature Germination to early 24–27 ◦ C 2.4. Effect light intensity
growth
Vegetation to 20–24 ◦ C Daily solar energy is critical for plant growth and development
termination
Relative humidity Germination to early 75–88%
(Getoff, 2006). The rate of photosynthesis increases as the light intensity
growth rises. However, light does not influence photosynthesis (Fig. 5). If a
Seedling stage 70–80% plant receives inadequate light, its energy production from photosyn
Vegetation to 60–80% thesis may be countered by energy output from respiration. Light be
termination
comes a limiting problem at this point (Noguchi and Yoshida, 2008). The
pH nutrient solution Germination to early 5.5–6.5
growth culture will be able to persist longer as photosynthesis slows down. We
Electrical and conductivity of the Germination to early 1.8–2.0 dS can lengthen the day’s sunshine with artificial light or reduce it with a
nutrient solution growth m− 1 dark plastic cover. This allows cultures to progress to the next level.
Sunny day Seedling to termination 1.5–2.0 dS
m− 1
Cloudy day Seedling to termination 2.5–4.0 dS
m− 1
3
gutter height should be at least 3 m (Singh, 2000).

Several studies have been conducted to improve the shape of the
greenhouse. The most commonly studied design is the even span
greenhouse. Sutar et al. (1995) studied analytical and numerical for a
controlled-environment agricultural system for hot and dry climatic
conditions (Sutar and Tiwari, 1995). Jain et al. (2002) and Kumar et al.
(2009) studied a cooling system for a controlled environment, an
even-span greenhouse (Jain and Tiwari, 2002; Kumar et al., 2009). Benli
et al (2013) demonstrated the heating system’s performance for an
even-span greenhouse in a mild climate (Benli, 2013). Shrivastava et al.
(2022), provide the thermal performance assessment of an even span
greenhouse (Shrivastava et al., 2022). Another study found that a
greenhouse with an uneven-span design gathers the most solar radiation
regardless of latitude, although the Quonset shape is the worst in col
lecting solar light. Furthermore, the inner air temperature recorded the
Fig. 5. In this graphic, photosynthetic and respiration rates are shown versus highest value in an uneven-span shape and the lowest value in a Quonset
light (Yildiz, 2021). form. Other researchers have investigated the Quonset greenhouse
shape (Janjai et al., 2011; Wang et al., 2021; Zaragoza et al., 2007). An
3. Greenhouse geometry and dimensions Arch roof shape also was examined by (Sethi et al., 2009). Other
research on greenhouse multi-span demonstrates that as the number of
The crop type, quantity, and climate control method primarily spans increases, so does the ventilation rate, demonstrating a falling link
determine greenhouse geometry and dimensions. Greenhouses should between the two metrics, and multi-span has a lower differential be
provide ideal climate conditions for the plants grown within. Wind, rain, tween windward and leeward roof pressures (Chu et al., 2017; Dayan
snow, and crop loads should have the least impact on greenhouses (Von et al., 1993; Kacira et al., 2004; Lee et al., 2016; Ogunlowo et al., 2021).
Zabeltitz, 1998). The orientation and shape of the greenhouse have a
significant impact on the transmission of solar radiation and the eleva
3.2. Greenhouse covering materials
tion of the sun (Syed and Hachem, 2019; Von Elsner et al., 2000). These
variables have a significant impact on the greenhouse’s air temperature.
Greenhouse coverings are the materials that enclose the greenhouse
Many people contribute to the use of various greenhouse forms at
frame, allowing crops to grow in a more controlled environment than
various latitudes for growing off-season vegetables in many different
they would in the open air. The cladding materials serve a dual purpose
regions.
by allowing solar radiation to enter the greenhouse and preventing far-
infrared radiation (Kittas et al., 2013). The materials used must be
3.1. Greenhouse shapes appropriate for the greenhouse’s structural and functional features.
Covering materials (also known as glazing) have a substantial impact on
The shape of the greenhouse is crucial in crop cultivation and pro plant yield in a greenhouse system. The properties of the cladding ma
duction. Otherwise, the amount of solar energy received by the green terial determine the quality of light transmitted into the greenhouse, and
house is determined by the shape of the roof (Çakır and Şahin, 2015; radiation transmittance can be enhanced qualitatively and quantita
Facchini et al., 1983). The most frequent structural form of greenhouses tively (Castilla and Hernandez, 2006). Greenhouse cladding materials
is a straight sidewall and a gable roof. Any of these forms can be used to should have the following properties: high transmittance for visible light
construct a single span, twin spans, or a large gutter-connected green and low transmittance for long-wave radiation, low light transmittance
house complex. Fig. 6 depicts some common greenhouse shapes (Sethi drops due to global radiation (extended lifespan), and wind resistance
et al., 2009; Yildiz, 2021). The optimal greenhouse form in hot and arid (Briassoulis et al., 1997; Waaijenberg, 2004). The most typically utilized
climates should get the least amount of solar irradiation in the summer materials are glass, strong polymers such as polycarbonate, and
and the most in the winter. The tropical region should have crop pro fiberglass-reinforced plastics (Reddy, 2016; Von Elsner et al., 2000).
tection from rain, wind, and excessive global radiation. The greenhouse And other materials such as low-density polyethylene, ethylene-vinyl
volume to ground floor area ratio should be as high as possible. The acetate copolymer, PVC, and ethylene tetrafluoroethylene copolymer
Fig. 6. Greenhouse roof shapes: (a) Gable roof, (b) Arch roof, (c) Sawtooth roof, (d) Trussed roof, (e) Gable frame (even span), (f) Gothic house, (g) Hoop house
(Quonset), (h) Lean-to house (Yildiz, 2021).
4
(Lin, 2020; Lule and Kim, 2022). orientation on an annual basis of changeable weather data (Sanford,
Several studies have shown that the materials used for covering have 2011). Another study examined at the effect of greenhouse orientation
an indirect effect on internal greenhouse conditions such as humidity in Mediterranean climates. They discovered that an east-west orienta
and carbon dioxide and unfavorable environments for plants (Alsadon tion was inappropriate for early crop growth phases (Boccalatte et al.,
et al., 2016). Others have demonstrated that the diffused light enhances 2021).
vertical temperature and boosts foliar mineral and soluble solid contents Finally, previous research concluded that E-W orientation has a
(Hao et al., 2016; He et al., 2021). Another study demonstrated that consistent advantage over N–S orientation in terms of light transmission
polycarbonate could lower overall thermal energy consumption when and crop yield and that for arid and semi-arid areas, E-W greenhouse
compared to polyethylene (Seshasayee and Savage, 2020). Others orientation is advantageous because it receives less radiation and solar
investigated the mechanical properties of greenhouse cladding. They energy than N–S orientation (Chandra, 1976; El-Maghlany et al., 2015;
looked into glass and polycarbonate. They discovered that poly Harnett et al., 1979; Panwar et al., 2011).
carbonate is more effective in blocking ultraviolet light (Kaschuk et al.,
2021; La Notte et al., 2020). Another studied fiberglass. In arid regions, 4. Control and monitoring of greenhouse environment
boosting the effectiveness of the cooling system by 8.70% as compared
to using PE as a covering material (Abbouda, 1999). Table 3 shows the Greenhouses are extremely complex, nonlinear living systems whose
recent research on cladding materials. behavior changes over time due to various of disturbances, the bulk of
which are weather-related. More complicated and intelligent techniques
3.3. Greenhouse orientation are required to bring together indoor and outside stakeholders, such as
the cost of electricity, water, CO2, and other factors, and make necessary
The selection of the correct orientation can be viewed as a low-cost modifications in the greenhouse environment for healthy crop devel
chance to increase the greenhouse’s energy efficiency and thermal opment and hence a profitable operation, as shown in Fig. 7. Smart
comfort. Greenhouse direction and roof shape are important factors in digital greenhouse environmental control systems are now available.
maximizing solar radiation exposure to optimize heat gain or reduce They can integrate every single parameter in a contemporary commer
cooling loads. The main axis of a greenhouse is parallel to its longest cial greenhouse, allowing for smart decision-making for the best
edge, which defines its orientation. East-west and north-south orienta possible growing circumstances. Incorporating better tactics with arti
tions have received a lot of attention. The best greenhouse orientation ficial intelligence (AI) algorithms into environmental control systems
depends on the geographical region, available plot size, planning, and can result in improved precision and cost savings. Today, remote
crop. Orientation significantly impacts radiation transmission inside the monitoring and control systems are available 24 h a day, seven days a
greenhouse during the winter months when radiation levels are lower. week, due to artificial intelligence, computer vision, and enhanced
Many tests were carried out to investigate the effect of orientation on sensor integration (Garcia-Lesta et al., 2017). Greenhouses will soon
the greenhouse environment, crop production, and yield (Chahidi and become more adaptable and self-sufficient, making them more common
Mechaqrane, 2021; Chandra, 1976; Stanciu et al., 2016). discovered that and sustainable.
N–S-oriented greenhouses get more solar radiation, increasing energy
demands for climate control. Moreover, it discovered that orienting a 4.1. Monitoring greenhouse climate
freestanding greenhouse east-west required 20% less heating than ori
enting it north-south. Some researchers note that greenhouses collect It is necessary to initially identify the climate to make suitable al
the most sun irradiance due to the largest south wall they present in all terations to its location before controlling it. These devices are called
latitudes and throughout the year for an E-W orientated greenhouse sensors, and they are vital aspects of any system for monitoring and
(Chen et al., 2020; Edwards and Lake, 1965; Gupta and Tiwari, 2002; managing global warming. Temperature, relative humidity, light in
Sethi et al., 2009). According to Sanford (2011), the E-W orientation tensity, carbon dioxide concentration, and wind speed are among the
casts less shade during the day and does not affect growth rates. Other environmental elements monitored by these sensors.
research has described the procedure of selecting the ideal greenhouse Today, commercial greenhouse operations can choose between
Table 3
The recent research on cladding materials.
Country Cladding material Result of study References
United Arab Fiberglass, Polyethylene, Polycarbonate, There were 21 different combinations of Fiberglass, Polyethylene, Polycarbonate, Fadel et al. (2016)
Emirates Plexiglass, and Agril. Plexiglass, and Agril (PP nonwoven fabric) tested. Plexiglass had the highest light
transmittance at 87.4 percent, while Fiberglass sheets had the lowest at 33.03 percent and
34.24 percent. Air temperature differences between the inlet and outlet openings were
used to calculate the enthalpy of the air moving through the testing rig. The highest
enthalpy value was 0.81 kJ/kg air for one layer of Fiberglass, while it was 0.2 kJ/kg air for
blocked Plexiglass (60 mm).
Netherlands Glass The result indicate that the transmission rates of the glass covers include 90% Dos Reis Benatto
et al. (2017).
Algeria Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) The chemical and mechanical stability, as well as the anisotropy of the properties of Babaghayou et al.
unstabilized and stabilized LDPE greenhouse covering films, were evaluated as a function (2018).
of weathering time.
Greece Four cover materials were examined: (a) The average values for tomato crop cultivation were compared to climatic treaties. Baxevanou et al.
Thermal polyethylene film According to the comparison results and for daytime operation, the Ethylene-vinyl acetate (2018).
(TPE). film (EVA) is the cover material that offers the satisfaction of the examined treaties for the
(b) Ethylene-vinyl acetate film (EVA), longest period during the year, followed by the thermal polyethylene film (TPE) and the
(c) Three-layer co-extruded film (3L). three-layer co-extruded film (3L), whereas the Rose Polyvinylchloride-based fluorescent
(d) Rose Polyvinylchloride-based (VPVC) during the entire year prevents the entrance of a sufficient amount of PAR
fluorescent radiation inside the greenhouse.
(VPVC).
Argentina Polyethylene (PE) The results show that using polyethylene as a cover increased the calcium content in Bárcena et al. (2019)
lettuce leaves compared to control plants, but both treatments had opposite Tipburn
incidence.
5
wired (Zhuang et al., 2009) and wireless monitoring and control sys (proportional integral derive) control. The second, advanced control, is
tems, or a combination of both. It is critical to remember that control based on Model Predictive Control (MPC), adaptive control, Feedback
systems are restricted by the accuracy and responsiveness (in terms of and Feedforward control, and Robust control. The last type is intelligent
time) of their sensors; that is, they must not only detect the environment control or artificial intelligence, which includes fuzzy logic, artificial
precisely but also do so rapidly enough for the control system to execute neural networks, particle swarm optimization, and genetic algorithms.
appropriate actions in a timely way. Because of the harsh environmental
conditions in the greenhouse, sensor accuracy and dependability are 4.2.1. Classical control
crucial. ON/OFF control: An on-off controller is a control loop feedback
Greenhouses must have a safe environment that can be strictly mechanism, the most basic type of control device. The device’s output is
controlled by humans or machines to provide the best conditions for either on or off, with no in-between state. Only when the controlled
plant growth. In greenhouses around the world, agriculture wired and variable crosses the set-point will an on/off controller switch the output.
wireless controls, as well as sensor networks, have been installed. A real- An ON/OFF climate control system has been proposed when the math
time operating system can reliably execute programs with specific ematical model is unknown, complicating controller tuning. On/off
timing requirements, which is critical for the greenhouse system. WSNs control is typically used when precise control is not required, in systems
solved the problem of sensors being difficult to deploy in different space that cannot handle having the energy turned on and off frequently, and
angles (Xing et al., 2017), and they have an appropriate level of stability in systems with such a large mass that the process variables change, such
(Erazo-Rodas et al., 2018; Liu and Bi, 2017), reliability (Gomes et al., as those used to control greenhouse environmental factors such as
2015; Jahnavi and Ahamed, 2015; Li et al., 2010; Xing et al., 2017), and temperature and humidity (Omid and Shafaei, 2005), CO2 (Pinho et al.,
flexibility (Loukatos et al., 2021; Shi et al., 2013). Furthermore, once 2013), light, moisture (Kamp, 1996), greenhouse ventilation (Maher
installed, the cabled measurement points are difficult to relocate. As a et al., 2016), and irrigation (Kia et al., 2009; Pawlowski et al., 2017),
result, a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) comprised of small-size wire heating (Ito, 2012). This technique has shown good performance and
less sensor nodes equipped with radio and/or multiple sensors is an energy conservation (Islam et al., 2020; Liang et al., 2018a). Finally, the
appealing and cost-effective option for constructing the required mea energy-saving controller enables a versatile strategy that is easily
surement system. The following are the most common standards used in tweakable to meet the performance requirements of this technique.
WSN communications: ZigBee, 802.15.4, and 6LoWPAN, Lora, and WiFi PID Control: On the other hand, a feedback controller, which can
are all examples of wireless technologies. Table 4 summarizes the most also be a proportional-integral derivation (PID), is widely used Because
popular IoT wireless standards. An overview of some of the most of its simple algorithm, good robustness, and high reliability (Espinoza
commonly used wireless communication applications in agriculture is et al., 2015; Li et al., 2018; Meihui et al., 2017). The degree to which a
presented in Table 5. controller overshoots the setpoint and the degree of system oscillation
determines the controller’s response to an error and has difficulties in
handling external disturbances (Afram and Janabi-Sharifi, 2014). The
4.2. Approach of control greenhouse climate
PID control system is unsuitable for many applications because it can
cause control loss and delay when recovering from a significant change
Due to multiple interdependent variables, managing the microcli
in setpoint. It is also prone to wind-up errors, disrupting power supply
mate in greenhouses is difficult (Robles Algarín et al., 2017; Voogt and
and heating systems (Çetin et al., 2021; Goodchild et al., 2018).
Van Weel, 2008). The greenhouse environment is a complex, nonlinear
Nevertheless, these feedback methods are far from perfect(Pasgianos
system. The greenhouse environment is a complex, nonlinear system.
et al., 2003).
Over the last few decades, people have understood greenhouse climate
dynamics better. Moreover, numerous methods and algorithms for
4.2.2. Advanced control
controlling the dynamic process of greenhouse climate have been pro
To achieve higher performance and more precise greenhouse
posed. Fig. 8 illustrates a proposed classification that divides greenhouse
handling, advanced control theory was used. It includes model predic
climate control tasks into three major categories.
tive control (MPC), feedback/feedforward, adaptive, and robust
The first, associated with classical or conventional control, which is a
controls.
feedback control based on sensor networks and monitors all critical
Model predictive control (MPC): An MPC uses a process model to
parameters affecting crop growth, such as ON/OFF control and PID
Fig. 7. Diagram of control greenhouse (Ponce et al., 2014).
6
Table 4
Summary of various wireless communication, including descriptions, and wireless parameters.
Wireless Wireless Network Frequency band Transmission Max data rate Security Cost References
technology standard type band and power
Wi-Fi IEEE 802.11 WLAN 2.4 GHz-60GHZ 20–100m 6-780 Mbps WEP, WPA, high (Parikh et al., 2010; Wang
a/c/b/d/g/n 6.75Gbps at 60 WPA2 et al., 2011)
GHz, 1 W
Z-wave Z-wave Mesh 868.40–908.42MHZ 30–100m 9.6–100 kbps, 1 Triple DES Medium Pei et al. (2008)
mW
Bluetooth IEEE WPAN 2400–2483.5 MHz 100 m 1-3 Mbps, 1W 56/128 bit Low (Chandra et al., 2011;
802.15.1 Davies, 2002; Lee et al.,
2009)
6lowPAN IEEE WPAN 908.42 MHz (worldwide) or 100 m 250 kbps for 2.4 128 bit High (Al-Kashoash et al., 2016;
802.15.4 2400–2483.5 MHz (North GHz Castellani et al., 2012;
American) 40 kbps for 915 Dörge and Scheffler, 2011;
MHz Raza et al., 2014)
20 kbps for
868.3 MHz,
1 mW
Thread IEEE WPAN 2400–2483.5 MHz 100 m 250 kbps, low N/A Low –
802.15.4
Sigfox SigFox WPAN 902 MHz (America) 10-50 Km 100 bps – 600 N/A Low Al-Kashoash et al. (2016)
868 MHz (Europe) bps
LoRa WAN LoRaWAN WPAN 902–928 MHz (North 5-15 Km 0.3–50 kbps, N/A High (Al-Kashoash et al., 2016;
R1.0 America) very low Pule et al., 2017)
863–870 MHz and 434 MHz
(Europe)
Bluetooth IoT inter- WPAN 2400–2483.5 MHz 100 m 1 Mbps, 10–500 128-bit AES Low Chandra et al. (2011)
Smart connect mW
(BLE)
Zigbee IEEE Mesh 2400–2483.5 MHz 10–20m 250 Kbps, 1 mW 128 bit Low (Lee et al., 2009; Perdana
802.15.4 and Wibowo, 2016)
THREAD IEEE Mesh 2400–2483.5 MHz 11m 251 Kbps, 2 mW 128-bit AES Medium Barker and Hammoudeh
802.15.4, (2017)
6LoWPAN
RFID Many Point to 908–914 MHz 1–5m 423 Kbps, about Possible Low Hunt et al. (2007)
standards Point 1 mW
NFC ISO/IEC Point to 13.56 MHz 0.1 m 424 Kbps, 1–2 Possible High
13157 Point mW
GPRS 3GPP GERAN GSM/GPRS 850,1900 10 Km-25Km 171Kbps, 2W/ GEA2/GEA3/ Medium Gungor et al. (2011)
MHz 1W GEA4
EDGE 3GPP GERAN GSM/GPRS 850,1900 10-26 Km 384 Kbps 2W/ AS/4, AS/3 Medium (Cheng et al., 2011; Du and
MHz (Entire cellular) 1W Qian, 2012; Feng and
HSDPA/ 3GPP UTRAN 850/1700/1900 MHz 10-27 Km 0.73–56 Mbps, USIM Medium Yuexia, 2011; Gungor et al.,
HSUPA (Entire cellular) 4W/1W 2011)
LTE 3GPP UTRAN/ 700–2600 MHz 10-28 Km 0.1–1 Gbps, 5W/ SNOW3G? Medium
GERAN (Entire cellular) 1W Stream
Cipher
ANT+ ANT + WSN 2400 MHz 100 m 1 Mbps, 1 mW AES-128 High Triantafyllou et al. (2018)
ALLIANCE
Cognitive IEEE WRAN 54–862 MHz 100 Km 24 Mbps,1W AES-GCM High Chandra et al. (2011)
Radio
Weightless- IEEE 802.22 LPWAN 700/1000 MHz 5 Km 0.001–10 Mbps, 128 bit High Salman and Jain (2015)
N/W WG 40 mW/4W
WiMax IEEE 802.16 WLAN 2–66 GHz <50 km 1 Mbs- 1 Gbs WEP High (Gungor et al., 2011;
(fixed) 50–100 Rengaraju et al., 2012;
Mbs (mobile), Riggio et al., 2011)
medium
MQTT OASIS N/A 2.4 GHz – 250 Kbps, low N/A Low (Al-Fuqaha et al., 2015;
Salman and Jain, 2015)
obtain a manipulated variable while optimizing a goal over a time in on heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, such as SC
terval in the future. An accurate model that describes the system’s farms. Even though rolling optimization can handle MIMO, nonlinear,
control variables requires an accurate model. A wide range of objective and dynamic systems, the need for real-time optimization in greenhouse
and cost functions, such as reference deviation minimization and com control places a high demand on computational resources (Mehta and
mand variation, have been investigated in greenhouse applications. An Reddy, 2015). Modern control theory says that model predictive control
MPC is a closed-loop control algorithm that can impose constraints on is a key component of modern control theory, and advances in MPC
manipulated and controlled variables. Traditional MPC algorithms rely theory have been applied to greenhouse management to control tem
on precise knowledge of the system model and are incapable of meeting perature and humidity (Hamza and Ramdani, 2019; Liang et al., 2018a)
complex requirements in terms of known disturbances (Chen et al., or even its temperature and humidity while reducing energy consump
2018). Its effectiveness, however, is heavily reliant on the accuracy of tion and equipment downtime by developing a cooperative game solu
the mathematical model used. tion (Xu et al., 2017). MPC is used to control greenhouses and identify
Realtime optimization, which is required for greenhouse control, areas for future research. Table 6 illustrates some MPC research for
places a strain on computation resources. There are few studies on greenhouses over several years.
emerging types of controlled environment agriculture that rely heavily Adaptive control: Adaptive control refers to the ability to dealing
7
Table 5
Overview of some of the most widely used wireless communication applications in agriculture.
year Type agriculture Parameter controlling Gateway Reference
2007 Agri-food supply chain Production information. RFID Kelepouris et al. (2007)
traceability
2011 Agri-food supply chain Position. RFID Aguzzi et al. (2011)
Traceability
2016 Plant management (Open Temperature, Humidity, Pressure. RFID Ruan and Shi (2016)
area)
2020 Plant management Soil Moisture. RFID Wang et al. (2020)
(Greenhouse)
2021 Plant management Temperature, Humidity, Pressure. RFID Rennane et al. (2021)
(Greenhouse)
2008 Plant management (Open Temperature (air and sol), Humidity, Solar radiation, Wind speed, Water level ZIGBEE Morais et al. (2008)
area)
2017 Plant management Temperature, Humidity, Solar radiation. ZIGBEE Liao et al. (2017)
(Greenhouse)
2017 Plant management Temperature, Humidity. ZIGBEE Li et al. (2017)
(Greenhouse)
2019 Plant management (Open Soil Moisture. ZIGBEE Bodunde et al. (2019)
area)
2021 Plant management Temperature, Humidity, Solar radiation. ZIGBEE (Zhang, X. et al., 2021)
(Greenhouse)
2011 Plant management Temperature (air and sol), Humidity (air and sol), Solar radiation. LoRa Aquino-Santos et al. (2011)
(Greenhouse)
2018 Plant management Temperature (air and sol), Humidity (air and sol), Solar radiation, LoRa Changqing et al. (2018)
(Greenhouse)
2019 Plant management Temperature, Humidity, CO2. LoRa Liu and Wang (2019)
(Greenhouse)
2020 Plant management (Open Soil Temperature, soil humidity LoRa Koubaa et al. (2020)
area)
2020 Plant management (Open Temperature, Humidity, CO2. LoRa Kökten et al. (2020)
area)
2020 Plant management Temperature, Humidity, CO2, Illuminance. LoRa Singh et al. (2020)
(Greenhouse)
2015 Plant management Temperature, Humidity, CO2. Wi-Fi and 3G Chung et al. (2015)
(Greenhouse)
2017 Plant management (Open Temperature and humidity (air and soil) Wi-Fi Sawant et al. (2017)
area)
2018 Plant management Temperature and humidity, Light intensity Wi-Fi Liang et al. (2018b)
(Greenhouse)
2019 Plant management (Open Temperature and humidity Wi-Fi Muangprathub et al. (2019)
area)
2020 Plant management Temperature and Humidity (air and soil), pH, solar irradiation, CO2 Wi-Fi Sagheer et al. (2020)
(Greenhouse)
2022 Plant management Soil moisture Wi-Fi Sai Kilaru et al. (2022)
(Greenhouse)
2008 Plant management Temperature (air and sol), Humidity (air and sol), Solar radiation, GPRS Kang et al. (2018)
(Greenhouse)
2010 Plant management Temperature and Humidity GPRS Hwang et al. (2010)
(Greenhouse)
2014 Plant management (Open Temperature and soil moisture GPRS Saptasagare and Kodada
area) (2014)
2021 Plant management Temperature and humidity, Light intensity GPRS Ye et al. (2021)
(Greenhouse)
2022 Plant management Soil moisture GPRS Shang and Zhu (2022)
(Greenhouse)
2013 Plant management Temperature and humidity GSM Xiaoyan et al. (2013)
(Greenhouse)
2015 Plant management (Open Soil moisture GSM (Navarro-Hellín et al., 2015)
area)
2015 Plant management Temperature, humidity, soil moisture, light intensity, and Co2. GSM Asolkar and Bhadade (2015)
(Greenhouse)
2016 Plant management Temperature, humidity, soil moisture, light intensity, and Co2 GSM Azaza et al. (2016)
(Greenhouse)
2019 Plant management (Open Temperature and Humidity (air and soil), solar irradiation, Wind speed, Relative GSM Khattab et al. (2019)
area) Permittivity, Wind Direction,
2021 Plant management (Open Temperature, Humidity, light intensity, soil moisture. GSM Munir et al. (2021)
area)
2015 Animal farming Temperature, Relative Humidity. Bluetooth (BLE) Ilapakurti and Vuppalapati
(2015)
2017 Plant management Temperature, Relative Humidity Bluetooth Goeritno et al. (2017)
(Greenhouse)
2018 Plant management Ambient Light and Temperature Bluetooth low energy Taşkın et al. (2018)
(Greenhouse) (BLE)
2019 Plant management Temperature, Relative Humidity, Light, and Atmospheric Pressure. Bluetooth low energy Kodali et al. (2019)
(Greenhouse) (BLE)
(continued on next page)
8
Table 5 (continued )
year Type agriculture Parameter controlling Gateway Reference
2021 Plant management (open Soil moisture, Rain, Temperature and Humidity, Air Quality, Bluetooth Hasan et al. (2021)
area)
2008 Plant management Temperature, Luminosity, and Humidity. 6lowPAN Ahonen et al. (2008)
(Greenhouse)
2011 Plant management Temperature, Relative Humidity 6lowPAN Kim et al. (2011)
(Greenhouse)
2013 Plant management Humidity, Temperature, Light intensity, Soil moisture. 6lowPAN Cama-Pinto et al. (2014)
(Greenhouse)
2019 Plant management Temperature, Humidity, and Illumination. 6lowPAN Lee et al. (2019)
(Greenhouse)
2019 Plant management (open Temperature SigFox Dai and Sugano (2019)
area)
2019 Plant management (Open Temperature, humidity, and luminosity SigFox Joris et al. (2019)
area)
2019 Plant management (Open Temperature, soil humidity, atmospheric humidity, precipitation, solar SigFox Fernández-Ahumada et al.
area) radiation, wind, hail (2019)
2020 Plant management (Open Soil moisture. SigFox Pitu and Gaitan (2020)
area)
a significant challenge in maintaining every system’s observability,

controllability, and stability with limited knowledge (Duriez et al.,
2017; Moreno et al., 2002). It has been demonstrated that limiting un
certainty is more beneficial than expressing it as a distribution, which is
known as a robust control methodology.
4.2.3. Intelligent control

While most greenhouses employ traditional management, this
strategy is restricted owing to the multivariable and nonlinear nature of
the greenhouse system. However, they demand a massive amount of
data collection for model training. Intelligent algorithms apply artificial
intelligence approaches and they are beneficial when no mathematical
model is available. These include fuzzy logic (FLC), artificial neural
network control (ANN), particle swarm optimization (PSO), and genetic
algorithms (GA).
4.2.3.1. Fuzzy logic. As part of intelligent control, fuzzy logic consists of

an input layer that maps sensors, a handling layer based on logic rules,
and an output layer that transforms the generated results into a defined
control value. Fuzzy logic is preferable to digital logic because it can be
Fig. 8. Depicts a classification of greenhouse control theories. expressed in terms that a controller can understand, interpolating input
values as logical variables with values ranging from 0 to 1.
with unknown model uncertainties. It is classified into two types: gain Early fuzzy controller designs were used to control greenhouse mi
scheduling, which uses past information to control, and adaptive self- croclimates, specifically carbon dioxide (Azaza et al., 2016), vapor
adjusting control, which uses online parameter estimation to control pressure deficit (Barreto-Salazar et al., 2021; Shamshiri et al., 2020),
(Wang and Wang, 2020; Xu et al., 2018). In terms of controlling indoor and internal temperature (Faouzi et al., 2017; Soheli et al., 2022).
greenhouse temperatures, ANFIS outperformed PI, FL, and artificial Furthermore, it offers a high degree of flexibility for greenhouse
neural networks (Atia and El-madany, 2017; Krit et al., 2021). Adaptive parameter control, particularly in systems with insufficient design
control allows for quick changes in settings in response to changes in the models. On the other hand, the number of rules needed to improve
dynamics of the greenhouse environment (Arvanitis et al., 2000). reliability grows exponentially (Pezeshki and Mazinani, 2018).
However, it still demands the identification of a suitable model, and the Furthermore, because it incorporates an expert model formulation
vast design required for implementation. A controller was developed to experience, it necessitates a thorough understanding of the system’s
keep the greenhouse’s interior temperature, humidity, and CO2 levels at operating states (Castañeda-Miranda and Castaño-Meneses, 2020). In
the desired levels, and the results showed good tracking performance greenhouse applications, overall, precise and low-cost fuzzy controllers
(Guesbaya et al., 2022; Su et al., 2018; Tohamey et al., 2018). are required (Salam and Dogan, 2020).
Robust control: Compared to predictive model control (MPC), and
adaptive control, robust control necessitates the assumption of process 4.2.3.2. Artificial neural network. Some of the most complex forms of
uncertainties in advance due to nonlinear or time-varying processes control are neural control and networks. These computing systems are
(Cobbenhagen et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2020). The robust controller is composed of highly connected processing elements that react dynami
designed to preserve stability and performance under a wide range of cally to external inputs. A typical neural network comprises three layers:
operating conditions (Hemming et al., 2019; Moradi and Vossoughi, an input layer, a hidden layer, and an output layer (Ding et al., 2018).
2015). It struggles in conditions with abrupt changes, necessitating Each of them is made up of interconnected neurons that can perform a
additional parameters for each greenhouse system (Kladivko et al., variety of tasks. The greenhouse temperature prediction model for the
2014). The achievement of precise tracking performance in greenhouses agricultural production service was created using ANN (Francik and
is a complex procedure due to system nonlinearities, parameter un Kurpaska, 2020). They’ve also been proposed for modeling air, roof, and
certainties, and external environmental disturbances. Uncertainty poses soil temperatures, humidity, and CO2 rates (Moon et al., 2021; Salazar
9
Table 6
Overview of some MPC research for greenhouses over several years.
year Optimization Algorithm Parameter Objectif function Result of study Ref
controlling
1998 SA Temperature, Presents a Predictive Control based SA proved useful in dealing with non-quadratic Senent et al.
humidity technique for predicting climate cost functions and nonlinear prediction models, (1998)
change. among other things.
1999 MSCEA ESEA (The Multi-Strategy Temperature, Using an integrated greenhouse They demonstrated the applicability of Pohlheim and
Competition Evolutionary Algorithm humidity, CO2 climate model, temperature, air evolutionary algorithms for calculating optimal Heiβner
(MSCEA) and the Evolution Strategy Concentration humidity, and CO2 concentration control, as well as the fine-grained response of (1999)
Evolutionary Algorithm (ESEA). are optimized. the optimization to changing weather
conditions over a day or from day to day.
2004 Quadratic Programming Soil moisture, Reduce reference deviation and The fertigation command rules are well Lecomte et al.
conductivity energy consumption as much as adapted to this type of process and provide (2004)
possible. good compromises between performance and
cost for climatic control. A general transfer
function is used with a weekly identification,
and fertilization is performed in both
simulation and real-world conditions.
2012 NA Temperature Minimize reference deviation The designed controller achieved a Ito (2012)
temperature tracking error of less than l.2 ◦ C in
peak-to-peak values and less than 0.7 ◦ C in
maximum values in a real greenhouse.
2015 a Sliding Mode Predictive Controller Temperature, solar controller applied to inside air Improving greenhouse inside air temperature Oliveira et al.
(SMPC) irradiation temperature control of a control is addressed in terms of energy (2016)
greenhouse was presented consumption, disturbance handling, and
setpoint tracking accuracy.
2016 GWO (Grey Wolf Optimization) Temperature Minimization of the receding The GWO results demonstrated improved Singhal and
horizon cost function for power savings and smoother control. Kumar
temperature control (2016)
2017 PSO-SVM CO2 Concentration Minimization of ARE, MEA (mean According to the results, the improved PSO- Ting et al.
absolute error), and RMSE (root SVM has a high prediction accuracy. The (2017)
mean square error) for research lays the groundwork for precise CO2
photosynthetic rate prediction enrichment regulation in greenhouse
2021 Reinforcement Learning Climate condition Address sample inefficiency and Experiment results show that RL algorithms are (Zhang, W.
safety concerns in greenhouse effective and superior in terms of robustness et al., 2021)
automation and efficiency, contributing to better crop
growth while providing a higher level of safety.
et al., 2007; Singh, 2017). Their main disadvantage is that proper processing, and other fields, this remains the case. Heuristic research
training necessitates large multidimensional datasets to reduce the risk imitates the natural evolution process. The main benefit of this tech
of extrapolation (Seginer, 1997). To address this issue, an improved nique is that it does not necessitate using a system model. In genetic
neural network was created using fuzzy control theory and an adaptive algorithms, replacement schemes range from complete replacement of
step-size algorithm for training (Huang, 2009). In contrast, the number the old population by the new population to partial replacement using a
of rules required to improve reliability has grows exponentially. specific technique. This heuristic is commonly used to solve optimiza
tion and search problems. It has even been proposed as a method for
4.2.3.3. Particle swarm optimization (PSO). Particle Swarm Optimiza optimizing greenhouse climate factors and estimating water loss (Hasni
tion (PSO) is based on the swarm intelligence paradigm and is inspired et al., 2011; Wang et al., 2016; Xia et al., 2022). (Goggos and King,
by the social behavior of animals such as fish and birds (Marini and 2000), studied control temperature using ITAE (integral time absolute
Walczak, 2015). The algorithm computes these velocity and position error) minimization, which involves the error between the desired and
values to find the optimal points in the working space. The algorithm is the actual overall system response, and showed that the genetic algo
widely used in functions such as optimization, neural network training, rithm, searches for the controller’s global optimum parameters (Blasco
and model classification due to its ease of implementation. PSO is a et al., 2001; Dai et al., 2009). has also found that an application GA
robust stochastic optimization algorithm that has been used successfully algorithm for greenhouse climate control is presented that outperforms
in many fields, including agriculture, science, and engineering (Meh conventional.
rabian and Lucas, 2006). The use of PSO to tune optimal controllers
could help reduce the computational burden by accelerating error 5. Climate management
convergence to global minima and searching efficiently under multiple
constraints (Lu et al., 2021). PSO was used in the greenhouse to identify Temperatures ranging from 17 to 27 ◦ C are ideal for plant growth. It
and adjust the physical model parameters. It was also used to create a has been advised that the average overnight temperature for heat-
model-based predictive greenhouse temperature controller that com requiring plants be 15–18.5 ◦ C with 50–80 percent relative humidity.
plied with strict constraints and other climate factors (Dashti et al., A minimum of 500–550 h of sunshine is required for November,
2020; He et al., 2019; Ji et al., 2019; Chen et al., 2018). December, and January.
4.2.3.4. Genetic algorithm (GA). Genetic algorithms (GAs) are one of 5.1. Low-temperature management: heating
the most widely used optimization algorithms in modern times in
evolutionary computing. GA can automatically update the offspring of The temperature of the plant surface is determined by heat ex
optimization results and global search direction using roulette and other changes such as convection from the air, radiation from all surrounding
methods. Even though genetic algorithms have found widespread surfaces, and latent heat exchanges through transpiration. Growers must
application in discrete optimization, algorithm learning, data provide the appropriate climatic conditions inside the greenhouse if
they want to produce a healthy crop with a high yield and quality.
10
During the winter, nighttime and even daytime temperatures in a sub production costs by up to 35%, allowing for production at cold tem
tropical climate can fall below the biological optimum. Heating has the peratures when commercial greenhouse production would otherwise be
advantage of rapid growth and early maturity, but it is an economic impossible (Lund, 2010). Greenhouse heating can be done using forced
problem due to high energy prices. The ratio of heated to unheated air circulation, hot-water circulating pipes or ducts installed in or on the
greenhouses can be a defining feature of greenhouse management in floor, finned units located along the walls and under benches, or a
areas where temperatures can fall below the biological optimum for crop combination of these technologies, as shown in Fig. 10.
growth.
There is a distinction between heat energy generation and the dis 5.1.3. Solar energy heating
tribution of heat energy within the hothouse. Concentrated solar applications have received much interest because
In horticulture, the following techniques for heating greenhouses can of their high energy conversion efficiency and energy storage density
be used: (Gorjian and Ghobadian, 2015; Ketabchi et al., 2019). Thermal collec
tors are used in greenhouse applications to absorb solar radiation and
✓ Air heating. generate heat, which is then transported to the greenhouse’s interior
✓ geothermal energy heating. space. The thermal energy produced can be stored in an energy storage
✓ solar energy heating. media for subsequent use during nocturnal or cloudy periods (Gourdo
et al., 2019a). Three solar systems were used to heat agricultural
greenhouses. One system was based on the selective absorption of solar
5.1.1. Air heating radiation by a heat-transfer fluid. The other system used polyethylene
The three most common types of air heating systems shown in Fig. 9 alveolar clear plan collectors inside a glass-covered greenhouse. Fig. 11
are (a) fan coils, (b) hot air generators, and (c) heat pumps (water/air or depicts an experimental study of two types of solar systems.
air/air). Thermal energy storage is an essential part of greenhouse energy
Fan coils transfer heat from a hot body to the air. The most common storage systems. To address the intermittent nature of renewable energy,
type is a water fan coil. Hot air generators use fuel, usually gas, to heat some studies have looked into greenhouse energy storage technologies
the air that is forced to circulate inside the greenhouse. They can use such as batteries and water tanks (Lanahan and Tabares-Velasco, 2017).
either direct or indirect combustion (Mustafa Omer, 2008). Because the An experimental investigation revealed that employing phase change
combustion products are sent to the greenhouse in those that use direct material (PCM) is an efficient technique (Fig. 12) to boost solar flux
combustion, the fuel must be clean (Ji et al., 2013). capture while improving crop output and quality (Kousksou et al.,
2014). It was discovered that solar energy directly or indirectly covered
5.1.2. Geothermal energy heating all of the heating loads, and no auxiliary heating equipment was
The use of geothermal energy for greenhouse heating is an effective installed.
alternative if the geothermal water is not too deep in the subsoil, the
water temperature is appropriate, and the water is not too corrosive.
Geothermal energy, waste heat, and solar energy are typically low- 5.2. High-temperature management: cooling
temperature energies below 60 ◦ C with unique heating system re
quirements. Geothermal energy-heated greenhouses can reduce The temperature of a greenhouse plant can be 5–10 ◦ C higher than
the temperature of the surrounding air. Even if the air temperature is
Fig. 9. Air heating systems(Castilla, 2013).
11
flows to provide cooling in greenhouses dates back to the early days

of controlled environments, as seen in Fig. 13. This straightforward
technology, which requires little or no external energy, has the potential
to be useful for greenhouse cooling applications in hot areas. It is caused
by the pressure difference between the greenhouse interior and the
outside environment. Natural ventilation has been studied to examine
how it affects the microclimate of greenhouses in hot climates (Ghoulem
et al., 2019). In 2018, a new system called “Natural Ventilation
Augmented Cooling” (NVAC) was invented by Canadian Lucas
McCartney, a system that combines natural ventilation and fogging
systems, as shown in Fig. 14. The Natural Ventilation Augmented
Cooling (NVAC) greenhouse is naturally ventilated and enhanced by a
strategically placed misting system, which augments thermal buoyancy.
An empty NVAC greenhouse (without plants) delivered cooling ranging
from 1.3 to 3.6 relative to outdoor temperatures while boosting relative
humidity by 5.7–17.7 percent at Trents, Barbados. In most natural
ventilation greenhouses, the indoor temperature is higher than the
outside temperature (McCartney et al., 2018c). The NVAC greenhouse is
a low-cost design that uses significantly less energy than a pad and fan
system in a comparable-sized greenhouse (McCartney and Lefsrud,
2018b).
5.2.2. Forced Ventilation Cooling

Forced ventilation can be employed to lower the greenhouse’s inside
temperature. The best-forced ventilation airspeed should be around 0.5
Fig. 10. Geothermal greenhouse heating systems. (a) Heating through aerial
pipe, (b) heating on the bench, (c) heating pipes in low positions for aerial
m3/s/m2 (Willits, 2003). As seen in Fig. 2, helical fans are used to inject
heating, (d) Heating of the soil, (e) a lateral position, (f) an aerial fan,(g) ducts or extract air from the greenhouse, which provides large flows at low
with a high position, (h) Ducts in low positions (Gouda, 2010). pressures. 15. These fans are built to work at low rotation velocities
because they are noisy and use much electrical power.
high in many climes, increasing indoor humidity is required for healthy
crop growth in arid and semi-arid locations. Evaporative cooling can be 5.2.3. Fan-Pad System
utilized in greenhouses for additional cooling and increased humidity. One sidewall of a greenhouse with a “pad and fan” cooling system
The following systems can be used (von Zabeltitz, 1990): includes air extraction fans, while the other contains porous pads, as
shown in Fig. 16. There are two primary fan and pad cooling configu
✓ Natural Ventilation Cooling; rations, negative and positive fan and pad systems. Fig. 17 shows the
✓ Forced Ventilation Cooling; configuration of the fan pad system (Von Zabeltitz, 2010). The exterior
✓ Fan-Pad System; air is drawn through these pads, evaporating the water in the pads and
✓ Fog/Mist System; cooling the greenhouse’s interior, which is now cooler and more humid
✓ Shading. than before. Under Mediterranean circumstances, this approach allows
for temperature drops of 3–6 ◦ C (Montero, 2006). Temperatures can be
reduced by up to 10 ◦ C with very low humidity (RH < 20 percent)
5.2.1. Natural Ventilation Cooling (Hanan, 1998). The benefits of fan and pad cooling systems include
Over the last few decades, natural ventilation approaches for simple systems and low water pressure for water distribution across the
greenhouse cooling have been intensively researched, and numerous pads. The greenhouse’s fan and pad cooling systems should be config
passive design techniques have been used with varying degrees of suc ured to provide enough cooling (Buschermohle and Grandle, 2002).
cess (Sethi and Sharma, 2007). The use of wind and buoyancy-driven Cooling pads are created from a variety of materials, including those
Fig. 11. Principles of solar heating systems for greenhouses(Bargach et al., 2000).
12
Fig. 12. Depicts seasonal thermal energy storage utilizing Phase Change Material (PCM) and the latent heat storage approach (Öztürk, 2005).
a high rate of water evaporation while keeping the crops dry (Abdel-
Ghany et al., 2006). Other experiments have indicated that fog cooling
can reduce the temperature of the inside air and leaves by up to 3 ◦ C
(Arbel et al., 1999). The greenhouse was divided into two sections,
cooled by natural ventilation through roof apertures that kept the air
temperature below 26 ◦ C and fog cooling through open roof vents to the
maximum aperture that kept relative humidity below 80 percent
(Ghoulem et al., 2019). Several investigations on fog and mist cooling
systems for greenhouses have been conducted (Misra and Ghosh, 2017).
5.2.5. Shading
Shading a greenhouse is an efficient way to provide an ideal climate
for crop development. This article examines popular summer shading
Fig. 13. Pressure differential drives natural ventilation in a greenhouse. systems for greenhouses, as well as their cooling effects on greenhouse
air (Abdel-Ghany et al., 2012). Combining a shade approach with
that are locally available. We mention them as shown in Fig. 18: (a) ventilation and/or evaporative cooling has a substantial effect on the
Cellulose corrugated pad; (b) Excelsior pads made from natural plants overall microclimate as well as microclimatic parameter distribution. In
and wood; (c) A rope pad consisting of vertical ropes; (d) Rope pad with sunny areas, combining shading with a cooling system can keep green
a single row. house air temperatures 5–10 ◦ C lower than the outside temperature
(Ahemd et al., 2016). In cold climates, shade materials work as in
5.2.4. Fog/Mist System sulators, reducing heat loss from greenhouses at night.
Water droplets are sprayed through tiny nozzles to create a micro-
fine mist above the crops. Water droplets have a low terminal veloc 5.3. De-humidification
ity, and air streams can easily convey them. This technique can result in
Dehumidification is an essential aspect of greenhouse construction
Fig. 14. Schematic part of the greenhouse illustrating the NVAC greenhouse design concept (McCartney et al., 2018c).
13
Fig. 15. Forced ventilation cooling in a greenhouse (www.pericoli.com).
Fig. 16. Fan-pad cooling systems in a greenhouse (Franco et al., 2014).
5.4. CO2 enrichment
Even if the greenhouse is well-ventilated, the CO2 concentration

within a greenhouse can fall dramatically below the outside level when a
thick crop is developing. Carbon dioxide enrichment of greenhouse air
improves plant growth, reduces cropping times, and improves crop
quality (Panwar et al., 2011). Combining ventilation control and CO2
enrichment with low-cost CO2 sources may result in enhanced and
economically viable greenhouse crop development methods. A good
management strategy is to ventilate as much or as little as necessary for
temperature and humidity control, as well as to control CO2 concen
trations inside the greenhouse up to the outside level when ventilation is
used and to higher levels when no or little ventilation is required for
temperature control (Incrocci et al., 2008; Stanghellini et al., 2007). Gas
Fig. 17. Fan-pad system. (a) Negative pressure fan and pad system, (b) Nega burner exhaust emissions can be directed straight into the greenhouse.
tive pressure fan and pad system positive pressure fan and pad system (Von Some of the combustion gases are collected and utilized to enhance CO2.
Zabeltitz, 2010). Although CO2 is produced during decomposition, although the amount
of CO2 produced is uncontrollable (Endres and Siebert-Raths, 2011).
because of the intrinsically high RH values maintained in a greenhouse Special control mechanisms are required, and care must be given to
due to agricultural growth requirements. In colder locations, energy- avoid the formation of carbon monoxide. It is feasible to combine
saving films in greenhouses might result in increased humidity, which exhaust gas with fresh air. Water vapor and heat generation, as well as
can cause condensation on the greenhouse glass surfaces. High RH also the maximum allowable concentration, must all be considered (Zheng
damaging to crops because it promotes fungal diseases (Agrios, 2005; et al., 2004). An intelligent management method is to ventilate as much
Weidner et al., 2021). Several greenhouse dehumidifying systems have or as little as needed to control temperature and humidity (Ganguly
been developed, each with it’s own set of advantages and disadvantages, et al., 2011).
such as high operational costs, high energy consumption, and broader
humidity gradients in the greenhouse (Liu et al., 2014).
14
Fig. 18. The various materials for the pad (Von Zabeltitz, 2010).
5.5. Lighting management
The primary goals of supplemental artificial light are to increase

photosynthesis (daily illumination) and lengthen the day (photoperiod),
allowing for an increase in accumulated daytime radiation. Led lamps
have a very low energy efficiency of roughly 6% in converting power to
Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), emitting the most of their
energy in the infrared band. Regarding efficiencies of 26–27 percent,
halogen lights and sodium lamps have the best energy efficiency (of
photosynthetically active radiation conversion). In addition to their
energy efficiency (Photosynthetically active radiation conversion) and
the proximity of the output light spectrum to that of the PAR, the fea
tures of radiation emission of morphological value to plants must be
considered when selecting lamps for complementary illumination. High-
pressure sodium lamps with 400–450 W power are the most often uti
lized. The most commonly used lamps are high-pressure sodium lamps
with 400–450 W of power. These lights are frequently put at 1.5–2 m
heights in frames 2–3 m wide to cover an area of 5–10 m2 per lamp, as
seen in Fig. 19 (Hanan, 2017). When the PAR is very low, artificial light
can double the rate of photosynthesis. The optimum lighting levels for Fig. 19. Lamps for complementary artificial lighting (www.bobsmarket.com).
cucumber, pepper, and tomato, levels vary from 12 to 24 W m2 PAR.
The lamps return a significant portion of the energy consumed as heat, subsurface (capillary) and surface (drip or sprinkler irrigation).
about 75%, reducing the heating requirement, an important factor to Subsurface capillary irrigation is a type of subsurface irrigation that
consider in the management of heating systems. The effectiveness of uses a capillary medium to gradually supply water from a source directly
artificial light is highly contingent on the grower’s ability to optimize to the root area. Fig. 21 depicts how the subsurface capillary irrigation
growth conditions to avoid other yield-reducing issues. Because lighting process uses negative pressure to transport water to the plant’s root zone
power is typically expensive, it is popular to turn to cogeneration, which via the capillary interface. Many researchers investigated this type of
is the simultaneous production of heat, used for heating and electricity, irrigation system and discovered. Many studies have found that it saves
which is more efficient and less expensive but requires a higher initial more water and produces more yield compared to other types of surface
investment. Inter-lighting rather than top-lighting, as well as LEDs, can irrigation (Felipe and Bareng, 2022; Li et al., 2018; Zambon et al., 2022).
significantly improve light and energy efficiency (Katzin et al., 2021; Other research studies on capillary irrigation have also demonstrated
Pennisi and Orsini, 2021). the advantage of this method in providing higher water savings in
agricultural irrigation processes when compared to other methods
5.6. Related work (Abioye et al., 2020, 2022; Akbarzadeh et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2022).
Sprinkler irrigation is a modern irrigation method that mimics pre
Many studies have been conducted to explore and assess the green cipitation patterns on plants. Water sprinkling is done with a spray head
house management climate in the different regions worldwide. Table 7 and a large piping system to ensure a large coverage area for irrigation
depicts some related work for various climate management systems in (Hassan et al., 2021; Zapata-Sierra et al., 2021). Fig. 22 (a) depicts
greenhouses in various regions. sprinkler irrigation methods such as center pivot, standalone, linear, and
lateral move sprinklers. Another type of surface irrigation is drip irri
6. Management of irrigation gation. It is now used in many countries, and several commercial sys
tems are available. This method is becoming more popular in areas
Farmers worldwide widely use irrigation systems, with the associ where water supplies are limited. Despite its many advantages, it has a
ated high amount of water consumption from various sources posing a high setup cost and requires a thorough understanding of water distri
major concern. This necessitates a greater emphasis on improving water bution wetting patterns. Fig. 22 (b) shows a drip irrigation system in use
efficiency in irrigation agriculture. Irrigation techniques are classified as in a greenhouse.
traditional or modern, based on their ability to save water. The tradi On the other hand, monitoring plant growth and development is
tional surface irrigation method applies and distributes water to the critical in designing an efficient irrigation control system to improve
soil’s surface based on gravity flow, with no sensing or control action food production while minimizing water loss. The Internet of Things
(Fig. 20). There are two types of modern water-saving methods: (IoT) has paved the way for the use of low-cost hardware (sensors/
15
Table 7
Literature review of systems management greenhouse environment.
year country climate factor System Result reference
2010 Greece Temperature Fog system cooling The results showed that fog produced a more homogeneous Katsoulas et al. (2010)
(Mediterranean temperature and humidity field, allowing for more intensive mixing of
climate) the interior atmosphere, whereas natural ventilation produced high
vertical temperature gradients.
2011 Spain (Mediterranean Temperature Air heating The experiment demonstrated that it is possible to create controllers Nachidi et al. (2011)
climate) for nocturnal temperature control that provide good performance and
stability in a wide range of working situations.
2011 Palestine (semi-arid Temperature/ Heating exchanger/ Under the suggested greenhouse mode operation, the CHD prototype Shklyar et al. (2011)
climate) Humidity de-humidification can remove nearly 700 kg of water per night (40 kg/h) and save
approximately 80% of energy when compared to a greenhouse
without a thermal screen and ventilation. The proposed and
comparable greenhouse operation modes were designed to keep the
temperature at 18 ◦ C and the relative humidity at 80 percent.
2011 Spain (Mediterranean Temperature Shading/fog system The fogging system tested performed the best in terms of radiation. García et al. (2011)
climate) The mobile shading system’s temperature and radiation settings are
critical for controlling the amount of incident radiation on the crop.
2012 Belgium Light intensity LED System The best management practices and LED standards for the greenhouse Mitchell et al. (2012)
(Mediterranean industry are presented.
climate)
2012 China (tropical Temperature Heat pump Heat pump heating lowered carbon dioxide emissions, energy Chai et al. (2012)
climate) (Geothermal heating) consumption, and costs.
2012 Italy (Mediterranean Temperature Solar collector The results suggest that utilizing better insulated transparent Fabrizio (2012)
climate) materials can result in savings of up to 30%.
2013 Spain (Mediterranean Temperature Fog system cooling - The results show that the crop deposition values were extremely Sánchez-Hermosilla et al.
climate) low, far below the levels attained with spray guns. (2013)
- Despite saturating the greenhouse’s atmosphere before
applications, losses increased, owing primarily to droplet
evaporation.
2013 China (tropical Carbon dioxide Gas burner heat The developed system recovered the thermal energy of the exhaust gas Yang et al. (2014)
climate) exchangers. from the CO2 generator with an estimated average efficiency of
0.62e1.18 depending on the ambient temperature.
2014 China (tropical Temperature Solar energy heating This system was shown to be capable of sustaining an interior air Xu et al. (2014)
climate) temperature 13 ◦ C higher than the ambient value while the latter was
− 2 ◦ C at night.
2014 Spain (Mediterranean Temperature Forced ventilation According to the findings, combining evaporative cooling methods Valiño et al. (2014)
climate) cooling with ventilation and/or shading will be essential in southern
European locales. Natural ventilation will no longer be sufficient in
some places of Northern Europe, and shade or fogging will be
required.
2014 Mexico (arid climate) Temperature Forced ventilation Roof ventilation increased the environment of fan-ventilated Flores-Velazquez et al.
cooling greenhouses in terms of the air exchange rate (22%) and climatic (2014)
uniformity because the inside air was mixed better than mechanical
ventilation alone.
2015 Iran (Mediterranean Temperature System hybrid Lowering the temperature of the water in the earth cycle reduces the Mehrpooya et al. (2015)
climate) Solar heating and need to recover the soil during non-heating seasons, and recovery will
Geothermal heating be done solely in the summer because solar energy gained is greatest
during the summer.
2015 China (subtropical Temperature Fan-Pad system Experimental results, the evaporative cooling fan–pad system is Xu et al. (2015)
climate) shown to be a viable choice for greenhouse cooling even in humid
climates.
2015 Italy (Mediterranean Solar irradiation Shading The findings illustrate the potential for sustainable salad yield, taking Stagnari et al. (2015)
climate) into account both economic and nutritional yields, resulting in high
nutritionally dense products while only slightly affecting harvested
biomass.
2015 China (subtropical humidity Mechanical de- The crop loss rate was reduced by 1.6 percent to 2.5 percent after the (J. Han et al., 2015)
climate) humidification application of dehumidification. This resulted in a $3000 increase in
annual revenue. Dehumidification is strongly recommended when
crop loss is reduced and yield is increased.
2016 Denmark Light intensity Artificial lighting The author discovered that four of the five light sources and the Lerche et al. (2016)
(Mediterranean greenhouse could be used for indoor daylight Photodynamic Therapy.
climate) The greenhouse was suitable for daylight Photodynamic Therapy.
Because the effect of solar light was only reduced by 25%.
2016 Saudi Arabia (arid Humidity/ Desiccant liquid In desert greenhouses, a liquid desiccant air dehumidifier followed by Lefers et al. (2016)
humid climate) temperature evaporative cooling offers a potential solution for meeting both
cooling and freshwater supply requirements.
2016 Italy (Mediterranean Temperature Natural ventilation The best results were found with the windward roof vent covered, Benni et al. (2016)
climate) which resulted in 64% of the maximum heat removal possible by
natural ventilation. The other situations studied yielded a
performance index of around 50%.
As a result of the findings, it is suggested that the vent control system
be improved by taking wind direction into account as an input.
2017 India (tropical Temperature Fog system cooling The results showed that by using a suitable fogging cycle and keeping (Misra and Ghosh, 2017)
climate) the relative humidity within an acceptable level, the greenhouse
(continued on next page)
16
Table 7 (continued )
year country climate factor System Result reference
temperature could be kept 2–5 ◦ C lower than the ambient

temperature.
2017 Iraq (Semi-arid Temperature Evaporative system The results showed that the evaporative system using groundwater Aljubury and Ridha
climate) Humidity cooling reduces greenhouse temperature by roughly 12.1 ◦ C to 21.6 ◦ C and (2017)
increases relative humidity from 8% to 62% when compared to the
ambient environment.
2017 India (subtropical Temperature Fan-Pad system The study validates the technical and economic viability of a Banik and Ganguly
climate) desiccant-assisted distributed fan-pad cooling system for target (2017)
plantation cultivation.
2018 Canada (Warm Temperature Natural ventilation Depending on the environmental conditions, the cooling performance McCartney et al., 2018c
climate) cooling of the NVAC greenhouse design without plants ranged from a
temperature reduction of 1.9 e12.6 ◦ C to a relative humidity increase
of 1.4 e31.2 percent RH.
2018 Netherlands (warm Carbon dioxide CO2 enrichment The analysis indicates that the find necessary of adsorbents would be Rodríguez-Mosqueda
climate) Using hydrated approximately 1/1000 of the total volume of a closed greenhouse, et al. (2018)
Na2CO3 assuming a CO2 target level of 1200 ppm.
2019 China (tropical Temperature Solar energy heating The soil’s overall temperature rise is roughly 4 ◦ C. Without any Li et al. (2019)
climate) additional energy supply, the greenhouse’s temperature is assured to
be above 8 ◦ C, which meets the minimum temperature requirements
of crop development.
2019 Morocco Temperature Solar energy heating The findings of experimental measurements of environmental Gourdo et al. (2019b)
(Mediterranean parameters suggest that the air temperature inside the greenhouse
climate) fitted with a rock bed is 3 ◦ C higher at night and 1.9 ◦ C lower during
the day. When compared to a typical greenhouse, tomato yield has
increased by 22%.
2019 Cyprus Temperature Fan-Pad system The results show that a fan ventilation cooling system combined with Nikolaou et al. (2019)
(Mediterranean an appropriate irrigation regime prevents overheating and reduces
climate) nutrient and water losses in spring-grown soilless cucumber crops
grown in Mediterranean greenhouses without sacrificing yield.
2019 Italy (Mediterranean Solar irradiation Shading Since the internal microclimatic parameters must be compatible with Moretti and Marucci
climate) the needs of the plant species grown in greenhouses, the results show (2019)
how shading variation enabled regulation of the internal radiation,
choosing the minimum value of necessary radiation.
2020 China (tropical Temperature Fan-Pad The testing results show that a higher fan frequency is usually Zeng et al. (2020)
system) accompanied by more ventilation, faster cooling speed, and more
pronounced effects of the fan-pad evaporative cooling system fan.
2021 Turkey Temperature Solar energy heating According to the calculations, the solar heating system will save (Ayhan et al., 2021)
(Mediterranean 60–70% of the coal required for greenhouse heating applications.
climate) Because of the decrease in heating costs, the production costs of
greenhouse-grown commodities will decrease as well.
2021 India (subtropical Temperature Forced ventilation this research improves thermal stability and comfort by minimizing Revathi et al. (2021)
climate) heat stress caused by cycling a current single-speed fan, saving 30.83
percent of energy.
2021 Russia (warm Temperature Geothermal heating According to the findings, it was established that geothermal heat Korzhakov et al. (2021)
climate) supply systems could not function efficiently for an extended period
without the use of acoustic–magnetic devices.
2021 Arizona USA (arid Solar irradiation Shading The results proved that quasi OPVs can be used as a seasonal shade Waller et al. (2021)
climate) element for growers in a high-light region.
2021 Italy (Mediterranean Solar irradiation Shading The findings revealed information about the effect of various dilutions (Puglisi et al., 2021)
climate) of slaked lime on the selective filtering of solar radiation. These
findings may be useful in comparing similar results with more recent
greenhouse shading solutions, such as the use of plastic nets.
2022 Morocco Temperature Geothermal heating The heated greenhouse’s nighttime temperature is 4 ◦ C higher than Ihoume et al. (2022)
(Mediterranean the permitted setting, and the payback period for this sustainable
climate) heating system is less than two years. It also has a low environmental
impact, producing 176 g of CO2 per day.
2022 Tunisia Temperature Solar energy heating The testing results suggest that the air temperature within the Anayed et al. (2022)
(Mediterranean greenhouse increased by 5 ◦ C to 6 ◦ C when compared to the unheated
climate) greenhouse. Similarly, the relative humidity ranges from 70 to 80
percent throughout the day.
actuators) and communication technologies (Internet) to improve irri benefits of irrigation modernization include higher water efficiency and
gation monitoring and control systems. The use of IoT to monitor critical production, enhanced irrigation system operation and management, and
parameters in precision irrigation has become popular. The introduction improved farmer working conditions, although at the expense of
and rapid success of the Internet of Things (IoT) and advanced control increased energy needs and investment amount (Tarjuelo et al., 2015).
strategies are being used to improve irrigation monitoring and control
(Bodkhe et al., 2020; Kamienski et al., 2019). Many studies have been 7. Discussion
conducted on irrigation control systems (Patil and Desai, 2013). devised
an intelligent system based on fuzzy logic, which they demonstrated can According to this literature review, the work done has revealed that
be efficiently used for water-saving greenhouses. Other researchers have research and development projects have sparked much interest in the
found that a smart irrigation system may save up to 80% water (Boutraa greenhouse crops sector. From the standpoint of structural hardware,
et al., 2011; Darshna et al., 2015; Rawal, 2017). On the other hand, solar selecting an agricultural greenhouse design to meet the economic con
energy was used to build smart irrigation power. Nonetheless, the ditions of greenhouse growers is always a challenge for the designer. The
17
Covering materials should be chosen following the greenhouse’s

yield and location. Generally, the desired material transmissivity is more
significant than 0.7 (García et al., 2011). The proposed material thick
nesses ranged from 0.10 to 0.20 mm for Ultra Violet-stabilized Poly
ethylene (Wei et al., 2016), 6–10 mm for Polycarbonate sheets, and 4
mm for glass (Marucci and Cappuccini, 2016). 0.80 mm fiberglass can
also be used (A. M. Al-Amri, 2000). Natural ventilation openings in the
roof and side walls, as well as nests and additional shading mechanisms,
must be installed. For countries with high summer solar loads,
white-painted roofs with an external black-shading net and internal
aluminized screens can primarily provide greenhouse shading (or
blanking) (Kittas et al., 1999). Reflective materials should also be
considered (Baeza et al., 2020).
In terms of control algorithms, MPC has been the most widely used
control algorithm by researchers. Others, such as FLC, adaptive, and
neural network control, have also received attention. The proper control
and management of temperature, humidity, CO2 levels, and lighting are
Fig. 20. Depicts the traditional irrigation method. critical to energy efficiency in greenhouse operations. However, because
of the dynamic and nonlinear nature of the greenhouse environment,
choice of greenhouse shape and covering material is determined by the controlling these parameters is a complex process. Over the years, the
desired greenhouse temperature profile, which is affected by incident use of sensor networks and control algorithms has yielded promising
solar energy, which is a function of greenhouse shape, dimensions, roof results, but recent studies aim to improve the shortcomings and apply
configuration, and losses through the covering materials. The covering these methods to new areas of Controlled Environment Agriculture.
materials chosen should be appropriate for the yield type and the On the other hand, evolutionary and swarm-based techniques (PSO,
greenhouse’s location. GA, GWO, etc.) have been successfully applied to greenhouse control.
A greenhouse (width: length) ratio of 0.1 was proposed for maximum Most of their success can be attributed to their ability to deal with
solar energy collection (Çakır and Şahin, 2015). The height of the ridge nonlinear control problems, such as actuator constraints and system
and the slope angle have a more significant influence on stability and disturbances. Moreover, the trends observed in other scientific domains
turbulence. A long greenhouse should be designed with a ratio of close to provide strong indications that the problem of reducing greenhouse gas
0.5 to avoid irregular air velocity and temperature distribution along its emissions tends to adopt more multi-objective formulations. As a result,
length (Jain and Tiwari, 2002). using algorithmic methods to solve this type of problem has potential.
Fig. 21. Capillary irrigation system (Semananda et al., 2018).
Fig. 22. (a) Sprinkler irrigation in the greenhouse on left. (b) Drip irrigation on the right.
18
Indeed, addressing this problem while considering more than four recommended to use a GSM/GPRS gateway for long distances and with
design objectives (many-objective optimization) is a promising area for web control. The interdependence of critical parameters and the spatial
future research. Furthermore, decision support software tools that assist variability of the greenhouse microclimate complicate greenhouse
the user (e.g., farmer) in selecting the best trade-off solution for their environmental control. Many algorithms and control strategies have
specific interests are a promising research area. More work is needed to been developed to dynamically control these parameters. Traditional
promote the reviewed control and management techniques for green PID control algorithms are ineffective for nonlinear systems. Advanced
house environmental control among stakeholders, emphasizing the costs control algorithms provide great precision. Sensor networks, as well as
and benefits of doing so. the use of control algorithms, continue to play an important role.
From the aspect of automation, the advancement of the WSN field On the other hand, the greenhouse environment system management
has facilitated the optimal and autonomous control of greenhouses. is based on region and weather type. Due to the dry climate, it is rec
Modern controllers have the advantage of accounting for uncertainties ommended to use evaporative cooling and solar heating in arid and
caused by loads, weather, energy production, and storage, as well as the semi-arid regions, as well as a shading system to control high light in
operational constraints of microclimate control and energy optimiza tensity and high temperatures. Otherwise, natural ventilation has a high
tion. Most of the research has concentrated on partial control of performance in humidity and air treatment, particularly carbon dioxide,
greenhouse operations while ignoring overall governance. The main and it is recommended for temperature management in tropical areas. It
aspect that needs to be improved is pooling the various active systems is also necessary to consider irrigation techniques; drip or capillary
that comprise the greenhouse to deploy the control means required to irrigation is preferred for the dry region. The best choice in greenhouse
optimize its operation. Mathematical models to precisely describe the technologies (design, control, management, irrigation technique),
complex microclimate dynamics and energy fluctuations are still being achieving high output at a low cost and energy consumption while also
developed in this field of study. A better understanding of crop responses saving water consumption. As a result, we solved the problem wef
to environmental cues would help in the evaluation of greenhouse (water, energy, and food) at the same time with the ecosystem.
control technologies. Due to the obvious low cost of wiring, wireless Considering the following, future research in this field should
communication is the most common in agricultural deployments. The concentrate on the following topics:
characteristics of the environment present challenges not only to the
hardware but also to the network layer. More efforts should be made to • Improving greenhouse operations through a multi-sectoral approach
consider the greenhouse as an integrated system that considers the to the energy-water-food nexus.
synergy between different complex systems for overall greenhouse • Energy-efficient and environmentally friendly HVAC systems
performance optimization. Nevertheless, the environment’s character technologies.
istics present challenges not only to the hardware but also to the network • water-use methods that are sustainable and efficient.
layer. Wireless communication is the most common in agricultural de • Control and automation technologies
ployments due to the low cost of wiring. The environment is recognized • Covering materials.
as a significant contributor to poor wireless link quality due to multi- • Technological affordability with the consequences of climate change
path propagation effects and background noise (Wang et al., 2017). and an increasing global population.
Temperature, humidity, human presence, and other environmental • Conducting financial analyses for renewable energy investment in
factors have all been shown to affect the performance of popular the greenhouse production sector.
transceivers in real-world deployments (Tzounis et al., 2017). As a
result, data must be transferred using robust and dependable technolo
Declaration of competing interest
gies that meet the standards, as well as the difficulties of the rural
environment. Finally, we have noticed a great void in research on
The authors declare that they have no known competing financia
covering materials, where researchers are interested in the control side
linterestsor personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
and management systems (cooling, heating, etc.).
the work reported in this paper.
8. Conclusion Data availability
This paper presents a review of the literature on international No data was used for the research described in the article.
greenhouse development in terms of structural characteristics, micro
climate control, and energy management. The primary goal of this work
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Journal of Cleaner Production: A. Badji, A. Benseddik, H. Bensaha, A. Boukhelifa, I. Hasrane

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Journal of Cleaner Production 373 (2022) 133753

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

Design, technology, and management of greenhouse: A review

Abbreviation MPC Model Prediction Control

2.2. The temperature effects Table 2

2.3. Influence of dioxide carbon on greenhouse

The presence of CO2 is one of the three components required for

Light Energy + 6CO2 +6H2O + C6H12O6 + 6 O2 (1)

gutter height should be at least 3 m (Singh, 2000).

Fig. 7. Diagram of control greenhouse (Ponce et al., 2014).

a significant challenge in maintaining every system’s observability,

4.2.3. Intelligent control

4.2.3.1. Fuzzy logic. As part of intelligent control, fuzzy logic consists of

Fig. 9. Air heating systems(Castilla, 2013).

flows to provide cooling in greenhouses dates back to the early days

5.2.2. Forced Ventilation Cooling

Fig. 15. Forced ventilation cooling in a greenhouse (www.pericoli.com).

Fig. 16. Fan-pad cooling systems in a greenhouse (Franco et al., 2014).

5.4. CO2 enrichment

Even if the greenhouse is well-ventilated, the CO2 concentration

5.5. Lighting management

The primary goals of supplemental artificial light are to increase

temperature could be kept 2–5 ◦ C lower than the ambient

Covering materials should be chosen following the greenhouse’s

Fig. 21. Capillary irrigation system (Semananda et al., 2018).

8. Conclusion Data availability

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