ABSTRACT

In this project, colouring of line graphs were studied. Graphs can serve as a
mathematical models to analyse many real - world problem. The most
interesting transformation of graph is line graph.

This project comparises of three chapters,

Chapter I, deals the introduction and some basic definitions like graph,
line graph, k - vertex colouring, k - edge colouring and total colouring. The
operations union, sum, product and composition are performed on line
graph.

Chapter II, discuss some properties of line graph through examples.

Chapter III, emphasize the applications of graph colouring for assignment

of lecture halls for the students schedule.
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Euler become the father of graph theory when in 1736 he ended a popular
unsolved issue of his day called the konigsberg Bridge problem is considered
to be the beginning of graph theory.

The name line graph was first used by Harary and Norman [9]. Since the
study of line graphs has been classical topic of research in graph theory.

Graph operations refers procedure that can be applied to a graph obtain

another graph. There are several common graph operations that are used
to study the properties of graphs including union, sum, product and
composition [3].

Graph colouring is one of the most important concepts in graph theory.

The concept of graph colouring was introduced by Francis Guthrie and
Alfred Kempe [10].

The concept of vertex colouring introduced Hassler Whitney [15] and

Leonard Brooks [6]. Vertex colouring further developed by Shannon [13].

The British mathematician Arthur Cayley [1] introduced by edge colouring

in graph theory. The first systematic study of edge colouring was conducted
by S. Fiorini and Robin J. Wilson [8].

The concept of total colouring was introduced by Behzed and Vizing [5].

The aim of this project is to study colouring of line graph. Edge chromatic
number of a graph G is equal to the vertex chromatic number of its line
graph L(G) is studied.

1
 BASIC DEFINITIONS

DEFINITION 1.1
A graph G is an ordered triple (V(G), E(G), ΨG ) consisting of a
nonempty set V(G) of vertices, a set E(G), disjoint from V(G), of edges,
and an incident function ΨG that associates with each edge of G an
unordered pair of (not necessarily distinct) vertices of G.

EXAMPLE:

G = (V(G),E(G),ΨG )

V(G) = { v1 ,v2 ,v3 ,v4 }

E(G) = { e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 , e5 }

ΨG (e1 ) = v1 v2 ΨG (e2 ) = v2 v3

ΨG (e3 ) = v3 v4 ΨG (e4 ) = v4 v1

ΨG (e5 ) = v1 v3 .

2
DEFINITION 1.2
Let G be a loopless graph, we construct a graph L(G) in the following ways:

The vertex set of L(G) is 1-1 correspondence with the edge set of G and
two vertices of L(G) are joined by an edge if and only if the corresponding
edges of G are adjacent in G. The graph L(G) (which is always a simple
graph) is called the line graph or the edge graph of G.

EXAMPLE:

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 VERTEX COLOURING

DEFINITION 1.3
A k - vertex colouring of G is an assignment of k colours, 1,2,3...,k, to
the vertices of G.

EXAMPLE :

DEFINITION 1.4
The colouring is proper if no two distinct adjacent vertices have the
same colour.
Thus a proper k - vertex colouring of a loopless graph G is a partition
(V1 , V2 , ..., Vk ) of V into k (possibly empty) independent sets.

DEFINITION 1.5
G is k- vertex colourable if G has a proper k - vertex colouring.

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EXAMPLE :

DEFINITION 1.6
The chromatic number, Ψ(G), of G is the minimum k for which G is
k - colourable. If Ψ(G) = k, G is said to be k - vertex chromatic.

EXAMPLE :

5
 EDGE COLOURING

DEFINITION 1.7
A k - edge colouring C of a loopless graph G is an assignment of k
colours 1,2,...,k to the edges of G.
An edge colouring of a graph G is a funtion f : E(G)→ C, where C is set of
distinct colour.

EXAMPLE :

DEFINITION 1.8
The colouring C is proper if no two adjacent edges have the same colour.

DEFINITION 1.9
G is k - edge colourable if G has a proper k - edge colouring.

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EXAMPLE:

DEFINITION 1.10
The edge chromatic number Ψ′ (G) of a loopless graph G, is the
minimum k for which G is k - edge colourable. G is k - edge chromatic if
Ψ′ (G) = k.

EXAMPLE:

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 TOTAL COLOURING

DEFINITION 1.11
A total colouring of a graph a G is an assignment of colours to both the
vertices and edges of G, such that no two adjacent or incident vertices and
egdes of are assigned the same colours.

EXAMPLE:

DEFINITION 1.12
A total colouring is proper if

(i) adjacent vertices have different colours.

(ii) incident edges have different colours and

(iii) every edge has a colour that is different from each of its end vertices.

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EXAMPLE:

DEFINITION 1.13
The total chromatic number is the minimum number of colours needed
to total colour G and it is denoted by Ψ′′ (G) .

EXAMPLE:

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 Operations on Line graphs
DEFINITION 1.14
Let G1 = (V1 , E1 ) and G2 = (V2 , E2 ) be two graphs with V1 ∩V2 = Φ. Then
the union G1 ∪ G2 to be the graph (V,E) where V=V1 ∪ V2 and E=E1 ∪ E2 .

EXAMPLE:

For this graph is ,

ΨV (G) = 3 ΨV (L(G)) = 3
ΨE (G) = 3 ΨE (L(G)) = 3
ΨT (G) = 3 ΨT (L(G)) = 3.

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DEFINITION 1.15
If the graphs G1 and G2 such that V (G1 ) ∩ V (G2 ) = Φ then the sum
G1 + G2 is defined as the graph whose vertex set is V (G1 ) + V (G2 ) and the
edge set is consisting those edges, which are in G1 and in G2 and the edges
obtained, by joining each vertex of G1 to each vertex of G2 .

EXAMPLE:

For this graph is ,

ΨV (G) = 4 ΨV (L(G)) = 3
ΨE (G) = 3 ΨE (L(G)) = 4
ΨT (G) = 3 ΨT (L(G)) = 3.

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DEFINITION 1.16
If the graphs G1 and G2 such that V (G1 ) ∩ V (G2 ) = Φ then the product
G1 × G2 is the graph having vertex set V= V1 × V2 and u=(u1 , u2 ) and
v=(v1 , v2 ) are adjacent if u1 = v1 and u2 is adjacent to v2 in G2 or u1 is
adjacent to v1 in G1 and u2 = v2 .

EXAMPLE:

For this graph is ,

ΨV (G) = 2 ΨV (L(G)) = 2
ΨE (G) = 2 ΨE (L(G)) = 2
ΨT (G) = 2 ΨT (L(G)) = 2.

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DEFINITION 1.17
The composition G1 [G2 ] is the graph having vertex set V1 × V2 and
u=(u1 , u2 ) and v=(v1 , v2 ) are adjacent if u1 is adjacent to v1 in G1 or (u1 = v1
and u2 is adjacent to v2 in G2 ).

EXAMPLE:

For this graph is ,

ΨV (G) = 4 ΨV (L(G)) = 3
ΨE (G) = 3 ΨE (L(G)) = 4
ΨT (G) = 3 ΨT (L(G)) = 3.

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Relation between vertex , edge and total
colouring

ΨV (G) = 3 ΨV (L(G)) = 4
ΨE (G) = 4 ΨE (L(G)) = 5
ΨT (G) = 3 ΨT (L(G)) = 4.

For this relation of graph is ,

ΨV (G) ≤ ΨE (G) ≥ ΨT (G)

ΨV (L(G)) ≤ ΨE (L(G)) ≥ ΨT (L(G)) .

The edge chromatic number of a graph G is equal to the vertex

chromatic number of its line graph L(G) .

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 CHAPTER II
Some properties of line graph

Theorem 2.1
The line graph of a simple graph G is a path if and only if G is a path.

proof:
Let G be the path Pn on n vertices.

Then clearly, L(G) is the path Pn−1 on n-1 vertices.

Conversely,

let L(G) be path.

Then no vertex of G can have degree greater than two because if G has a
degree greater than 2, the edges incident to v would form a complete
subgraph of L(G) with atleast three vertices.

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 Hence, G must be either a cycle or a path. But G cannot be cycle or a
path.
But G cannot be a cycle, because the line graph of a cycle is again a
cycle.

Theorem 2.2
Let G be a (p,q) graph. Then L(G) is a (q,qL ) graph where ,
qL = 21 ( pi=1 d2i ) − q, where di is the degree of the vertex vi in G .
P

proof:
Let G be a (p,q) graph.
By the definition of line graph,
Number of points in L(G) is the number of lines in L(G).

Therefore, L(G) has q points.

Also, di is the degree of the vertex vi in G.

But, any two of the di lines incident with vi are adjacent in L(G).
di (di −1)
Therefore, 2
lines in L(G).

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Hence,
Pp di (di −1)
qL = i=1 2

1 Pp 1 Pp
= 2
( i=1 d2i ) - 2
( i=1 di )

1 Pp 1
= 2
( i=1 d2i ) - 2
(2q)

1 Pp
= 2
( i=1 d2i ) - q .

property 2.1
If G is connected if any only of L(G) is connected.

proof:
Necessary Part :

Assume that G is connected. To Prove that L(G) is connected.

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 Since G is connected, there exists a path between every pair of vertices.

Then by definition of line graphs, the adjacent edges of G are in adjacent

vertices in L(G).

⇒ L(G) is connected.

Sufficient part :

Assume that L(G) is connected. To prove that G is connected. Suppose G

is not connected, atleast any two of its vertices are not connected by a
path. Then atleast two components .

Consider one edge in first component then it doesn’t have any adjacent
edges in second component. So, if draw line graphs for both the two
components then they do not have any path between them.

(ie) There are two components in L(G) also. That is, L(G) is
disconnected.

Which is a contradiction.

Therefore, G is connected.

Property 2.2
If H is subgraph of G then L(H) is subgraph of L(G).

Proof :
Since H is a subgraph of G.

Therefore , V(H)⊆ V(G) and

E(H)⊆ E(G).

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Now, V(L(H))= E(H) ⊆ E(G)⊆ V(L(G)).

Let e1 e2 ∈ E(L(H)).

This implies e1 , e2 ∈ E(H) such that e1 and e2 are adjacent.

Since H is a subgraph of G.

e1 e2 ∈ E(G) and e1 , e2 are adjacent in G.

Therefore e1 e2 ∈ E(L(G)).

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 Now verified that

V(L(H))⊆ V(L(G)) and

E(L(H))⊆ E(L(G)) .

This shows that L(H) is a subgraph of L(G).

Property 2.3
The edges incident at a vertex of G give rise to a maximal complete
subgraph of L(G).

Proof:
Consider a vertex v in G ,and

Let e1 , e2 , ..., ek be the edges incident to v.

In the line graph L(G) , each of these edges corresponds to a vertex and
these vertices are adjacent to each other forming a complete subgraph of
L(G).

Furthermore, any other vertex in L(G) that is adjacent to all of these

vertices must correspond to an edge that shares a common endpoint with
all of the edges incident to v in G.

But since v is incident to edges in G, there can be atmost k-1 edges.

Therefore, the complete subgraph of L(G) induced by the vertices
corresponding to the edges incident to v is maximal.

In other words, if we remove any vertex or edge from this complete

subgraph, it will no longer be complete.

This is because each vertex in the complete subgraph is adjacent to all

other vertices in the subgraph, corresponding to the fact that each edge
incident to v in G shares a common endpoint with all other edges incident
to v.

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 Therefore, the edges incident to a vertex of G do indeed give rise to a
maximal complete subgraph of L(G).

Lemma 2.1
If G is regular with degree is k, then L(G) is regular with degree 2k-1.

Proof :
Since each vertex of G has a degree k, then every edge of G is incident with
k-1 edges of its ends.
Hence, L(G) each vertex of degree is 2(k-1) = 2k-2.

Theorem 2.3
A nonempty graph is a line graph if and only if its edge set can be partitioned
into a set of cliques with the property that any vertex lies in at most two
cliques.

Proof :
Suppose nonempty graph G is the line graph of some graph G, so that
G = L(G).

For any edge of G, there is a corresponding vertex v of G; say the degree

of v is k. Then in G there are k edges containing v and these edges are all
incident with each other, so that the corresponding k vertices of G = L(G)
are all adjacent to each other in G.

That is,these vertices form a clique of G of size k (where k is equal to

the degree of v).

So with every vertex of G, there is a corresponding clique in G = L(G)

and hence every edge of G = L(G) lies in at least one clique of G (namely,
the clique determined by the vertex corresponding to that edge); when G
has n vertices, G = L(G) has n cliques.

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 When the sum of the degree of vertices in G therefore the number of
edges of G = L(G) (by the definition of line graph).

Since this sum also equals the sum of the sizes of the cliques of G, as
observed above, then each edge of G = L(G) lies in atmost one of the
cliques.

Since, each edge of G = L(G) lies in at least one of the cliques, therefore
each edge of G = L(G) lies in exactly one of these cliques.

Theorem 2.4
Let G1 be a (p1 , q1 ) graph and G2 be a (p2 , q2 ) graph

i) G1 ∪ G2 is a (p1 + p2 , q1 + q2 ) graph

ii)G1 + G2 is a (p1 + p2 , q1 + q2 + p1 p2 ) graph

iii)G1 × G2 is a (p1 p2 , q1 p2 + q2 p1 ) graph

iv)G1 [G2 ] is a (p1 p2 , p1 q2 + p2 q1 )graph.

Proof :
i)Let G1 be a (p1 , q1 ) graph and G2 be a (p2 , q2 ) graph

Know that,

G1 ∪ G2 is a graph with vertex set

V = V1 ∪ V2 and E = E1 ∪ E2

Therefore |V1 ∪ V2 | = p1 + p2 and

|E1 ∪ E2 | = q1 + q2

Hence G1 ∪ G2 is a (p1 + p2 , q1 + q2 ) graph .

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ii) If G1 + G2 is a graph with vertex set V = V1 ∪ V2 .

Therefore, |V1 ∪ V2 | = p1 + p2 and

Number of lines in G1 + G2 = Number of lines in G1 ∪ G2 + Number of

lines joining points of V1 to points of V2 .

= q1 + q2 + p1 p2

Therefore G1 + G2 is a (p1 + p2 , q1 + q2 + p1 p2 ) graph .

iii)If G1 × G2 is a graph with vertex set V = V1 × V2 .

|V1 × V2 | = p1 p2

Also, the points (u1 , u2 ) and (v1 , v2 ) are adjacent if u1 = v1 and u2 is

adjacent to v2 in G2 or u1 is adjacent to v1 in G1 and u2 = v2 .

Therefore, deg(u1 , u2 ) = deg u2 + deg u1

(ie)deg(u1 , u2 ) = deg u1 + deg u2

.
1 Pp1 Pp2
The total number of lines in G1 × G2 = 2
[ i=1 j=1 deg (ui , uj )]

1 Pp1 Pp2
= 2
[ i=1 j=1 (deg ui + deg uj )]

1 Pp1 Pp2
= 2
[ i=1 j=1 deg ui ] +

1 Pp1 Pp2
2
[ i=1 j=1 deg uj ]

1
= 2
[p2 2q1 + p1 2q2 ]

= p2 q1 + p 1 q2

Thus G1 × G2 is a (p1 p2 , q1 p2 + q2 p1 ) graph .

23
iv) G1 [G2 ] is the graph with vertex set V1 × V2

Therefore |V1 × V2 | = p1 p2

Also,the points (u1 , u2 ) and (v1 , v2 ) are adjacent in G1 [G2 ]

if u1 is adjacent to v1 in G1 or( u1 = v1 and u2 is adjacent to v2 in G2 )

Therefore deg(u1 , u2 ) = degu2 + p2 deg u1

= p2 deg u1 + degu2
Pp1 Pp2
The total number of lines in G1 [G2 ]= 21 [ i=1 j=1 deg (ui , uj )]

1 Pp1 Pp2
= 2
[ i=1 j=1 (p2 deg ui +deguj )]

1 Pp1 Pp2
= 2
[ p2 i=1 j=1 deg ui ] +

1 Pp1 Pp2
2
[ i=1 j=1 deg uj ]

= 12 [p22 2q1 + p1 2q2 ]

= p22 q1 + p1 q2

Hence G1 [G2 ] is a (p1 p2 , p1 q2 + p2 q1 )graph.

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 CHAPTER III
Application of graph colouring in assignment
of lecture halls.
3.1 Eight courses are offered by a computer institude. With a X, the table
below displays which pairs of courses share one or more students. At one
time, only two lecture halls are available for usege. Determine the number
of times slots for students to attend classes without interfering with their
second course using graph colouring.

MS pr L 3-D ph T Co Dr CAD Et Cy
MS Tools X X X X
Programming Languages X X X X X
3-D Animations X X X
Photoshop Techniques X X X X
Corel Draw X X X X
Auto CAD X X X X
Ethical Hacking X X X X X
Cyber Law X X
Solution :

Take the courses to be the vertices V = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v7 , v8 }

corresponding to the courses MS Tools, Programming Languages, 3-D
Animations, Photoshop Techniques, Corel Draw, Auto CAD, Ethical
Hacking, Cyber Law respectively. The Simple Sequential Colouring
Algorithm.

Step :1
Let the vertices be,
Vertex Computer Courses
v1 MS Tools
v2 Programming Languages
v3 3-D Animations
v4 Photoshop Techniques
v5 Corel Draw
v6 Auto CAD
v7 Ethical Hacking
v8 Cyber Law

25
Step :2
Plotting the vertices in such a way that the courses enrolled by the students
does not make conflict.

Step :3
Start giving colouring on the vertices to find the minimum number of time
slots that can be allotted for the students.

(i) Plotting Red colour for the vertex V1 for the students who opted MS
Tools.

(ii) From MS Tools extending the edges to mark the students who opted
other courses in the pair of MS Tools.
The students who had taken MS Tools also taken, Programming,
Photoshop and Coral Draw and Auto CAD as their second course.
v1 , v2 , v4 , v5 and v6 are adjacent.

26
(iii) Moving on to the next step,join the vertices and give colouring for the
next pair of coureses.

This shows the students who took the course programming also
associated with MS Tools,3-D Animation, Photoshop, Ethical Hacking and
Cyber law.

From the vertex v2 , it connects to the vertices v1 , v3 , v4 , v7 and v8 .

(iv) From the vertex v3 , extend the edges to connect the courses to their
pairs.

This shows the students who opted for course 3-D Animation also
chooses MS Tools, Corel Draw and Cyber law as their second option.

So, from the vertex v3 the edges lines up to the vertices v1 , v5 and v8 .

27
(v) Now, moving further, from the vertex v4 stretches its edges towards, the
courses which has been paired with it.
This shows the students who opted for course Photoshop also chooses MS
Tools,Programming, Auto CAD, and Ethical Hacking as their second
option.
So, from the vertex v4 the courses connect towards to the vertices v1 , v2 , v6
and v7 .

28
(vi) Moving forward to the next step, the vertex v5 holds the vertices which
are all its corresponding pair courses.

The above graph describes that the students who chosen Corel Draw, in
addition they choose MS Tools, Programming, 3-D Animation, Auto CAD
as their next preference.

So from the vertex v5 the courses connect towards to the vertices

v1 , v2 , v3 and v6 .

(vii) Then, the next step is to take the vertex v6 extends its vertices to its
paired courses.

From the above graph, we come to know that the candidates who had
chosen Auto CAD, also chooses MS Tools, Photoshop, Corel Draw and
Ethical Hacking.

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(viii) The final step is to connect the last vertex v7 with its corresponding
vertices.Stepping forward to the next procedure, the vertex v7 , pairs with
the vertices v1 , v2 , v4 , v6 and v8 , corresponding to their courses.
The following graph insists that the course Ethical Hacking taken students
also taken MS Tools, Programming, Photoshop, Auto CAD and Cyber law
as their choices.
Now, we have connected all the vertices with their corresponding courses.

30
Step :4
To determine the minimum time slots for the courses, given that there will
be only two lecture halls available.

By grouping the colours, we can deduce the perfect time slots for the
courses without clashing with other courses at a time.

Time slot 1 : Red colour - v1 and v8 - MS Tools and Cyber Law.

Time slot 2 : Blue colour - v2 and v6 - Programming and Auto CAD.

Time slot 3 : Purble colour - v3 and v4 - 3D Animations and Photoshop.

Time slot 4 : Yellow colour - v5 and v7 - Corel Draw and Ethical

Hacking.

Hence, the Chromatic number Ψ(G) = 4 .

Therefore, the minimum time slots for the given eight courses are four. There
will be four classes will be held per day in two lecture classes which the courses
will not clash with each other.

31
 CONCLUSION
Vertex, edge and total colouring of line graphs were analyzed. The relation
between vertex, edge and total chromatic number of line graphs are given. It
is examined by a suitable example. It is proved that the line graph of a simple
graph G is a path if and only if G is a path and also G is a connected if and
only if of L(G) is connected it proved. It briefly explained the application
of vertex colouring of line graph is more effective to assign students schedule
for the lecture halls.

32
References
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[6] Brooks, R. L.”On colouring the nodes of network.”Proceedings of the

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[12] Rajagaspar, M., and Senthil, S. ”Applications of Graph Coloring Using
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[13] Shannon.”A theorem on colouring the lines of a network.”J. Math.

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