What is a Volcano?

A volcano has three external parts;

A volcano is an opening in a planet or moon’s
crust through which molten rock, hot gases, and
other materials erupt. Volcanoes often form a hill
or mountain as layers of rock and ash build-up from
repeated eruptions.
The Philippines is located along the Pacific Ring
of Fire; Therefore, it is home to many volcanoes.
According to the Philippine Institute of
Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS),
Philippine volcanoes can be classified as active or
inactive.
• Active volcanoes
Volcanoes that have had at least one
eruption during the past 10,000 years.
They are those that erupted recently and
still show regular activity like the emission
of gases, lava, and ash flows.
• Summit – the highest point or the apex of
the volcano. At the summit, you have an
opening called a vent.
A summit with an opening may be a crater
or a caldera. A crater is a funnel-shaped pit
at the top of a volcanic vent whereas a
caldera is a basin-shaped depression
formed when the volcanic cone collapses
due to the magma chamber below getting
empty of magma.
• Slope – the sides or flanks of a volcano that
radiate from the main or central vent.
• Base – the lower outer part of the volcano.

• Inactive volcanoes
Volcanoes that have not erupted for the last
10,000 years are not expected to erupt
again in a comparable time scale in the
future. There are no signs of volcanic
activity for a long period of time because
the magma supply is cut off. Also, the
physical form of the volcano has signs of
intensive weathering and erosion.

What happens inside a volcano?

1. Magma inside the volcano has a high
temperature. As the magma is continuously
heated, the magma rises.
2. As magma rises, gas bubbles are
developed. These gas bubbles are trapped
and expanded, causing the molten material
to swell, gradually increasing pressure
within the volcano.
3. When the pressure exceeds the strength of
the overlying rock, fracturing occurs.
4. The resulting fractures lead to a further
drop in confining pressure, which causes
more gas bubbles to form.
Magma – the molten rock that is present beneath
the surface of the Earth.
The structure of a volcano
Other geological features of a volcano;
• Magma Chamber – a region beneath the
vent of a volcano where molten rock or
magma is deposited or stored before an
eruption.
• Main Vent – the main opening or outlet on
the surface of a volcano that emits lava,
gases, ash, or other volcanic materials.
• Conduit – an underground central tube-
like or pipe-like structure of a volcano that
connects the magma chamber to the crater
through which the magma travels.

Lava may appear to be the primary material
ejected from a volcano, but broken rocks, lava
bombs, fine ash, and dust are also ejected.
Lava – The molten liquid that erupts from the
Earth’s surface.
• Side Vent – a smaller outlet through which
magma escapes.
• Ash and Gas clouds – mixtures of rock,
minerals, glass particles, and gases
expelled or pushed out of the volcano
during a volcanic eruption.
A volcano’s nature of eruption is influenced by the Types of Volcanic Eruptions
following factors that affect the magma’s viscosity;
• Phreatic/Hydrothermal
Viscosity – the property of the material’s A stream-driven eruption as the hot rocks
resistance to flow. come in contact with water. It is short lived,
characterized by ash columns but may be
• Temperature a beginning of a larger eruption.
Viscosity decreases with increasing
temperature of the magma. As lava flows
on the surface, it cools and then hardens,
its ability to flow decreases and eventually
stops.

• Chemical composition
Magma with higher silica content is more
viscous. The magma with lower silica is
relatively fluid and travels far before
solidifying.

• Gas content
Gas, such as water vapor, dissolved in
magma increases its ability to flow. Taal volcano exhibited a Phreatic eruption
Therefore, in near-surface environments, on January 12, 2020.
the loss of gases makes magma more
viscous. • Phreatomagmatic
A violent eruption due to contact between
Classification of Magma water and magma. A large column of very
fine ash and high-speed sideways
• Basaltic Magma emission of pyroclastic called base surges
Viscosity: Low are observed.
Temperature: 1000-1200°C
Gas Content: 1-2%
Silica Content: About 50%
Explosiveness: Least explosive
Location of formation:
Both oceanic and continental crust

• Andesitic Magma
Viscosity: Intermediate
Temperature: 900-1000°C
Gas Content: 3-4%
Silica Content: About 60%
Explosiveness: Intermediate Releasing of a dark phreatomagmatic plume in
Location of formation: Taal volcano last July 1, 2021.
Continental margins associated with
subduction zones • Strombolian
A periodic weak to violent eruption
• Rhyolitic Magma characterized by fountain lava.
Viscosity: High
Temperature: 750-900°C
Gas Content: 4-6%
Silica Content: About 70%
Explosiveness: Most explosive
Location of formation:
Continental crusts
 Different kinds of Volcanic Cones

• Shield volcanoes
Formed by the accumulation of non-
viscous lava that freely oozes out from the
volcano, therefore forming a broad, slightly
domed structure.

A strombolian-type eruption from Anak Krakatoa in

Indonesia last November 21, 2007.

• Vulcanian
Characterized by tall eruption columns that
reach up to 20 km high with pyroclastic flow
and ashfall tephra within a short period of The Mauna Loa volcano in Hawaii, USA is
time. a shield volcano.

• Cinder cones
Built from ejected lava fragments, having a
steep slope and a wide crater. The most
abundant cone shapes.

Redoubt Volcano in Lake Clark National Park and

Preserve, Alaska, USA experienced Vulcanian
eruptions in March 2009.

• Plinian The Smith Volcano, in the Babuyan

Excessively explosive type of eruption of Islands, is an example of a cinder cone
gas and pyroclastics. Plinian eruptions volcano.
reach up to 20-35 km.
• Composite cones
Also known as stratovolcanoes. Large,
nearly perfect sloped structures formed
from alternate solidification of both lava and
pyroclastic deposits.

The cataclysmic 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo

in the Philippines is an example of a Plinian
eruption.

The famous Mayon Volcano in Albay is a

stratovolcano.
Volcanic Hazards
A phenomenon arising from volcanic activity that
poses a potential threat to people and property.
During major explosive eruptions, large amounts of
volcanic gas, aerosol droplets, and ash are
injected into the stratosphere. Tephra or
fragmented volcanic debris are violently ejected
into the atmosphere and can extend tens of
kilometers above. Carbon dioxide, a greenhouse
gas, is also dispersed into the atmosphere which
leads to global warming. On the other hand, sulfur
dioxide can cause global cooling, ozone
destruction, and air pollution
Types of Volcanic Hazards
• Ash fall – pulverized rocks, sand, and gritty
and harsh glasses shoot out in the air by a
volcano.
• Mud flow – a mixture of water, molten
rocks, and debris flowing down from the
side of a volcano to the ground. It is also
called Lahar.
• Lava flow – streams of molten rocks and
other fragmented materials emitted by
erupting volcano.
• Pyroclastic flow – fast-moving hot
mixtures of gas, ash, and molten rocks
moving away from the volcano to the
ground.
Signs of an impending Volcanic Eruption
1. Increased frequency of volcanic quakes
with rumbling sounds; occurrence of
volcanic tremors;
2. Increased steaming activity; change in
color of steam emission from white to gray
due to entrained ash;
3. Crater glow due to the presence of magma
at or near the crater;
4. Ground swells, tilts, and produces fissures
due to magma intrusion;
5. Localized landslides, rockfalls, and
landslides from the summit area which are
not attributable to heavy rains;
6. Noticeable increase in the extent of drying
up of vegetation around the volcano’s
upper slopes;
7. Increase in the temperature of hot springs,
wells, and crater lake near the volcano;
8. Noticeable variation in the chemical
content of springs, and crater lakes within
the vicinity of the volcano;
9. Drying up of springs/wells around the
volcano;
10. Development of new thermal areas and/or
reactivation of old ones.
Precautionary Measures in an occurrence of a
Volcanic Eruption
BEFORE
• Know the facts about volcanoes in your
area like danger zones and the history of
eruptions.
• Know the location of the designated
evacuation site.
• Listen to the announcement of your
authorities.
• Stock clean and safe drinking water and
other food supplies.
DURING
• Stay inside your homes and keep doors
and windows closed.
• Secure your water and food supplies.
• Wear a mask, eye goggles, or face shield if
you need to go out.
• Do not go near the danger zones.
• Listen to the news via television or radio
devices.
• Obey the evacuation orders of the
authorities.
AFTER
• Assess the situation if it is safe to go out.
• Check the perimeter of your house for any
possible damage.
• Clean and remove the volcanic ashes in
the roof, gutters, and windows.
• Replace contaminated water and food
supplies.
• Stay updated on news and announcements
from your authorities.
Effects of known Philippine volcanic eruptions
on Philippine society
Past eruptions from Mt. Pinatubo in Pampanga,
Mayon Volcano in Albay, and the Musuan Volcano
in Bukidnon have caused loss of lives and
properties. The flowing of lava and ejected
pyroclastic materials in the air destroyed homes
and livelihoods.
Mt. Pinatubo’s eruption in 1991 caused a decrease
in the Earth’s surface temperature for almost two
years as strong winds during the eruption spread
aerosol particles from the plume around the world.
After its eruption, Mt. Pinatubo has become a
scenery and a tourist destination. Also, locals have
created earthenware out of the ashfall made from
the eruption.
The 1867 eruption of the Musuan Volcano and The following steps are followed to generate
several eruptions of the Mayon Volcano produced electricity in a geothermal power plant:
rich soils that boosted agriculture in these areas.

What is Geothermal Energy?

Geothermal energy is a type of renewable energy

taken from the Earth’s core. It comes from the heat
generated during the original formation of the
planet and the radioactive decay of materials. This
thermal energy is stored in rocks and fluids in the
center of the earth.

The Philippines is ranked second in the world’s

production of geothermal energy, with 14.4% of the
country’s power generation coming from it,
according to the Department of Energy. The
production of electricity from geothermal energy is
1. Wells are drilled deep into the earth to
cheaper than electricity produced using natural
pump steam or hot water to the surface.
gas, coal, and hydropower.
2. When the water reaches the surface, the
drop-in pressure causes the water to turn
Geothermal Systems
into steam.
3. The steam spins a turbine, which is
• Conventional Geothermal System connected to a generator that produces
This system utilizes steam from natural
electricity.
resources such as geysers or by drawing
4. Cooling tower cools the steam and
water from the hot, high-pressure depths of
condenses it back into the water.
Earth.
5. The cooled water is pumped back into the
earth to begin the process again.
• Supercritical Geothermal System
This system uses naturally occurring hot
• Geothermal Heat Pumps
water or steam flows heated by magma
Geothermal heat pumps circulate fluid
and circulating through permeable rock. In
through underground pipes, where they
volcanic geothermal energy, the heat
absorb heat. This heat is then extracted,
comes from supercritical. The energy from
compressed, and circulated throughout the
supercritical water is much higher than
home using its existing ductwork, warming
conventional steam.
it to whatever temperature you’ve set on
your thermostat.
There are two ways in generating geothermal
energy;
Hot Spring – a source of water that flows out with
a temperature higher than the average
• Geothermal Power Plants temperature of the neighboring areas.
Geothermal power plants generate
electricity by forcing hot steam or hot steam
from the earth’s interior through a turbine.
This electricity can be used to power, heat,
and cool homes, among other uses.

Geothermal power plants must be built over

sections of the earth’s crust that are thin enough to
allow heat to escape from the magma below.
These “hot spots” usually take the form of volcanic
or seismic activities, such as hot springs, geysers,
and volcanoes.

Tiwi Hot Spring

Fumarole – also known as steam vents, usually
found in volcanic regions. It is a hole in the ground
where vapors and gases come out.

Active fumaroles on Fourpeaked Mountain in

Katmai National Park, Alaska, USA (2006)

Geyser – a spring that occasionally shoots out hot

water and steam.

A geyser located in Yellowstone National Park,

Wyoming, USA.