11th Grade

EARTH AND
LIFE SCIENCE
Colegio de Santa Ana
The Integumentary,
Skeletal, and Muscular
Systems
 IMPORTANT TERMS TO REMEMBER

❑ Skeleton – primary structure of the body

and protects the internal organs

❑ Muscles – allow movement and give shape

to the body

❑ Skin – outermost covering that encloses

the muscles; provides protection against
solar radiation, dirt, infection, physical
stress, and intense temperatures.
 INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

❑ Integument
- outer covering of the body of an
animal

- Skin and its derivatives such as hair,

scales, feathers, and horns.

- provides protection against abrasion

and puncture

- acts as a receptor and regulator of

various environmental parameters
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
- thin layer made up of ectodermally
derived stratified squamous
epithelium.

- thicker and derived from the

mesoderm of developing embryo
which is made up of dense
connective tissue layer containing
blood vessels, collagen fibers,
nerves, pigments, adipose cells, and
firoblasts.
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM (Hydrostatic Skeleton)

Coelom – body cavity filled with

fluid whose volume remains
constant
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM (Rigid Skeleton)
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM (Rigid Skeleton)
Notochord
-possessed by vertebrates before the development of
nervous system; made up of large vacuolated cells
surrounded by layers of elastic and fibrous sheaths.

- to maintain body shape during locomotion

 THE SKELETAL SYSTEM (Rigid Skeleton)
CARTILAGE
- soft, pliable tissue that can resist compression, which may be classified as hyaline, elastic, or
fibrous.

- most basic form of cartilage that has a clear, glassy appearance

- made of chondrocytes or cartilage cells that are surrounded by nonvascularized

protein-sugar gel with a network of collagen fibers

- forms the articulating surfaces of bone joints of most vertebrates and supports
important structures of the adult respiratory system such as trachea, larynx, and
bronchi
 THE SKELETAL SYSTEM (Rigid Skeleton)
CARTILAGE
- soft, pliable tissue that can resist compression, which may be classified as hyaline, elastic, or
fibrous.

- made of an elastic type of cartilaginous fibers

- contains collagenous fiber bundles in a herringbone pattern

 THE SKELETAL SYSTEM (Rigid Skeleton)
BONES
- connective tissue with significant deposits of inorganic calcium salts on an extracellular matrix of
collagenous fibers in a protein-sugar gel
 THE SKELETAL SYSTEM (Rigid Skeleton)
BONES
- connective tissue with significant deposits of inorganic calcium salts on an extracellular matrix of
collagenous fibers in a protein-sugar gel

OSTEOCYTES
- bone cells that are interconnected by small
passages known as canaliculi that allow
communication and distribution of nutrients
between osteocytes

LACUNAE and CANALICULI

- Collectively known as Haversian system or
osteon
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM (Vertebrate Skeleton)
AXIAL SKELETON – includes the skull, vertebral
column, and the sternum and ribs

❑ Vertebral Column – main stiffening axis of

the skeleton. It provides points for muscle
attachment and stiffness, which preserves
the body shape during muscle contraction.
o Cervical Vertebrae
o Thoracic Vertebrae
o Lumbar Vertebrae
o Sacral vertebrae

❑ Human – 33 vertebrae in young child, which

upon adulthood, are reduced to 5 vertebrae
fused o form the sacrum and 4 vertebrae
form the coccyx.
❑ There are 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM (Vertebrate Skeleton)

APPENDICULAR SKELETON – includes the

limbs and the pectoral and pelvic girdles.

Pelvic Girdle in almost all tetrapod animals

is firmly attached to the axial skeleton,
while the pectoral girdle is more loosely
attached.

Limbs- one of the jointed appendages of an

animal used for locomotion or grasping:
arm, leg, wing, flipper
 MUSCULAR SYSTEM

DID YOU KNOW THAT…

a human body has 600 muscles ?
THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM
AND HOMEOSTASIS
 EXCRETORY STRUCTURES OF INVERTEBRATES

CONTRACTILE VACUOLE – main organ for

water balance that expels excess water
acquired through osmosis.

NEPHRIDIUM – tubular structure used to help maintain

osmotic balance; most common type of invertebrate
excretory organ.

• Protonephridium – closed-system nephridium that

usually occupies most of the body (flatworms)

• Metanephridium – open-type nephridium found in

annelids and mollusks; open at both ends that allow
fluid to be swept in through the funnel-like
nephrostome
 EXCRETORY STRUCTURES OF INVERTEBRATES
Antennal glands – located in the ventral
part of the head and uses blood
hydrostatic pressure to form protein-free
filtrate (Crustaceans)

Malphigian tubules – urine is produced by

tubular secretion mechanisms by the cells
lining the tubules that contain hemolymph.
 EXCRETORY STRUCTURES OF INVERTEBRATES

Antennal glands – located in the ventral part of

the head and uses blood hydrostatic pressure to
form protein-free filtrate (Crustaceans)

Malphigian tubules – urine is produced by

tubular secretion mechanisms by the cells lining
the tubules that contain hemolymph.
 EXCRETORY STRUCTURES INVERTEBRATES
Archinephros – primitive form of kidney

Kidney – principal organ involved in

regulating the volume and composition of
the internal fluid environment of
vertebrates.

Nephron – basic functional unit of kidney;

filtration, reabsorption, and secretion

❑ 2 million nephrons located in pair of

kidneys
❑ Each nephron has a Bowman’s capsule,
which contains a tuft capillaries known
as the glomerulus.
 TEMPERATURE REGULATION

Enzymes have optimum temperatures, and A drastic increase from the optimum
when temperatures go above or below temperature can also be detrimental
these values, enzyme function is impaired. because enzymatic functions usually cease
or destroyed in very high temperature.

A drop in body temperature slows down Animals can usually survive between 0℃ to
metabolic functions, which reduces the 40℃
amount of energy produced by the cells.
THE CIRCULATORY AND
RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS
 INTERNAL BODY FLUIDS
Water Source Percent Contribution

Cell water 50% INVERTEBRATES CAN GENERALLY BE

Interstitial fluid 15% CATEGORIZED INTO THREE:

Blood plasma 5% 1. without a circulatory system;

TOTAL 70% 2. have open circulatory systems (with
hemolymph); and
3. have closed circulatory systems (blood
Plasma – exchange medium between cells contained in blood vessels)
and the environment and is aided by
specialized organs such as the lungs and
kidneys to perform its functions.
 INTERNAL BODY FLUIDS
Table. Blood content
Composition Percentage

Plasma 55%
1. water
2. Plasma proteins such as albumin (60%), globulin (35%), and
fibrinogen, glucose, amino acids, electrolytes, enzymes,
antibodies, hormones, metabolic waste, and traces of organic and
inorganic materials
3. dissolved gases: oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen
Formed elements 45%
1. red blood cells
2. white blood cells
3. cell fragments (platelets for mammals or thrombocytes in other
vertebrates)
 OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Hemocoel or blood sinus – replaces the

capillaries in animals with closed
systems such as in insects and other
arthropods and in mollusks.

Blastocoel – initial body cavity of an

embryo, and secondary coelomic cavities
through which blood freely circulates.
 CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Heart – pumps the blood by means of

alternating contractions, known as
systole, and relaxations (diastole)
 CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Heart – pumps the blood by means

of alternating contractions, known
as systole, and relaxations
(diastole)
 BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

Blood Pressure Category Systolic mmHg Diastolic mmHg

Normal Less than 120 Less than 80

Prehypertension 120-139 80-89

High blood pressure 140-159 90-99

(Hypertension) Stage 1
High blood pressure 160 or higher 100 or higher
(Hypertension) Stage 2
Hypertensive Crisis Higher than 180 Higher than 110
(Emergency care needed)
 RESPIRATION

Internal respiration – transfer of gas

between blood and cells

External respiration – exchange of

oxygen and carbon dioxide between
the organism and its environment
 RESPIRATION

Cutaneous respiration
- direct diffusion of gases
- Animals exceeding 1mm in diameter cannot be supported
 RESPIRATION

Cutaneous respiration
- direct diffusion of gases
- Animals exceeding 1mm in diameter cannot be supported