Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer For Cable Structures-A Review

Review
Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer for Cable

Structures—A Review
Yue Liu *, Bernd Zwingmann and Mike Schlaich
Received: 21 September 2015 ; Accepted: 19 October 2015 ; Published: 22 October 2015
Academic Editors: Alper Ilki and Masoud Motavalli
Institute of Civil Engineering, Technische Universität Berlin, Gustav-Meyer-Allee 25, Berlin 13355, Germany;
bernd.zwingmann@tu-berlin.de (B.Z.); mike.schlaich@tu-berlin.de (M.S.)
* Correspondence: yue.liu@mailbox.tu-berlin.de; Tel.: +49-30-314-72135; Fax: +49-30-314-72132
Abstract: Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) is an advanced composite material with the
advantages of high strength, lightweight, no corrosion and excellent fatigue resistance. Therefore,
unidirectional CFRP has great potential for cables and to replace steel cables in cable structures.
However, CFRP is a typical orthotropic material and its strength and modulus perpendicular to
the fiber direction are much lower than those in the fiber direction, which brings a challenge
for anchoring CFRP cables. This paper presents an overview of application of CFRP cables in
cable structures, including historical review, state of the art and prospects for the future. After
introducing properties of carbon fibers, mechanical characteristics and structural forms of CFRP
cables, existing CFRP cable structures in the world (all of them are cable bridges) are reviewed.
Especially, their CFRP cable anchorages are presented in detail. New applications for CFRP cables,
i.e., cable roofs and cable facades, are also presented, including the introduction of a prototype
CFRP cable roof and the conceptual design of a novel structure—CFRP Continuous Band Winding
System. In addition, other challenges that impede widespread application of CFRP cable structures
are briefly introduced.
Keywords: fiber reinforced polymer; CFRP cable; cable structure; anchorage
1. Introduction
A cable structure can be defined as a structure in which a cable or a system of cables is used as
the visible and primary load bearing structural element [1].
The history of human built cable structures can be traced back to the Stone Age. At that time,
people utilized vines and creepers as cables to build hammocks [2] and suspension bridges [3].
In addition to cable structures built on land, cables have also been used in sailboats on the sea for
thousands of years [4].
The materials for cables have developed from vegetable fibers in ancient times to wrought iron
to high-strength steel today. Reviewing the history of cable structures, it can be found that the
development of cable materials can significantly promote the development of cable structures. This
development mainly reflects on two aspects, i.e., the span and the form of cable structures. For
example, the availability of high-strength steel cables allows the construction of long-span cable
structures like modern suspension bridges with spans of more than 1000 m; it also makes the
construction of cable structures with new forms become reality, such as cable roofs and cable facades.
Several typical modern cable structures with steel cables are shown in Figure 1.
Polymers 2015, 7, 2078–2099; doi:10.3390/polym7101501 www.mdpi.com/journal/polymers

Polymers 2015, 7, 2078–2099
Polymers 2015, 7, page–page
Figure 1. Typical modern cable structures with steel cables: (1) suspension bridge, Highway Bridge
Figure 1. Typical modern cable structures with steel cables: (1) suspension bridge, Highway Bridge
Khor al Batah, Oman (photo credit: STRABAG); (2) cable-stayed bridge, Evripos Bridge, Greece
Khor al Batah, Oman (photo credit: STRABAG); (2) cable-stayed bridge, Evripos Bridge, Greece
(photo credit: schlaich bergermann und partner); (3) cable truss roof, Annex Lutherhaus Roof,
(photo credit: schlaich bergermann und partner); (3) cable truss roof, Annex Lutherhaus Roof,
Germany
Germany (photo credit: Monika
(photo credit: Monika Nikolic);
Nikolic); (4)(4) cable
cable suspension
suspension roof,
roof, Glass
Glass Canopy
Canopy ofof Station
Station Plaza
Plaza
Heilbronn, Germany (photo credit: schlaich bergermann und partner); (5) cable net
Heilbronn, Germany (photo credit: schlaich bergermann und partner); (5) cable net facade, Facade facade, Facade
Airport
Airport Málaga,
Málaga, Spain
Spain (photo
(photo credit:
credit: Roschmann);
Roschmann); (6) (6) saddle-shaped
saddle-shaped cable
cable net,
net, Canopy
Canopy inin Autostadt
Autostadt
Wolfsburg,
Wolfsburg, Germany (photo credit: schlaich bergermann und partner); (7) cable net tower,
Germany (photo credit: schlaich bergermann und partner); (7) cable net tower, Dry
Dry
Cooling
Cooling Tower
Tower inin Schmehausen
Schmehausen nearnear Hamm,
Hamm, Germany
Germany (photo
(photo credit:
credit: schlaich
schlaich bergermann
bergermann und und
partner);
partner); (8)
(8) arch
arch tower
tower cable
cable supported
supported roof,
roof, Moses
Moses Mabhida
Mabhida Stadium,
Stadium, South
South Africa
Africa (photo
(photo credit:
credit:
schlaich bergermann und partner); and (9) spoked wheel cable roof, Bay Arena Leverkusen,
schlaich bergermann und partner); and (9) spoked wheel cable roof, Bay Arena Leverkusen, Germany Germany
(photo
(photo credit:
credit: Bayer
Bayer 0404 Leverkusen
Leverkusen Fußball GmbH).
Fußball GmbH).
Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) is an advanced non-metallic composite material made
Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) is an advanced non-metallic composite material made
of a polymer resin reinforced with carbon fibers [5]. It has many superior performances, such as high
of a polymer resin reinforced with carbon fibers [5]. It has many superior performances, such as high
strength, lightweight, no corrosion and high fatigue resistance. Thus, CFRP possess great potential
strength, lightweight, no corrosion and high fatigue resistance. Thus, CFRP possess great potential
to be made into cables and substitute for steel cables in cable structures, which may considerably
to be made into cables and substitute for steel cables in cable structures, which may considerably
promote their development.
promote their development.
In this paper, applying CFRP cables in cable structures is overviewed. First, characteristics of
In this paper, applying CFRP cables in cable structures is overviewed. First, characteristics of
carbon fibers and polymer matrices are introduced. Second, forms and mechanical properties of
carbon fibers and polymer matrices are introduced. Second, forms and mechanical properties of
CFRP cables are compared with those of a steel cable. Then, the existing CFRP cable structures
CFRP cables are compared with those of a steel cable. Then, the existing CFRP cable structures
worldwide are presented with photos and sketches, including their structural styles, geometries and
worldwide are presented with photos and sketches, including their structural styles, geometries and
design details; special attention is paid to the CFRP cable anchorages used in them. Furthermore, new
design details; special attention is paid to the CFRP cable anchorages used in them. Furthermore,
applications of CFRP in cable structures, i.e., CFRP cable roofs and CFRP cable facades, are also
new applications of CFRP in cable structures, i.e., CFRP cable roofs and CFRP cable facades, are
introduced. Last but not least, other challenges except the anchoring that prevent CFRP cables from
also introduced. Last but not least, other challenges except the anchoring that prevent CFRP cables
extensively using in cable structures, such as poor fire resistance and high unit price, are briefly
from extensively using in cable structures, such as poor fire resistance and high unit price, are briefly
introduced. Through the review of this paper, the state of the art and the future development of CFRP
introduced. Through the review of this paper, the state of the art and the future development of CFRP
cable structures are clearly shown.
cable structures are clearly shown.
2. Composition of CFRP
2. Composition of CFRP
As the name suggests, Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) is composed of carbon fibers
As the name suggests, Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) is composed of carbon fibers
embedded in a polymer resin [6], in which the carbon fibers function as the reinforcement material
embedded in a polymer resin [6], in which the carbon fibers function as the reinforcement material
and the polymer resin functions as the matrix to hold the fibers. The typical structure of CFRP can be
and the polymer resin functions as the matrix to hold the fibers. The typical structure of CFRP can be
illustrated as Figure 2.
illustrated as Figure 2.
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Polymers 2015, 7, 2078–2099
Figure
Figure 2.
2. Typical
Typical structure of Carbon
structure of Carbon Fiber
Fiber Reinforced
Reinforced Polymer
Polymer (CFRP).
(CFRP).
Figure 2. Typical structure of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP).
2.1. Carbon
2.1. Fibers
Carbon Fibers
Fibers
2.1. Carbon
Carbon fibers
Carbon fibers refer to
to fibers which
which contain at
at least 90
90 weight % % and up
up to 100
100 weight
weight %% carbon.
carbon.
Carbon fibers refer
refer to fibers
fibers which contain
contain at least
least 90 weight
weight % and and up to
to 100 weight % carbon.
They can
They can be
can be produced
be produced from
produced from polymeric
from polymeric precursor
polymeric precursor materials,
precursor materials, such
materials, such
such asas polyacrylonitrile
as polyacrylonitrile (PAN),
polyacrylonitrile (PAN), cellulose,
(PAN), cellulose,
cellulose,
They
pitch and
pitch and polyvinylchloride.
and polyvinylchloride. These precursors
These precursors are
precursors are converted
are converted into
converted into carbon
into carbon fibers
carbon fibers through
fibers through a series of
through aa series
series of
pitch polyvinylchloride. These of
treatment operations
treatment operations of heating
heating and tensioning
tensioning [7].
treatment operations of of heating and
and tensioning [7].
[7].
From a macro
From aa macro perspective,
macro perspective, carbon
perspective, carbon fibers
carbon fibers are very
fibers are
are very thin
thin filaments (about 5–10
filaments (about
(about 5–10 μm
µm inin diameter),
in diameter),
From very thin filaments 5–10 μm diameter),
which are
which are just
are just visible to the human eye. The size of a carbon fiber is compared with that of a human
which just visible
visible to
to the
the human
human eye. The size
eye. The size of
of aa carbon
carbon fiber
fiber is
is compared
compared with
with that
that of
of aa human
human
hair in
hair in Figure
Figure 3.3.
hair in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Carbon fiber compared with human hair (photo credit: Anton).
It is believed that the carbon fiber was invented by Thomas Edison as filaments for early light
It is believed that the carbon fiber was invented by Thomas Edison as filaments for early light
bulbsIt in 1879
is 1879 [8]. In the
believed middle of the twentieth Century, high performance carbon fibers began
bulbs in [8]. that
In thethemiddle
carbonof fiber
thewas invented
twentieth by Thomas
Century, high Edison as filaments
performance carbonfor earlybegan
fibers light
to be in
bulbs manufactured
1879 [8]. In [9]. middle
the After decades
of the of development,
twentieth Century, there
high are now a variety
performance carbon offibers
carbon fibers
began to
to be manufactured [9]. After decades of development, there are now a variety of carbon fibers
with
be different strengths
manufactured [9]. anddecades
After moduliofavailable on thethere
development, market.
are The mechanical
now a variety of properties
carbon of three
fibers with
with different strengths and moduli available on the market. The mechanical properties of three
types of strengths
different commonly and used carbon
moduli fibers arethelisted
available in Table 1, compared with two typical steel
types of commonly used carbon fiberson market.
are listed The mechanical
in Table 1, comparedproperties
with two of three types
typical of
steel
materials
commonly [10–12].
used carbon fibers are listed in Table 1, compared with two typical steel materials [10–12].
materials [10–12].
Table 1. Mechanical properties of carbon fibers compared with steel materials.
Table
Table 1. Mechanical properties of carbon fibers compared with steel materials.
materials.
Tensile Elastic Breaking
Density ρ Tensile Elastic Breaking
Material Density ρ Tensile Strength Elastic Modulus Breaking Length
Material typetype Density
3)ρ
Strength σu Modulus E Length σu/(ρg)
Material type (kg/m(kg/m
3) σStrength
u (GPa) σu Modulus
E (GPa) E Length σu/(ρg)
σu /(ρg) (km)
(kg/m )
3 (GPa) (GPa) (km)
Standard (GPa) (GPa) (km)
Standard 1760 1,760 3.533.53 230
230 205
205
Carbon fiber Standard
High strength 1,760 3.53 230 205
Carbon fiber High strength 1820 1,820 7.067.06 294
294 396
396
Carbon fiber High modulus
High strength 1,820 7.06 294 396
High modulus 1870 1,870 3.453.45 441
441 188
188
HighS355
modulus 1,870 3.45 441 188
Steel S355 7850 7,850 0.500.50 210
210 66
Steel S355 7,850 0.50 210 6
Steel Wire Wire 7850 7,850 1.771.77 210
210 2323
Wire 7,850 1.77 210 23
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3
3
Polymers 2015, 7, 2078–2099
As
As shown
shown inin Table
Table 1,
1, the
the tensile
tensile strengths
strengths of of all
all carbon
carbon fibers
fibers are
are higher
higher than
than those
those of
of steel
steel
materials,
materials, while their densities are much lower. The breaking length is a good parameter to show
while their densities are much lower. The breaking length is a good parameter to show
the
the high
high strength
strength and
and lightweight
lightweight characteristics
characteristics of of certain
certain materials.
materials. ItIt is
is defined
defined as
as the
the maximum
maximum
length of a hanging bar that could suspend its own weight and can be calculated by
length of a hanging bar that could suspend its own weight and can be calculated by σu /(ρg), where σ u/(ρg), where g
is the
g is standard
the standardgravity
gravityconstant
constantofof9.8
9.8m/s
m/s. 2As
2
. Ascan
canbebeseen
seenfrom
fromthe
thetable,
table,the
thebreaking
breaking lengths
lengths ofof
carbon fibers are one order of magnitude larger than those of steel
carbon fibers are one order of magnitude larger than those of steel materials. materials.
2.2.
2.2. Polymer
Polymer Resins
Resins
The
The polymer
polymer resins
resins for
for CFRP
CFRP are are ofof two
two main
main types,
types, namely,
namely, thermoplastic
thermoplastic resin
resin and
and
thermosetting resin. This classification of polymers is based on their thermal
thermosetting resin. This classification of polymers is based on their thermal (thermo-mechanical)(thermo-mechanical)
response
response [13].
[13].
Although
Although thermoplastic
thermoplastic andand thermosetting
thermosetting resins
resins sound
sound similar,
similar, they
they have
have different
different molecular
molecular
structures and thus having very different properties.
structures and thus having very different properties.
Thermoplastic
Thermoplastic resins
resins are
are polymers
polymers linked
linked bybyintermolecular
intermolecularinteractions
interactionsor orvan
vander
derWaals
Waals forces,
forces,
forming
forming a linear or branched molecular structure. This linear or branched molecular structure can
a linear or branched molecular structure. This linear or branched molecular structure can
only
only provide
provide aa relatively
relatively small
small restriction
restriction for
for the
the motion
motion of of molecular
molecular chains,
chains, which
which makes
makes the
the
thermoplastics remeltable and tractable upon the application of heat and pressure
thermoplastics remeltable and tractable upon the application of heat and pressure after curing [14]. after curing [14].
However,
However, thermosetting
thermosetting resins
resins areare polymers
polymers joined
joined together
together by by chemical
chemical bonds,
bonds, forming
forming aa
highly
highly cross-linked
cross-linked molecular
molecularstructure.
structure.ThisThiscross-linked
cross-linked structure
structure can greatly
can restrict
greatly thethe
restrict motion
motionof
molecular
of molecular chains, which makes the thermosets unmeltable and intractable upon the application of
chains, which makes the thermosets unmeltable and intractable upon the application of
heat
heat after
after curing
curing [14].
[14].
The
The molecular
molecular structures
structures of
of these
these two
two polymer
polymer resins
resins are illustrated in
are illustrated in Figure
Figure 44 [13].
[13].
Figure
Figure 4. Molecularstructures
4. Molecular structures of
of thermoplastic
thermoplastic resins
resins and
and thermosetting
thermosetting resins.
resins.
The
The mechanical
mechanical properties
properties of
of several
several commonly
commonly used
used polymer
polymerresins
resinsare
arelisted
listedin
inTable
Table 22 [10,15].
[10,15].
Table 2. Mechanical properties of commonly used polymer resins.
Table 2. Mechanical properties of commonly used polymer resins.
Tensile Elastic
Type Density ρDensityTensile
ρ Strength
Strength σu Elastic ModulusE
Type NameName Modulus
(kg/m3 ) (kg/m3) σu (GPa) E (GPa)
(GPa) (GPa)
Polyethersulfone
Polyethersulfone 1370 1,370 0.084 0.084 2.4 2.4
Thermoplastic Polyetherether ketone 1310 0.070 3.8
Thermoplastic Polyetherether ketone 1,310 0.070 3.8
Polyetherimide 1270 0.105 3.0
Polyetherimide
Orthophthalic polyester 1350 1,270 0.070 0.105 3.2 3.0
Thermosetting Orthophthalic
Vinylester polyester 1250 1,350 0.075 0.070 3.3 3.2
Thermosetting Vinylester
Epoxy 1250 1,250 0.115 0.075 3.0 3.3
Epoxy 1,250 0.115 3.0
Comparing Tables 1 and 2 it can be seen that the densities of polymer resins are slightly smaller
Comparing Tables 1 and 2, it can be seen that the densities of polymer resins are slightly smaller
than those of carbon fibers, while the strengths and moduli of carbon fibers are orders of magnitude
than those of carbon fibers, while the strengths and moduli of carbon fibers are orders of magnitude
greater than those of polymer resins. However, due to the filamentary nature of carbon fibers, they
greater than those of polymer resins. However, due to the filamentary nature of carbon fibers, they
2081
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Polymers 2015, 7, 2078–2099
cannot
cannot be beapplied
appliedasasindependent
independent engineering materials
engineering and and
materials havehave
to be to
used
be inused
the synergistic fashion
in the synergistic
with a polymer resin to realize their superior mechanical properties.
fashion with a polymer resin to realize their superior mechanical properties.
The
The differences
differences of
of strength
strength andand modulus
modulus between
between the
the carbon
carbon fiber
fiber and
and the polymer resin
the polymer resin make
make
CFRP a typical orthotropic material. In the fiber direction, CFRP mainly exhibits
CFRP a typical orthotropic material. In the fiber direction, CFRP mainly exhibits the mechanical the mechanical
properties
properties of of the
the carbon fiber, i.e.,
carbon fiber, i.e., relatively
relatively high
high strength
strength and
and high
high modulus.
modulus. ButBut in
in the
the direction
direction
perpendicular
perpendicular to to the
the fiber
fiber axis,
axis, CFRP
CFRP mainly
mainly exhibits
exhibits the mechanical properties
the mechanical properties of
of the polymer resin,
the polymer resin,
i.e.,
i.e., relatively low strength and low modulus. This strong orthotropy causes CFRP cables difficult to
relatively low strength and low modulus. This strong orthotropy causes CFRP cables difficult to
be
be anchored.
anchored.
3. CFRP Cables
3. CFRP Cables
CFRP was first manufactured and used in aeronautics and astronautics industries about 50 years
CFRP was first manufactured and used in aeronautics and astronautics industries about
ago, shortly after the invention of high performance carbon fibers [16]. In the construction industry,
50 years ago, shortly after the invention of high performance carbon fibers [16]. In the construction
the first practical utilization of CFRP was in 1991 for strengthening the Ibach Bridge in Lucerne,
industry, the first practical utilization of CFRP was in 1991 for strengthening the Ibach Bridge in
Switzerland [8]. From then on, more and more CFRP products were used, not only in strengthening,
Lucerne, Switzerland [8]. From then on, more and more CFRP products were used, not only in
repairing, reinforcing, pre-stressing, but also as cables in cable structures.
strengthening, repairing, reinforcing, pre-stressing, but also as cables in cable structures.
Usually, unidirectional CFRP materials are used to manufacture CFRP cables. The mechanical
Usually, unidirectional CFRP materials are used to manufacture CFRP cables. The mechanical
properties along the fiber direction of CFRPs, such as the tensile strength σu and the elastic modulus E,
properties along the fiber direction of CFRPs, such as the tensile strength σu and the elastic modulus
are usually approximately 60% of those of the carbon fibers because the fiber volume fraction is
E, are usually approximately 60% of those of the carbon fibers because the fiber volume fraction is
usually 60%. It should also be noted that σu and E of CFRP cables are slightly smaller than those
usually 60%. It should also be noted that σu and E of CFRP cables are slightly smaller than those of
of the corresponding CFRP; this is similar to the fact that σu and E of steel cables are slightly smaller
the corresponding CFRP; this is similar to the fact that σu and E of steel cables are slightly smaller
than those of steel wires.
than those of steel wires.
According to the different structural forms, the existing CFRP cables can be classified into four
According to the different structural forms, the existing CFRP cables can be classified into four
main types, which are shown in Figure 5.
main types, which are shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5. Four main types of CFRP cables: (a) the CFRP cable in the form of lamella, which can be
Figure 5. Four main types of CFRP cables: (a) the CFRP cable in the form of lamella, which can
fabricated by pultrusion or lamination; (b) the CFRP cable in the form of rod, which is usually
be fabricated by pultrusion or lamination; (b) the CFRP cable in the form of rod, which is usually
fabricated by pultrusion; such CFRP cable can be made up of a single rod or a rod bundle, and the
fabricated by pultrusion; such CFRP cable can be made up of a single rod or a rod bundle, and the
CFRP rod can be plain round or deformed; (c) the CFRP cable in the form of strip-loop, which is
CFRP rod can be plain round or deformed; (c) the CFRP cable in the form of strip-loop, which is
fabricated by winding a continuous CFRP strip on two pins; then the strip-loop can choose to be
fabricated by winding a continuous CFRP strip on two pins; then the strip-loop can choose to be
laminated or non-laminated; and (d) the CFRP cable in the form of wire-strand which is fabricated by
laminated or non-laminated; and (d) the CFRP cable in the form of wire-strand which is fabricated by
twisting several CFRP wires into a helix. The CFRP wires used are usually produced by pullwinding.
twisting several CFRP wires into a helix. The CFRP wires used are usually produced by pullwinding.
The mechanical properties of four CFRP cables in different forms are compared with those of
The mechanical
a steel full-locked coilproperties of four
rope in Table CFRP cables in different forms are compared with those of a
3 [14,17–20].
steel The
full-locked coil rope in Table 3 [14,17–20].
above four CFRP cables are all made from standard carbon fibers (see Table 1) with an
The above
approximate 60%four CFRP
fiber cablesThe
volume. aresteel
all made from standard
full-locked coil rope carbon fibers (see
is a commonly Table
used 1) with
cable type an
in
approximate 60% fiber volume. The steel full-locked coil rope is a commonly used
modern cable structures. As seen from Table 3, the tensile strengths of CFRP cables are higher than cable type in
modern cable
that of steel structures.
cable As seen
while their fromare
densities Table 3,approximately
only the tensile strengths of CFRP
1/5 of the cables are
steel cable’s higher than
density.
that of steel cable while their densities are only approximately 1/5 of the steel cable’s density.
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Tensile Elastic
Polymers 2015, 7, page–page Density ρ
Cable Name Structural Form Description strength
Tensile σu Modulus
Elastic E
Polymers 2015, 7, 2078–2099 (kg/m )ρ
3
Polymers 2015, 7, page–page Density (GPa) (GPa) E
Cable Name TableStructural Formproperties Description
3. Mechanical of CFRP cables compared with strength σu
3) steel cable.
Modulus
(kg/m Tensile Elastic
Density ρ (GPa) (GPa)
Cable Name Table 3. Mechanical
Structural Form properties
Pultruded of CFRP
DescriptionCFRP cables compared with steelσucable. Modulus
strength E
DPP CFRP lamella Table 3. Mechanical properties of CFRP cables compared with
1,600
(kg/m 3) steel cable. 2.5 140
lamella Tensile(GPa) Elastic (GPa)
Table 3. Mechanical properties Pultruded of CFRP
CFRP cables
Densitycompared
ρ with steel cable.
DPP CFRP
Cablelamella
Name Structural Form Description 1,600 strength σu2.5 Modulus E 140
lamella (kg/m3) Tensile Tensile Elastic Elastic
Pultruded CFRP DensityDensity ρ (GPa)
ρ Tensile (GPa)
DPP CFRP
Cable
Cable lamella
Name
Name Structural
Structural Form
Form Description
Description
Non-laminated 1,600 strength
Density ρ 2.5 strength
σustrength
Modulus
σ 140
u EElastic Modulus
Modulus E
Cable
EMPADPP CFRPName
CFRP
strip- Structural Form lamella
Description
Pultruded CFRP (kg/m ) (kg/m
3 3)
1,6001,500(kg/m (GPa)2.5 σu (GPa) 140
(GPa) E (GPa)
lamella looped
lamella CFRP
Non-laminated 2.0 (GPa) 120 (GPa)
EMPADPP loop
CFRP strip-
CFRP Pultrudedthin CFRP
strip
DPP DPP
CFRP CFRP
lamella Pultruded
looped
Pultruded CFRPCFRP
CFRP
Non-laminated
1,6001,500 1600 2.5
lamella 2.0 2.5 140 120 140
loop
lamella lamella 1,600 2.5 140
EMPAlamella
CFRP strip- thinlamella
strip
Non-laminated
looped CFRP
Non-laminated 1,500 2.0 120
EMPA CFRP
loop CFRP
EMPA
EMPA CFRP
strip-loop
Non-laminated
looped CFRP
thin
Non-laminated
looped CFRP 1,500
strip looped1,500 1500 2.0
2.0
2.0 120
120
120
EMPA CFRP
strip-loop
strip-loop Parallel
thin stripCFRP
CFRP thin strip
Mitsubishi Leadline thinlooped
strip CFRP 1,500
1,600 2.3 2.0 147 120
strip-loop deformed
Parallel rods
CFRP
Mitsubishi Leadline
Mitsubishi Parallel thin
CFRP strip 1,600 2.3 147
deformed rods 1,600 2.3 147
Leadline Parallel
deformed CFRP
rods
Mitsubishi
Mitsubishi
Mitsubishi Leadline
MitsubishiLeadline Parallel
Parallel CFRP
CFRP deformed
Parallel CFRP rods 1,600 1600 2.3 2.3 147 147
deformed rods 1,600 1,600 2.3 2.3 147 147
Leadline deformed rods
Leadline
Tokyo Rope Twisted
deformed
TwistedCFRP CFRPround
rods
Tokyo Rope CFCC 1,5001,500 2.1 2.1 137 137
TokyoCFCC Rope roundwires
Twisted
Twisted wires
CFRPround
CFRP
Tokyo
Tokyo
TokyoRope CFCC
RopeRope
CFCC Twisted CFRP round
Twisted 1,5001,500 1500 2.1
CFRPwires 2.1 2.1 137 137 137
CFCC round wires
wires
TwistedCFRP
Twisted steel round 1,500 2.1 137
CFCC
Steel full-locked
Tokyo Rope CFCC round wires 1,500 2.1 137
roundwires
Twisted and
steel 7,850 1.5 160
Steelcoil rope
full-locked Twisted
z-profile steel
wiresround 7,850
round and
Twisted 1.5 160
Steel full-locked
Steel ropecoil
full-locked
coil Twisted steelsteel
round
Steelcoil
full-locked z-profile
Twisted and
wiresround
steel 7,850 7850 1.5 1.5 160 160
roperope and z-profile
round wires
and 7,850 1.5 160
Steel full-locked coil z-profile
coil rope
In addition to high strengths and low weights, andwires
CFRP cables 7,850 have better corrosion 1.5 and fatigue160
rope Twistedz-profile wires
steel round
Steel full-locked
resistance and
In addition coil
lower thermal
to high expansion
strengths than
and low steel cables.
z-profile
weights, wires Furthermore, because carbon and fibers have
and CFRP cables 7,850 have better corrosion
1.5 fatigue160
rope creep
excellent
resistance resistance,
and lower thermalthe expansion
stress relaxation
than of
steelCFRP
cables.cables is very
Furthermore, small and
because there
carbon is no need
fibers to
have
z-profile wires
In sustained
In
limit addition
addition
excellent to high
to
creep tensile high strengths
strengths
stresses
resistance, and low
and
[10]. relaxation
the stress lowofweights,
weights, CFRP
CFRP cables cables
is very small have
and better corrosion
there is corrosion
no need to andand fatigue
fatigue
resistance
limitAside
resistance and
and
sustained lower
thelower
tensile thermal
advantages
thermal
stresses expansion
mentioned
expansion
[10]. above,than
thanCFRPsteel
steel cables.
cables also Furthermore,
cables. have some disadvantages;
because carbon fibers have
these fibers have
include
excellent
excellent Asidelower
creep
creep elastic
theresistance, modulus
advantages
resistance, the
the than
mentioned
stress
stress that of steel
above,
relaxation
relaxation cables
CFRP of (see Table
ofcables
CFRP
CFRP also
cables
cables 3), is
have difficult
issome
very to be anchored
verydisadvantages;
small
small and there
and and
these
there is no
is no need
need to
to
relatively
include high elastic
lower cost, which may than
modulus have that
negative
of effects
steel on the
cables (seeapplication
Table 3), of CFRPto
difficult cables.
be anchored and
limit sustained
limit sustained tensile tensile stresses
stresses [10].
[10].
relatively high cost, which may have negative effects on the application of CFRP cables.
Aside
Aside the
the advantages
advantages
4. Existing CFRP Cable Structures mentioned
mentioned above, CFRP
above, CFRP cables
cables alsoalso havehave somesome disadvantages;
disadvantages; these these
include
include lower
lower elastic
elastic
4. Existing CFRP Cable Structures modulus
modulus than
than that
that of steel cables (see Table
Table 3),
3), difficult
difficult to
to be
be anchored
anchored and
and
Due to the aforementioned high performance, CFRP has been considered for cables and used in
relatively
relatively
cableDue high cost,
high
structures cost, which
which may
may haveProfessor
have negative
negative effects
effects onthe
on the application
application ofCFRP
of CFRP cables.
ofcables.
to the since 1982 [21].
aforementioned Inhigh
1987,
performance, Meier
CFRP of has
EMPAbeen proposed
considered the conception
for cables and building
used in
acable
CFRP cable-stayed
structures sincebridge withIna1987,
1982 [21]. mainProfessor
span of 8400 m crossing
Meier of EMPAthe Strait ofthe
proposed Gibraltar [22]. of building
conception
4. Existing
4. Existing
a CFRP
CFRP
CFRP Cable
use Cable
Thecable-stayed
first of CFRP
bridge
Structures
Structures
cables
with ain a real
main cable
span structure
of 8400 dates back
m crossing to 1996
the Strait [23]. From
of Gibraltar then to now,
[22].
there
Due have
The first been
theuse ten
of CFRP cable structures
cables inhigh over the
a realperformance, world,
cable structure dateseven though
back
hasto all of
1996 [23].them were
From then built
to more
now,
Due to to the aforementioned
aforementioned high performance, CFRP
CFRP has been
been considered
considered forfor cables
cables andand used
used in
or lesshave
there experimentally.
been ten CFRP Thecable
existing CFRP cable
structures over structures
the world,are listed
even and all
though introduced as follows.
of them were built more
in cable
cable structures
structures since since
1982 1982
[21]. [21].
In In Professor
1987, 1987, Professor
Meier Meier
of EMPA of proposed
EMPA proposed the the conception
conception of of
building
or less experimentally. The existing CFRP cable structures are listed and introduced as follows.
building
a CFRP a CFRP FRP cable-stayed
cable-stayed
4.1. Tsukuba bridge with
Bridge bridgea mainwith a main
span span
of 8400 m of 8400 mthe
crossing crossing
Strait ofthe Strait of[22].
Gibraltar Gibraltar [22].
The
4.1.
The first
Tsukuba
Thefirst
use
FRPof
use
Tsukuba of CFRP
Bridge
FRPCFRP cables
cables
Bridge, to the
in aa real
real cable
in author’s cable structure
structure
knowledge, is the
dates
dates back
first back
CFRP to
to 1996
1996
cable
[23].
[23]. From
structure From then to now,
in thethen to now,
there
there have
have
world. been
been ten
ten
Moreover,
The Tsukuba isCFRP
itFRPCFRP
also a cable
cable
full
Bridge, to structures
FRPstructures
structure.
the over
over
author’sThis the
the world,
world,
structure,
knowledge, the even
even
islocated though
though
in Ibaraki,
first CFRP all of them
allstructure
Japan,
cable of them
was inwere
the built
were
designed built more
more
or less
by experimentally.
Public
or world. Works Research
less experimentally. The
The
Moreover, it is also existing
Institute
existing
a full in CFRP
Tsukuba cable
and
CFRP cable
FRP structure. structures
completed
structures
This structure, inare listed
March and
1996.
areinlisted
located The
and
Ibaraki, introduced
photo and
introduced
Japan, as follows.
sketch
as follows.
was designed
of
byTsukuba FRP Bridge
Public Works areInstitute
Research shown ininFigure 6 [23].
Tsukuba and completed in March 1996. The photo and sketch
4.1.
4.1.ofTsukuba
TsukubaFRP
Tsukuba FRP Bridge
FRP Bridge
Bridgeare shown in Figure 6 [23].
The
The Tsukuba
Tsukuba FRP
FRP Bridge,
Bridge, to
to the
the author’s
author’s knowledge,
knowledge, isis the
the first
first CFRP
CFRP cable
cable structure
structure in
in the
the
world. Moreover, it is also a full FRP structure. This structure, located in Ibaraki, Japan, was designed
world. Moreover, it is also a full FRP structure. This structure, located in Ibaraki, Japan, was designed
by
by Public
Public Works
Works Research
Research Institute
Institute in
in Tsukuba
Tsukubaandandcompleted
completedin inMarch
March1996.
1996. The
The photo
photo and
and sketch
sketch
of Tsukuba FRP Bridge are shown in Figure
of Tsukuba FRP Bridge are shown in Figure 6 [23].6 [23].
Figure 6. Tsukuba FRP Bridge, (a) photo (photo credit: Iwao Sasaki) and (b) sketch.
6
6
6
2083
Polymers 2015,
Polymers
Polymers 2015, 7,
2015, 7, 2078–2099
7, page–page
page–page
The Tsukuba Bridge is a pedestrian cable-stayed bridge with three spans (see Figure 6). The main
The Tsukuba
The Tsukuba Bridge
Bridge is is aa pedestrian
pedestrian cable-stayed
cable-stayed bridge
bridge with
with three
three spans
spans (see
(see Figure
Figure 6).
6). The
The main
main
spanThe
between
Tsukubapylons
Bridgeis 11.0
is a m, while two
pedestrian side spansbridge
cable-stayed are 4.5 m. three
with In thisspans
bridge,
(seethe pylons
Figure 6). are made
The main
span between
span between pylons
pylons isis 11.0
11.0 m, m, while
while two
two side
side spans
spans are
are 4.5
4.5 m.
m. In
In this
this bridge,
bridge, the
the pylons
pylons are
are made
made
of GFRP,
span the deck
between pylonsis is
a 11.0
GFRP m,profile strengthened
while two side spansby areCFRP
4.5 m.lamellas and allthe
In this bridge, thepylons
24 stay
arecables
madeareof
of
of GFRP,
GFRP, the deck
the deck is a GFRP
is a GFRPtwo profile
profile strengthened
strengthened by CFRP
by CFRP lamellas
lamellas and
and all the 24
all thewhich stay
24 stay cables
cables are
are
made
GFRP, of CFRP.
theCFRP. Specifically,
deck is a GFRP profile types of CFRP
strengthened cables were used in this bridge, are indented
made of
made of CFRP. Specifically,
Specifically, two types
two types of CFRPby
of CFRP CFRPwere
cables
cables
lamellas
wereCFCCusedand
used
all the
in this
in this 24 stay
bridge,
bridge, which
which
cables
are are made
indented
Leadline
of CFRP. rods from
Specifically, Mitsubishi
two types Chemical
of CFRP Company
cables were and
used in this 7-wire
bridge, tendons
which are from are
indented
indented
Tokyo Rope
Leadline
Leadline rods
Leadline rods from
from Mitsubishi
Mitsubishi Chemical
Chemical Company
Company and and CFCC
CFCC 7-wire
7-wire tendons
tendons from
from Tokyo
Tokyo Rope
Rope
Manufacturing
rods Co., Chemical
from Mitsubishi Ltd. (Tokyo, Japan).and
Company A CFCC
tailor-made
7-wireanchorage
tendons from composed
Tokyo Ropeof CFRP pipe and
Manufacturing
Manufacturing
Manufacturing Co.,
Co., Ltd.
Ltd. (Tokyo, Japan).
(Tokyo,toJapan). A tailor-made
Athese
tailor-made anchorage
anchorage composed
composed of CFRP
ofofCFRP pipe and
pipe and
expansive
Co., Ltd. mortar
(Tokyo, was
Japan). designed
A tailor-madeanchor
anchorage CFRP stay
composed cables.
of CFRP The
pipediagrams
and thismortar
expansive anchorage
was
expansive mortar
expansive mortar was
was designed
designed to to anchor
anchor these
these CFRP
CFRP stay
stay cables.
cables. The
The diagrams
diagrams of of this
this anchorage
anchorage
are showntoin
designed Figurethese
anchor 7 [23].
CFRP stay cables. The diagrams of this anchorage are shown in Figure 7 [23].
are shown in Figure 7 [23].
are shown in Figure 7 [23].
Figure 7. Anchorage system used in Tsukuba FRP Bridge, (a) full view and (b) transparent view.
Figure 7.
Figure 7.
Figure Anchorage system
Anchorage system
7. Anchorage used
system used in
used in Tsukuba
in Tsukuba FRP Bridge,
Tsukuba FRP Bridge, (a)
(a) full
full view
view and
and (b)
(b) transparent
transparent view.
view.
view.
The CFRP cable shown in the above figure is the indented Leadline rod. The anchorage for
The CFRP
The CFRP cable
cable shown
shown in in the
the above
above figure
figure isis the
the indented
indented Leadline
Leadline rod.
rod. The
The anchorage
anchorage for for
The CFRP
the CFCC 7-wirecable shown
tendon is in the above
exactly figure In
the same. is the
thisindented
anchorage Leadline
system,rod. The anchorage
a CFRP pipe is usedfor the
as
the
the CFCC
CFCC 7-wire
7-wire tendon
tendon is exactly
is exactly the same.
themortar
same. In this
In adopted anchorage
this anchorage system, a CFRP pipe is used as
CFCC 7-wire
the anchorage tendon
socket isand
exactly
an the same.
expansive In this anchorage
is system, a system,
CFRP
to generate a is
pipe
enough CFRP
used pipe
bond as theisanchorage
force toused
anchoras
the anchorage
the anchorage socket
socket andand anan expansive
expansive mortar
mortar isis adopted
adopted to to generate enough
enough bondbond force
force to
to anchor
anchor
socket
the CFRPandcable.
an expansive mortar is adopted to generate enoughgenerate
bond force to anchor the CFRP cable.
the CFRP cable.
the CFRP cable.
4.2.
4.2. Stork
Stork Bridge
Bridge
4.2. Stork
4.2. Stork Bridge
Bridge
The
The Stork Bridge
Stork Bridge is is the
the first
first highway
highway cable-stayed
cable-stayed bridge
bridge with
with CFRP
CFRP cables
cables in
in the
the world.
world. This
This
The Stork Bridge
Bridge is the
the first
firstSwitzerland,
highway cable-stayed
cable-stayed bridge with
with CFRP cables in the
the world. This
bridge is located in Winterthur, Switzerland, and was designed by OMG and Partner ArchitectsThis
bridgeTheis Stork
located in is
Winterthur, highway and was bridge
designed by CFRP
OMG andcables in
Partner world.
Architects AG
AG
bridge
bridge
and is
is
Höltschilocated
located
& in
in Winterthur,
Winterthur,
Schurter AG. Switzerland,
Switzerland,
After one and a and
and
halfwas
was designed
designed
years of by
by OMG
OMG
construction, and
and
this Partner
Partner
bridge Architects
Architects
was completedAG
AG
and Höltschi & Schurter AG. After one and a half years of construction, this bridge was completed
and Höltschi & Schurter AG. After one and a half years of construction, this bridge was completed
and Höltschi
and opened
opened to & Schurter
to traffic onAG.
traffic on 27 After
27 October
Octoberone1996.
and aThe
1996. halfphoto
The years of
photo and
andconstruction,
sketch of
sketch this bridge
of Stork
Stork Bridgewas
Bridge arecompleted
are shown
shown in in
and opened
and
Figureopened
8 [24]. to traffic
to traffic on
on 2727 October
October 1996.
1996. The
The photo
photo andand sketch
sketch of
of Stork
Stork Bridge
Bridge areare shown
shown in in
Figure 8 [24].
Figure 88 [24].
Figure [24].
Figure 8. Stork Bridge, (a) photo (photo credit: EMPA) and (b) sketch.
Figure 8.
Figure Stork Bridge,
8. Stork Bridge, (a)
(a) photo
photo (photo
(photo credit:
credit: EMPA)
EMPA) and
credit: EMPA) and (b)
and (b) sketch.
(b) sketch.
sketch.
The Stork Bridge is a single pylon cable stayed bridge with double cable planes (see
The Stork
StorkBridge
Bridgeis isaissingle
aa single
single pylon cable stayed bridge with cable
double cable planes (see
Figure 8).Stork
The It has Bridge
24 stay cables. pylon
Two of cable
pylon stayed
themcable
are CFRPbridge
stayed with
bridge
cables, double
with
while areplanes
double
others cable
normal (see Figure
planes
steel 8).
(see
cables.
Figure
It has
Figure 8).
24
8). It
stay
It has
has 24
24 stay
cables.
stay cables.
Two
cables.of Two
them
Two of
are
of them
CFRP
them are
are CFRP
cables,
CFRP cables,
while
cables, while
others
while others
are are
normal
others are normal
steel
normal steel
cables.
steel cables.
These
cables.
These two CFRP cables are 35 m long parallel rod bundles. Each bundle consists of 241 CFRP rods
These
two two CFRP
CFRP cables
cables are 35 m long
long parallel rod bundles. Each bundleconsists
consistsofof
of241
241 CFRP
CFRP rods
rods
of Φ CFRP
These mm.cables
5two are bearing
The load 35are m35 long
m parallel
capacity rod rod
parallel
of each bundles.
is 12 Each
bundles.
cable MN.Eachbundle
In bundle consists
order to carry such 241 CFRP
a large force,
of
of Φ
Φ 5 mm.
Φ 5 mm. The load
The load
The bearing
loadcalled
bearing
bearing capacity
capacity
capacity of each
of each
of cable
each cable
cable is 12
is 12
is 12 MN.
MN.
MN. In order
In order
In to
order by carry
to carry such
such a large force,
a special anchorage Gradient Anchorage System was developed EMPA. Thea diagrams
large force,of
aa special anchorage
special anchorage called
called Gradient
Gradient Anchorage
this anchorage are shown in Figure 9 [25].
Anchorage SystemSystem waswas developed
developed byby EMPA.
EMPA. The The diagrams
diagrams of of
this anchorage
this anchorage are are shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 999 [25].
Figure [25].
[25].
Figure 9. Gradient Anchorage System, (a) full view and (b) transparent view.
Figure 9. Gradient
Figure Gradient Anchorage System,
System, (a) full
full view and
and (b) transparent
transparent view.
view.
Figure 9.
9. Gradient Anchorage
Anchorage System, (a)
(a) full view
view and (b)
(b) transparent view.
7
2084
77
Polymers 2015, 7, 2078–2099
The a mortar called

called Load Transfer
Transfer
The above
above anchorage
anchorage isis composed
composed of
of aa conical
conical steel
steel socket
socket and
and aa mortar
mortar called Load
Load Transfer
Media (LTM), which was manufactured by mixing Al O ceramic granules of approximately
Media (LTM), which was manufactured
manufactured by by mixing
mixing AlAl22O3 ceramic
2 3
ceramic granules of approximately
Φ 22 mm
Φ mm (light
(light yellow
yellow particles in Figure
Figure 9b) into the epoxy resin (the dark cone in the Figure 9b).
Φ 2 mm (light yellow particles in Figure 9b) into the epoxy resin (the dark cone in the Figure 9b).
From the mouth of the steel socket to its end, the distribution density of granules in the resin increases
From the mouth of the steel socket to its end, the distribution density of granules in the resin increases
gradually, so as to achieve an anchorage mortar with gradient elastic modulus. The principle of this
gradually, so as to achieve an anchorage mortar with gradient elastic modulus. The principle of this
anchorage in 10, compared with normal conical mortar anchorage [25].
anchorage isis illustrated
illustrated in Figure
Figure 10, compared with normal conical
conical mortar
mortar anchorage
anchorage [25].
[25].
Figure 10. Principle

Principle of
of Gradient
Gradient Anchorage
Anchorage System: (a)
(a) normal
normal conical
conical mortar anchorage and
Figure 10.
10. Principle of Gradient Anchorage System: (a) normal conical mortar anchorage and
(b) Gradient Anchorage System.
(b) Gradient Anchorage System.
System.
In the normal conical mortar anchorage, the elastic modulus of the anchorage mortar is constant.
In the normal conical mortar anchorage, the elastic modulus of the anchorage mortar is constant.
This will cause severe shear stress concentration of CFRP rods at
at the mouth of
of anchorage socket (see
This will cause
causesevere
severeshear
shearstress
stressconcentration
concentrationofof
CFRP
CFRP rodsrods the mouth
at the mouth anchorage socket
of anchorage (see
socket
Figure
Figure 10a). However,
10a).10a).
However, due to
duedue the
to the gradually
gradually increased
increased elastic
elastic modulus of mortar from the socket
(see Figure However, to the gradually increased elasticmodulus
modulusofofmortar
mortarfrom
from the socket
mouth to the socket end, the stress peak of CFRP rods can be considerably reduced in the Gradient
mouth to the socket end, the stress peak of CFRP rods can be considerably reduced in the Gradient
Anchorage System (see Figure 10b).
10b). Hence
Figure 10b). the anchorage efficiency
anchorage efficiency will
efficiency will be
will be highly
be highly improved
highly improved [25].
improved [25].
[25].
Anchorage System (see Figure Hence the anchorage
Before applying this CFRP cable anchorage system into
Before applying this CFRP cable anchorage system into the Stork the Stork Bridge,
Bridge, series of tests and
Stork Bridge, series of tests and
analysis were operated
were operated in EMPA.
operatedininEMPA.
EMPA.Both Both
Both experimental
experimental and
and theoretical
theoretical results
results demonstrated
demonstrated that
analysis were experimental and theoretical results demonstrated that that
the
the
the anchorage
anchorage efficiency
efficiency of the
the Gradient
of Gradient
Gradient Anchorage
Anchorage System
System is
is higher
higher than 92% [24].
anchorage efficiency of the Anchorage System is higher thanthan
92%92%[24].[24].
4.3.
4.3. Neigles
Neigles CFRP
CFRP Footbridge
Footbridge
The
The Neigles
Neigles CFRP
CFRP Footbridge
Footbridge isis the
the first
first suspension
suspension bridge
bridge with
bridge with CFRP
with CFRP cables
CFRP cables in
cables in the world.
in the world.
world. This
This
bridge
bridge is
is over
over the
the La
La Sarine
Sarine River
River and
and located
located in
in Fribourg,
Fribourg, Switzerland.
Switzerland.
Switzerland. The
The initial
initial Neigles
Neigles footbridge
footbridge
was
was constructed
constructed with
with steel
steel cables.
cables. However,
However, due due to
to the
the severe
severe corrosion,
corrosion, the
the steel
steel main
main cables
cables were
were
removed and replaced
removed and replaced with
replaced with CFRP
with CFRP cables
CFRP cables in
cables in November
in November
November 1998.1998.
1998. The photo and sketch of Neigles CFRP
The photo and sketch of Neigles CFRP
footbridge
footbridge are
are shown
are shown in
shown in Figure
in Figure 11
Figure 11 [26,27].
11 [26,27].
[26,27].
Figure 11. Neigles CFRP footbridge, (a) photo (photo credit: Tokyo Rope) and (b) sketch.
Figure 11. Neigles
Figure 11. Neigles CFRP
CFRP footbridge, (a) photo
footbridge, (a) photo (photo
(photo credit:
credit: Tokyo Rope) and
Tokyo Rope) and (b)
(b) sketch.
sketch.
The
The Neigles
Neigles CFRP
CFRP Footbridge
Footbridge is is aa pedestrian
pedestrian suspension
suspension bridge
bridge with
with aa single
single span
span (see
(see
The11).
Figure Neigles CFRP Footbridge is a pedestrian suspension bridge with a single span (see Figure 11).
Figure 11). It has two CFRP main cables, which were manufactured by the Tokyo Rope
It has two CFRP main cables, which were manufactured by the Tokyo Rope
It has two CFRP
Manufacturing main cables, which were of manufactured by the Tokyo Rope Manufacturing Co.,
Manufacturing Co.,Co., Ltd.
Ltd. Each
Each cable
cable consists
consists of 16
16 parallel
parallel CFCC
CFCC 7-wire
7-wire strands
strands and
and its
its load
load bearing
bearing
Ltd. Each
capacity cable consists of 16 parallel CFCC 7-wire strands and its load bearing capacity is 2272 kN.
capacity is
is 2272
2272 kN.
kN. These
These cables
cables are
are protected
protected by
by the
the polyethylene
polyethylene sheaths
sheaths and
and anchored
anchored by by the
the
These cables
Multiple are protected by the polyethylene sheaths and anchored by the Multiple Resin Filling
Multiple Resin
Resin Filling
Filling Anchorage
Anchorage System.
System. The
The diagrams
diagrams ofof this
this anchorage
anchorage system
system areare shown
shown
Anchorage
in System. The diagrams of this anchorage system are shown in Figure 12 [23,26].
in Figure
Figure 12
12 [23,26].
[23,26].
2085
88
Polymers 2015, 7, 2078–2099
Figure
Figure12.
12.Multiple
MultipleResin
ResinFilling
FillingAnchorage
AnchorageSystem,
System,(a)
(a)full
fullview
viewand
and(b)
(b)transparent view.
transparentview.
view.
Figure 12. Multiple Resin Filling Anchorage System, (a) full view and (b) transparent
Figure 12. Multiple Resin Filling Anchorage System, (a) full view and (b) transparent view.
This
Thisanchorage
anchoragesystem systemconsists
consistsofofan ananchorage
anchoragehead headand and16 16Resin
ResinFilling
FillingAnchorages.
Anchorages.Each Each
CFCC This anchorage
7-wire strand system
is consists
anchored by a of an anchorage
Resin Filling head andwhich
Anchorage, 16 Resinis anFilling Anchorages.
anchorage developed Each
CFCC This anchorage
7-wire strand issystem consists
anchored by a of an anchorage
Resin head and which
Filling Anchorage, 16 Resin Filling
is an Anchorages.
anchorage Eachby
developed by
CFCC
the 7-wire
Tokyo Rope strand
for is anchored
the CFCC by a In
strands. Resin
this Filling
anchorage,Anchorage,
the which
strand is is an anchorage
bonded to the developed
terminal using
CFCC 7-wire strand is anchored by a Resin Filling Anchorage, which is
the Tokyo Rope for the CFCC strands. In this anchorage, the strand is bonded to the terminal using an anchorage developed by
by the Tokyo
aa special resin Rope
with for the CFCC strands. In this anchorage, 13.5 the strand is bonded todiameter
the terminal
the Tokyo
special Rope
resin for an
with an anchorage
the CFCC strands.
anchorage length ofofanchorage,
In this
length approximately 13.5 times
the strand
approximately istimes
bondedthe
thetostrand
the terminal
strand diameter [23].
using
[23].
using
The a a
Resinspecial
specialFilling
resinresin
withwith
Anchorages
an an anchorage
have
anchorage not length
only
length been
of of approximately
used in
approximately this 13.5
bridge
13.5 times
but
times also
the theinstrand
many
strand diameter
other
diameter [23].
projects
[23].
The Resin Filling Anchorages have not only been used in this bridge but also in many other projects
The Resin
including
The Filling
the
Resin Anchorages
following
Filling have
Herning
Anchorages haveCFRPnot
notonly
Bridge
only been
(see
been used in this
Section
used in this
4.4).bridgebut
bridge butalso
alsoininmany
manyotherother projects
projects
including the following Herning CFRP Bridge (see Section 4.4).
including the following Herning CFRP Bridge
including the following Herning CFRP Bridge (see Section 4.4).(see Section 4.4).
4.4.
4.4.Herning
HerningCFRPCFRPBridge
Bridge
4.4. Herning
4.4. HerningCFRPCFRP Bridge
Bridge
The
The Herning
Herning CFRP
CFRP Bridge
Bridgeisisisaapedestrian
apedestrian
pedestrian overpass
overpass across
across aarailway
railway switchyard
switchyard ininthe
the vicinity
vicinity
The Herning
The Herning CFRP
CFRP Bridge
Bridge iswas
a pedestrian overpass
overpass across
across aarailway
railway switchyard
switchyard in
in the vicinity
the The
vicinity of
ofofHerning,
Herning, Denmark.
Denmark. This
This bridge
bridge was designed
designed by
byCOWI
COWI A/S
A/S and
and completed
completed ininJune
June 1999.
1999. The photo
photo
Herning,
ofsketch Denmark.
Herning, This
Denmark.CFRP bridge was designed
This bridge was designed by COWI
by COWI A/S and
A/S 13 completed
and[28]. in June 1999.
completed in June 1999. The photo The photo
and
andsketch ofofHerning
sketchof HerningCFRP CFRPFootbridge
Footbridgeare are
areshown
shownininFigure
Figure
Figure13 13[28].
[28].
and and sketch Herning
of Herning CFRPFootbridge
Footbridge areshown shown in in 13 [28].
Figure
Figure13.
Figure13.Herning
13. HerningCFRP
Herning CFRPBridge,
Bridge, (a)
(a)
Bridge,(a) photo
photo
(a)photo (photo
(photo credit:
(photocredit:
photo(photo credit:COWI)
COWI)
COWI) and
and (b)
(b)
and sketch.
sketch.
(b) sketch.
Figure 13. Herning CFRP Bridge, credit: COWI) and (b) sketch.
The
The Herning
The HerningFootbridge
Herning Footbridgeisis
Footbridge isaaasingle
singlepylon
single pyloncable
pylon stayed
cablestayed bridge
stayedbridge with
bridgewith double
withdouble
double cable
cable
cable planes
planes
planes (see
(see(see
Figure The Herning
13).
Figure13). It has
13).ItIthasFootbridge
16
has16stay
16stay is
cables
staycablesa single
in
cables in total
in totalpylon
and
total and cable
all of stayed
them bridge
are CFRP with double
cables. cable
These planes
CFRP (see
cables Figure
are CFCC13).
Figure and all
allof
of them areCFRPCFRPcables. These
cables. TheseCFRP
CFRPcables
cablesareare
CFCCCFCC
It has
37-wire 16 strands
stay cables in total and
produced byby alltheofTokyo
the them are CFRP cables. These Co.CFRP cables are CFCC 37-wire
37-wire
37-wire strands
strands produced
produced by the Tokyo Rope
Tokyo Rope Manufacturing
Rope Manufacturing
ManufacturingCo. Ltd.
Co.Ltd. with
Ltd.withwitha adiameter
a diameter
diameter of of
of
strands
40 40
mm.mm.produced
The
The load
load by the Tokyo
bearing
bearing capacityRope
capacity ofof Manufacturing
each
each cable
cable is
is 1070Co.
kN
kN Ltd.
and
and with
all
all a diameter
cables
cables were
were of 40 mm.
supplied
supplied from
from The
factoryload
factory
40 mm. The load bearing capacity of each cable is 1070 kN and all cables were supplied from factory
bearing
ininin capacity
fixed
fixed lengthsof with
each Resin
cable is 1070 kN
Filling and all cables diagrams
Anchorages. were supplied from
of this factory are
anchorage in fixed
shown lengths
in
fixed lengths
lengths withwith Resin
Resin Filling
Filling Anchorages.
Anchorages. The The diagrams
diagrams ofof this
this anchorage
anchorage are are shown
shown inin
with Resin
Figure
Figure 14 Filling
[28]. Anchorages. The diagrams of this anchorage are shown in Figure 14 [28].
Figure14 14[28].
[28].
Figure 14. Resin Filling Anchorage, (a) full view and (b) transparent view.
Figure
Figure14.
Figure 14.Resin
14. ResinFilling
Resin FillingAnchorage,
Filling Anchorage,(a)
Anchorage, (a)full
(a) fullview
full viewand
view and(b)
and (b)transparent
(b) transparent view.
transparentview.
view.
The above anchorage system is mainly composed of a straight tube shaped steel socket and
The
The above
above anchorage
anchorage system
systemisisismainly
mainlyis composed
composed of a straight tube shaped steel socket and
a special resinanchorage
The above filling. Thesystem
anchorage length
mainly ofofaastraight
approximately
composed straight
13.5 timestube shaped
thatshaped
tube steeldiameter.
of the cable
steel socketand
socket and
aaspecial
special
The resin
anchor filling.
resinnut
filling. The
The
is setThe anchorage
anchorage
at the length
rear of the length is
steelisisapproximately
approximately
socket 13.5
13.5
to connect13.5 times that
timesthat of
thatto
the anchorage the
ofthe cable
theother diameter.
cableparts
diameter.
of
a special resin filling. anchorage length approximately times of the cable diameter.
The
The anchor
anchor
theanchor nut isisset
nutis
bridgenut
[28]. atatthe
setat rear
therear ofofthe
rearof steel
thesteel socket
steelsocket totoconnect
socketto the
connectthe anchorage
theanchorage
anchoragetototothe other
theother parts
otherparts ofof
partsof
The set the the connect the
the bridge
thebridge [28].
bridge[28].
[28].
the
9
2086
99
Polymers 2015, 7, 2078–2099
This anchorage
This anchorageisisveryverysimilar
similar to
to the
the Resin Filling Anchorage
Resin Filling Anchorageapplied
appliedininthe theNeigles
Neigles CFRP
CFRP
FootbridgeThis anchorage
(see Section is very
4.3). similar
The only to the Resin
difference is Filling
that Anchorage
this anchorage applied
has a in the
larger Neigles
Footbridge (see Section 4.3). The only difference is that this anchorage has a larger size and is used to to
size and is CFRP
used
Footbridge
anchor
anchor bigger (see
biggerCFCCSection
CFCC strand4.3).with
strand The more
with only
moredifference
wires. is that this anchorage has a larger size and is used to
wires.
anchor bigger CFCC strand with more wires.
4.5.4.5.
Laroin CFRP
Laroin CFRP Footbridge
Footbridge
4.5. Laroin CFRP Footbridge
TheThe Laroin CFRPFootbridge
Laroin CFRP Footbridgecrosses
crosses the
the Gave
Gave du Pau River
du Pau Riverand
andisislocated
locatedininLaroin,
Laroin, France.
France.
This
This The
bridge Laroin
bridgewaswas CFRP
designed Footbridge
designedby crosses
byFreyssinet the Gave
FreyssinetInternational du
International andPau River and
completedin
and completed is located
in2002.
2002.The in Laroin,
Thephoto
photo France.
and
and sketch
sketch
of This
Laroin bridge
CFRP was designed
Footbridge by
are Freyssinet
shown in International
Figure
of Laroin CFRP Footbridge are shown in Figure 15 [29]. 15 [29].and completed in 2002. The photo and sketch
of Laroin CFRP Footbridge are shown in Figure 15 [29].
Figure 15. Laroin CFRP Footbridge, (a) photo (photo credit: Freyssinet) and (b) sketch.
Figure 15.Laroin
15.
Figure LaroinCFRP
CFRPFootbridge,
Footbridge, (a)
(a) photo (photocredit:
photo (photo credit:Freyssinet)
Freyssinet)and
and(b)(b) sketch.
sketch.
The Laroin CFRP Footbridge is a single span cable stayed bridge with twin towers and double
The
cable The
planesLaroin
Laroin (see CFRP
CFRP
Figure Footbridge
Footbridge
15). The main isisaa single
singleofspan
span 110 m cable
longstayed
cable stayed
and 2.5 bridge
bridge
m wide with
with twin
twintowers
is supported byand
towers and
eightdouble
double
pairs
cable
cable planes
planes (see
(see Figure
Figure 15).
15). The
The main
main span
span of
of 110
110 m
m long
long and
and 2.5
2.5 mm wide
of CFRP stay cables. The back stays, which are standard steel cables, were anchored to the concrete wide is supported
is supported by eight
by pairs
eight pairs
of of CFRP
CFRP stay
stay cables.
cables. The
The back
back stays,
stays, which
which are
are standard
standard steel
steel cables,
cables,
anchor blocks in the ground. These 16 CFRP cables, from 20 m to 45 m long, are modular and each were
were anchored
anchored to the
to concrete
the concrete
anchor
anchor
module blocks
blocks ininthe
is composed theground.
ground.
of a CFRP These
These 16 CFRP
16
parallel CFRP7-rodcables,
cables, from
bundle.from 20
20mmtoto4545
According tomthe
mlong,
long, are
aremodular
different modular and each
and
load conditions, each
module
module
the four is composed
is composed of a
of a CFRP
pairs of cables CFRP
near the parallel
parallel
pylons 7-rod
7-rod bundle.
bundle.
contain According
two According
modules (i.e., to
to the the different
twodifferent load conditions,
load conditions,
7-rod bundles), while thethe
the
other
four four
pairs ofpairs
four pairs
cablesofnear
cables
near the
thenear
middle
pylonsthe span
pylons
contain contain
contain twomodules
three
two modules modules
(i.e., two (i.e.,
(i.e., two
three
7-rod 7-rod bundles).
7-rod
bundles), bundles),
while the while
The the
CFRP
other four
other
rods, four
which pairs near the
were produced middle span
by SOFICAR, contain three modules
have a diameter (i.e., three 7-rod bundles). The CFRP
pairs near the middle span contain three modules (i.e., threeof7-rod6 mmbundles).
and a load Thebearing
CFRPcapacity of
rods, which
rods,
70 kN. which weretoproduced
In order anchor these by SOFICAR, havea apatented
diameter of 6 mm and a load bearing capacity of
were produced by SOFICAR, haveCFRP cables,
a diameter of 6 mm andanchoragea load bearing system called
capacity Modular
of 70 kN.Clamp
In order
70 kN. In order to anchor these CFRP cables,diagrams a patented anchorage system
(onecalled Modular Clamp
to Anchorage
anchor these wasCFRP
developed
cables, byaFreyssinet.
patented The anchorage system of this anchorage
called Modular module) are illustrated
Clamp Anchorage was
Anchorage was
as followsby[29]. developed by Freyssinet. The diagrams of this anchorage (one module) are illustrated
developed Freyssinet. The diagrams of this anchorage (one module) are illustrated as follows [29].
as follows
Figure [29].
16shows
showsone onemodule
moduleofofthe the Modular
Modular Clamp Clamp Anchorage
Anchorage system. InInthis figure, one
Figure
Figure 1616 shows one module of the Modular Clamp Anchorage system.In
system. this
this figure,
figure, oneone
module
module of CFRP
ofofCFRP cable,
cable, i.e.,
i.e., one CFRP 7-rod bundle, is gripped as a group by the wedge type
module
anchorage. CFRP
In ordercable, i.e., one
to prevent one CFRP 7-rod
theCFRP
bundle, isis gripped
7-rod damage
transversal bundle, grippedasasa agroup
of CFRP from
groupbybythe
directly clamping,
thewedge
wedge type
every type
wire
anchorage.
anchorage. In order to prevent the transversal damage of CFRP from directly clamping, every wire is
is protectedIn byorder to prevent
an aluminum the transversal
sheath. Each anchoragedamage of CFRP
shown above from directly and
is a module clamping,
each end every wire
of CFRP
protected
is by
protected an aluminum
by an aluminum sheath.
sheath. Each anchorage
Each anchorage shown
shown above is a module and each end of CFRP
cables contains two or three these modular anchorages [29]. above is a module and each end of CFRP
cables
cablescontains
contains two
twoororthree
threethese
thesemodular
modular anchorages
anchorages [29].[29].
Figure 16. Modular Clamp Anchorage (one module), (a) full view and (b) sectional view.
Figure16.
Figure 16.Modular
ModularClamp
ClampAnchorage
Anchorage (one
(one module),
module),(a)
(a)full
fullview
viewand
and(b)
(b)sectional view.
sectional view.
There are two main advantages of applying the modular cable and the modular anchorage.
There
Firstly, are twoofmain advantages ofanchored
applying the modular in acable and instead
the modular anchorage.
Therea are
bundle
two mainCFRP wires areof
advantages applyingintegrally
the modular module,
cable of, respectively,
and the modular anchorage.
Firstly, a
anchoring. bundle
This canof CFRP wires are anchored integrally in a module, instead of, respectively,
Firstly, a bundle of make
CFRPthe anchorage
wires compact and
are anchored reduce in
integrally theasize. Secondly,
module, unlikeof,
instead conventional
respectively,
anchoring.
CFRP cable This can make
anchorages, the anchorage
which are unique, compact
this typeand reduce the is
of anchorage size. Secondly,
assembled byunlike conventional
individual modules,
anchoring.
CFRP This
cable can make
anchorages, the
which anchorage
are unique, compact
this typeand
of reduce
anchorage theissize. Secondly,
assembled by unlike
individual conventional
modules,
which
CFRP are standard.
cable Because
anchorages, every
which aremodule
unique, has already been maturely researched, the anchorages for
which arecable
different standard.
sizesBecause
do not every
need module hasthis type
already
to be investigated
of maturely
been anchorage
any more
is assembled
but researched,
by individual
the anchorages
simply assembled for
by several
modules,
differentwhich are standard. Because
to be every moduleany hasmore
already been maturely researched,
by severalthe
modules. cable sizes
This can do notthe
facilitate need
anchorage investigated
design and reduce but [29].
the cost simply assembled
anchorages for different cable sizes do not need to be investigated
modules. This can facilitate the anchorage design and reduce the cost [29]. any more but simply assembled by
several modules. This can facilitate the anchorage design and reduce the cost [29].
10
10
2087
Polymers 2015, 7, 2078–2099

4.6. Jiangsu University CFRP Footbridge
4.6. Jiangsu University CFRP Footbridge
The Jiangsu University CFRP Footbridge is a cable-stayed bridge located in Zhenjiang, China.
The2015,
Polymers Jiangsu University CFRP Footbridge is a cable-stayed bridge located in Zhenjiang, China.
7, page–page
It was 4.6.
designed
Jiangsu by Southeast
University CFRPUniversity,
Footbridge Jiangsu University and Peking TXD Technology Company.
It was designed by Southeast University, Jiangsu University and Peking TXD Technology Company.
After After
one year’s
4.6. Jiangsu construction,
University
one Jiangsu
year’s this bridge
bridgewas
CFRP Footbridge
construction, this completed
wasis completed in the
in theend
end ofMayMay 2005.
TheThe photo
and and
The University CFRP Footbridge a cable-stayed bridge of 2005.
located in photo
Zhenjiang, China.
sketchsketch
of this
It was of
bridge are
this bridge
designed
shown
are shown
by Southeast
in Figure 17 [30].
in Figure Jiangsu
University, 17 [30]. University and Peking TXD Technology Company.
The Jiangsu University CFRP Footbridge is a cable-stayed bridge located in Zhenjiang, China.
After
It was one year’sby
designed construction, this bridge
Southeast University, was completed
Jiangsu Universityin thePeking
and end ofTXD
MayTechnology
2005. The Company.
photo and
sketchone
After of this bridge
year’s are shownthis
construction, in Figure
bridge17was
[30].completed in the end of May 2005. The photo and
sketch of this bridge are shown in Figure 17 [30].
Figure 17. Jiangsu University CFRP Footbridge, (a) photo (photo credit: Kuihua Mei) and (b) sketch.
Figure 17. Jiangsu University CFRP Footbridge, (a) photo (photo credit: Kuihua Mei) and (b) sketch.
The Jiangsu
Figure University
17. Jiangsu CFRP
University Footbridge
CFRP is a(a)single
Footbridge, photopylon
(photocable-stayed
credit: Kuihuabridge with
Mei) and (b) double
sketch. cable
The Jiangsu University CFRP Footbridge is a single pylon cable-stayed bridge with double cable
planesFigure
(see Figure 17).University
17. Jiangsu All 16 stay cables
CFRP are made
Footbridge, (a) of CFRP
photo parallel
(photo credit:rod bundles.
Kuihua The(b)
Mei) and adopted
sketch. CFRP
planesbars
(seeareFigure
The ΦJiangsu
8 mm 17). All 16 indented
University
Leadline stay
CFRPcables are
Footbridge
rods made ofbyCFRP
is a single
produced pylon parallel rod bundles.
cable-stayed
Mitsubishi Chemical bridge The
with
Company. adopted
double
Based cable
on theCFRP
bars are Φ
planes 8
The
different mm
(see Leadline
Figure
Jiangsu
load-bearing indented
17).requirements,
All 16CFRP
University rods
stay cables produced
threeare
Footbridge made
kinds ofby Mitsubishi
CFRP
is aofsingle pylon
cables parallel
with Chemical
rod bundles.
cable-stayed
different Company.
The
bridgeof
number adopted
with
bars Based
double cable the
CFRP
were applied on
barsload-bearing
different
planes
(see are(see
Figure Φ 17).
8Figure
mm TheLeadline
17).
loadAll indented
requirements,
16 rodsare
three
staycapacities
bearing cables produced
kinds
ofmade of of
these byCFRP
Mitsubishi
cables
cables with Chemical
different
parallel
are 720 kNrod Company.
8number
(6 ×bundles.
mm), 1320 Based
Theofadopted
bars
kN ×on
(11were the
applied
CFRP
8 mm)
different
bars
(see Figure
and are
17).
1920 Φload-bearing
kN 8 mm
The(16load requirements,
×Leadline
bearing
8 mm), indented three
rods
capacities
respectively. Thekinds
produced
of these
CFRP of cable
cables
cables with different
by Mitsubishi
are 720
anchorage kNwas (6number
Chemical of designed,
ˆ 8Company.
mm),
specially bars were
1320 kNapplied
Based on the
(11
which ˆ 8is mm)
(see kN
called
and 1920 Figure
different
the(16 17).
ˆ The
load-bearing
Straight load
Tube
8 mm), bearing
and Innercapacities
requirements,
respectively. three
Cone
The of these
kinds
Anchorage.
CFRP cables
of cables are
with
The
cable 720 kN (6 ×of
different
diagrams
anchorage 8 this
mm),
number
was 1320
of kN
bars
anchorage
specially (11
were ×applied
are 8shown
designed, mm)which
and
(see
in 1920
Figure
Figure kN
1817).(16 × 8 mm), respectively. The CFRP cable anchorage was specially designed,
The load bearing capacities of these cables are 720 kN (6 × 8 mm), 1320 kN (11 × 8 mm)
[30,31]. which is
is called the Straight Tube and Inner Cone Anchorage. The diagrams of this anchorage are shown
called the Straight Tube and Inner Cone Anchorage. The diagrams of this
and 1920 kN (16 × 8 mm), respectively. The CFRP cable anchorage was specially designed, which is anchorage are shown
in Figure 18 [30,31].
in Figure 18 [30,31].
called the Straight Tube and Inner Cone Anchorage. The diagrams of this anchorage are shown
in Figure 18 [30,31].
Figure 18. Straight Tube and Inner Cone Anchorage, (a) full view and (b) transparent view.
This Figure
Figure
18. Straight Tube and Inner Cone Anchorage, (a) full view and (b) transparent view.
anchorage
18. Straightconsists
Tube andof aInner
steelCone
socket and the mortar
Anchorage, (epoxy
(a) full view andresin or expansive
(b) transparent cement)
view.
Figure 18.
inside. The shape of Straight Tube and
the socket Inner Cone Anchorage,
is particularly designed.(a) fullfront
The view part
and (b) transparent
near view.
the mouth is a straight
This anchorage consists of a steel socket and the mortar (epoxy resin or expansive cement)
This
tube anchorage
while the rearconsists
part is of a steel
a cone. Thissocket
designand the advantages
has the mortar (epoxy resin tube
of straight or expansive
anchorage and cement)
inside. The
This shape of the
anchorage socket
consists ofisa particularly
steel socketdesigned. The front
and the mortar part near
(epoxy resinthe
or mouth is a cement)
expansive straight
inside. The shape
conical of the
anchorage socket isThe
combined. particularly
principle ofdesigned. The front
this anchorage part near
is illustrated the mouth
in Figure is a straight
19, compared
tube while
inside. The the rear
shape of part is a cone.
the socket This designdesigned.
is particularly has the advantages
The front part of straight
near thetube anchorage
mouth and
is a straight
with normal
tube while the conical
rear part anchorage
is a cone. [31].
This design hasanchorage
the advantages of straight tube anchorage and
conical anchorage combined. The principle of this is illustrated in Figure
tube while the rear part is a cone. This design has the advantages of straight tube anchorage and 19, compared
conicalconical
anchorage
with normal combined.
conical
anchorage The
anchorage
combined. principle
[31].
The principle of
of this anchorageis is
this anchorage illustrated
illustrated in Figure
in Figure 19, compared
19, compared
with normal conical anchorage [31].
with normal conical anchorage [31].
Figure 19. Principle of Straight Tube and Inner Cone Anchorage: (a) normal conical anchorage and
(b) Straight
Figure Tube andofInner
19. Principle ConeTube
Straight Anchorage.
and Inner Cone Anchorage: (a) normal conical anchorage and
(b) Straight Tube and Inner Cone Anchorage.
Figure 19. Principle of Straight Tubeand
andInner
Inner Cone
Cone Anchorage: (a)(a)
normal conical anchorage and and
FigureThe Principle
19.normal of Straight
conical Tube
anchorage can effectively Anchorage:
restrict the creep, normal
but conical
severe stressanchorage
concentration
(b) Straight Tube and Inner Cone Anchorage.
(b) Straight
of shear andTube and
radial Inner
stress Cone
of CFRPAnchorage.
rods will occur at the socket mouth (see Figure 19a).
The normal conical anchorage can effectively restrict the creep, but severe stress concentration However,
of shear
The and radial
normal stressanchorage
conical of CFRP rods will occurrestrict
can effectively at the socket mouth
the creep, but (see Figure
severe stress19a). However,
concentration
11
The normal
of shear andconical anchorage
radial stress of CFRPcan effectively
rods will occur restrict the creep, but severe stress concentration
11 at the socket mouth (see Figure 19a). However,
of shear and radial stress of CFRP rods will occur at the socket mouth (see Figure 19a). However,
11
2088
Polymers 2015, 7, 2078–2099
in thePolymers 2015, Tube

Straight 7, page–page
and Inner Cone Anchorage (see Figure 19b), both the shear and radial stress
peaks of CFRP rods will start near the joint of the straight tube and cone and go on constantly to the
in the Straight
Polymers Tube and Inner Cone Anchorage (see Figure 19b), both the shear and radial stress
2015, 7, page–page
socket mouth. In this way, the magnitudes of stress peaks are greatly reduced. Therefore, both the
peaks of CFRP rods will start near the joint of the straight tube and cone and go on constantly to the
creepsocket
restriction
in the Straight
mouth. andIn the and
Tube
this anchorage
way,Inner efficiency
Cone ofimprovement
Anchorage
the magnitudes (seepeaks
stress Figureare
are achieved
19b), both
greatly theatshear
reduced.theTherefore,
same time
and radial [31].
stress
both the
peaksrestriction
creep of CFRP rods
andwill start near the
the anchorage joint of improvement
efficiency the straight tube
are and cone and
achieved gosame
at the on constantly
time [31].to the
4.7. Penobscot Narrows
socket mouth. Bridge
In this way, the magnitudes of stress peaks are greatly reduced. Therefore, both the
creep restriction and the anchorage efficiency improvement are achieved at the same time [31].
4.7. Penobscot Narrows BridgeBridge is the first cable-stayed bridge in America, which adopts CFRP
The Penobscot Narrows
strands
4.7.inThestay cables.
Penobscot
Penobscot Narrows This
Narrows
Bridgebridge,
Bridgeowned by cable-stayed
is the first Maine Department of Transportation,
bridge in America, which adopts is CFRP
located in
strands in stay cables. This bridge, owned by Maine Department
Penobscot, ME, USA. The designer of this bridge was FIGG Engineering Group and its constructor of Transportation, is located in
The Penobscot
Penobscot, ME, USA. Narrows
The Bridgeofisthis
designer the bridge
first cable-stayed
was FIGG bridge
Engineeringin America,
Group which
and adopts
its CFRP
constructor
was Cianbro/Reed & Reed, LLC (Bucksport, ME, USA). After three years of construction, this bridge
strands
was in stay cables.
Cianbro/Reed ThisLLC
& Reed, bridge, owned ME,
(Bucksport, by Maine
USA). Department
After three of Transportation,
years ofyear
construction, isthis
located
bridgein
was completed and opened to the traffic on 30 December 2006. After half of completion, six steel
Penobscot,
was completed ME,andUSA. The designer
opened of this
to the traffic on bridge was FIGG
30 December 2006.Engineering
After half year Group and its constructor
of completion, six steel
strands
wasinCianbro/Reed
different stay cablesLLC were removedME, and replaced with years
six CFRP strands. The bridge Penobscot
strands in different&stay Reed, (Bucksport,
cables were removed and USA). Afterwith
replaced three six CFRP of construction,
strands. The this Penobscot
Narrows
Narrows
Bridge’s
was completedBridge’s
photo
and and
opened
photo
sketch
andtosketch
are
the trafficshown below
on 30 December
are shown
[32].
below [32].2006. After half year of completion, six steel
The Penobscot
strands
The inPenobscot Narrows
different Bridge
stay cables
Narrows wereis
Bridge isremoved
aatwin
twinmastsmasts
and cable-stayed
replaced withbridge
cable-stayed bridge
six CFRP with cable
withstrands.
single single
The plane cable
Penobscot(seeplane
(see Figure
Narrows
Figure 20).
20). ItsIts
Bridge’s
spanspan
photo
is 146 m146
isand m +m354
+ sketch
354 +are
146mshown
m+ 146 mtheand
andbelow theheight
[32].
mast mast isheight
136 m.isIt136 hasm. It has
40 stay 40 stay
cables, which cables,
whichareare The
all Penobscot
allparallel
parallel 7-wireNarrows
7-wire strand
strand Bridge isThese
cables.
cables. a twin
These masts cable-stayed
cables
cables were were
not not bridge
anchored
anchored atwith
theatsingle cablego
the mast
mast but plane
but go (see
throughthrough
Figure
cradles in the
cradles 20). Its span
in mast
the andisand
mast 146anchored
m + 354at
anchored matthe
+the
146 m anddeck.
bridge
bridge the mast
deck. height
From
From the is total
136ofm.of
thetotal 40It40
hascables,
40 stay
cables, three cables,
three
cables which
cables
with with
are all
different parallel
lengths 7-wire strand
(approximately cables.
86 m,These
198 mcables
and were
300 m,not anchored
respectively)
different lengths (approximately 86 m, 198 m and 300 m, respectively) through the western pylon at the
through mast
the but go
western through
pylon
cradles in the to mast andCFRP
anchored at In
theevery
bridge deck. From the total ofstrands
40 cables, three cables with
were were selected
selected install
to install CFRP stands.stands. In every selected
selected cable,
cable,twotwosteel
steel strands were uninstalled
were uninstalledand and
different lengths (approximately 86 m, 198 m and 300 m, respectively)
two new CFRP strands were mounted at the same place. These six CFRP strands are all CFCC 1 × 7 through the western pylon
two new CFRP strands
were selected
wereCFRP
to install
mounted at the same place. These six CFRP strands are all CFCC 1 ˆ 7and strands,
strands, produced by Tokyo stands. In every selected
Rope Manufacturing cable,
Co., Ltd.two steelon
Based strands were uninstalled
the existing Resin Filling
produced by
two new CFRP Tokyo Rope Manufacturing Co., Ltd. Based on the existing Resin Filling Anchorage
Anchorage for strands were mounted
CFCC strands, the design at theteam
sameofplace. These six
Penobscot CFRP strands
Narrows Bridge,are whoall cooperated
CFCC 1 × 7
for CFCC
strands,strands,
produced the design
by Tokyo teamRopeof Penobscot
Manufacturing Narrows
Co., Bridge,
with Lawrence Technological University, developed a new kind of anchorage for this case.Filling
Ltd. Based who
on cooperated
the existing with
Resin Lawrence
This
Technological
AnchorageUniversity,
anchorage for be
can CFCC
named developed
strands, the adesign
as “Highly new kind
Expansiveteamof ofanchorage
Fillingfor
Penobscot
Material this case.
Narrows
Anchorage”, Bridge,This
whichwho anchorage
is cooperated
illustrated can be
named as
with “Highly
Lawrence
in Figure 21 [32]. Expansive
Technological Material Filling
University, Anchorage”,
developed a new which
kind is
of illustrated
anchorage in
for Figure
this 21
case. [32].
This
anchorage can be named as “Highly Expansive Material Filling Anchorage”, which is illustrated
in Figure 21 [32].
Figure 20. Penobscot Narrows Bridge, (a) photo (photo credit: MOT) and (b) sketch.
Figure 21. Highly Expansive Material Filling Anchorage, (a) full view and (b) transparent view.
Figure
This 21. Highly Expansive
anchorage Material Filling Anchorage,
with(a) full view and (b)tube
transparent view. inside.
Figure 21. Highly consists
Expansive of aMaterial
long threaded
Filling socket
Anchorage, a(a)
hollow straight
full view and mortar
and (b) transparent view.
Outside the socket, there is an anchor nut for fixing this anchorage to the structure. The inner
This of
diameter anchorage
this hollowconsists
socketofisa long threaded
slightly biggersocket
than thewith a hollow
diameter ofstraight tubeThe
the strand. andspace
mortar inside.
between
This
the anchorage
Outside
strandthe
and theconsists
socket, socket of
is aan
therewall long
is filledthreaded
anchor bynut socket
for fixingwith
a cement-based this aanchorage
mortar,hollow
called straight
to tube and mortar
the structure.
Highly Expansive The inside.
inner
Material
Outside the socket,
diameter
(abbreviated as there
of this hollow
HEM). is Through
an anchor
socket nut for
is slightly
expansion fixing
bigger this
than
during anchorage
the diameter
curing, the HEM to the
of the structure.
strand.
will TheThe
produce inner
space
enough diameter
between
radial
thehollow
of this strand(approximately
pressure and the socket
socket wall MPa
is slightly
75.8 isbigger
filled
in by a case)
than
this cement-based
the after
diameter mortar,
of the
hardening, calledas Highly
sostrand.
to hold Expansive
Thethespace Material
CFRPbetween
strand. the
(abbreviated
strand
Theand
advantage asofHEM).
the socket thewall Through
Highly filledexpansion
is Expansive by aMaterial during
cement-based
(HEM)curing, the
mortar,
Filling HEMcalled
Anchorage willis produce
Highly enough
Expansive
illustrated radial
in Figure Material
22,
pressure
compared (approximately
with a straight 75.8
tube MPa
anchoragein this
withcase) after
normal hardening,
mortar [32].
(abbreviated as HEM). Through expansion during curing, the HEM will produce enough radial so as to hold the CFRP strand.
The advantage of the Highly Expansive Material (HEM) Filling Anchorage is illustrated in Figure 22,
pressure (approximately 75.8 MPa in this case) after hardening, so as to hold the CFRP strand. The
compared with a straight tube anchorage with normal mortar [32].
advantage of the Highly Expansive Material (HEM) 12 Filling Anchorage is illustrated in Figure 22,
compared with a straight tube anchorage with normal mortar [32].
12
2089
Polymers 2015, 7, 2078–2099
Figure 22. Principle of Highly Expansive Material Filling Anchorage: (a) straight tube anchorage with
Figure 22. Principle of Highly Expansive Material Filling Anchorage: (a) straight tube anchorage with
normal22.
mortar and (b) HighlyExpansive
ExpansiveMaterial
MaterialFilling
Filling Anchorage.(a) straight tube anchorage with
normal mortarPrinciple
Figure of Highly
and (b) Highly Expansive Material FillingAnchorage:
Anchorage.
normal mortar and (b) Highly Expansive Material Filling Anchorage.
The socket
Figure of theofHighly
22. Principle Expansive
Highly Expansive Material
Material Filling
Filling Anchorage
Anchorage: is a tube
(a) straight straight tube. with
anchorage This can
The socket
relieve
normal
The of the
thesocket
stress
mortarof Highly
and Expansive
concentration
the(b)Highly
Highlynear
Expansive
ExpansiveMaterial
the anchorage
Material
Material Filling
mouth,
Filling Anchorage
but may lead
Anchorage.
Filling Anchorage isisa straight
to severe tube.
creep
a straight if This
tube. cancan
theThis
normalrelieve
the stress
mortarconcentration
relieve is used
the stress(see near the
Figure anchorage
22a).
concentration However,
near mouth, butcoefficient
the creep
the anchorage mouth,maybutlead
may oftolead
severe
HEM to is creepcreep
much
severe if the
smaller normal
than
if the mortar
that
normal
is used TheFigure
of (see
mortar issocket
normal used of the
epoxy-based
22a).
(see Highly
mortar.
However,
Figure Expansive
22a).theItcreep
However, Material
can help
the the
coefficient
creepFilling
anchorage
of HEMAnchorage
coefficientsuccessfully
isofmuchHEM is smaller
a avoid
is straight
much thetube.
than
smaller This
severe
that of
than can
creep
normal
that
relieve
epoxy-based the
(seenormal
of Figure stress concentration
22b) [32].
epoxy-based
mortar. near
mortar.
It can help the It the
cananchorage
anchorage the mouth,
helpsuccessfully but may
anchorage
avoid thelead
successfully to severe
severe avoidcreep
creep if the normal
the Figure
(see severe creep[32].
22b)
mortar is used
(see Figure 22b)(see
[32].Figure 22a). However, the creep coefficient of HEM is much smaller than that
of
4.8.normal
4.8. EMPA EMPA epoxy-based
Bowstring
Bowstring mortar.
ArchArch It can help the anchorage successfully avoid the severe creep
Footbridge
Footbridge
(see Figure Bowstring
4.8. EMPA 22b) [32]. Arch Footbridge
The EMPA Bowstring Arch Footbridge is a pedestrian bridge over a small pond at Swiss Federal
The EMPA Bowstring Arch Footbridge is a pedestrian bridge over a small pond at Swiss Federal
Laboratories
The EMPA forBowstring
Materials Science and Technology
Arch Footbridge (EMPA).
is a pedestrian It is located
bridge in Dübendorf
over a small near Federal
pond at Swiss Zürich,
4.8. EMPA Bowstring
Laboratories for MaterialsArch Footbridge
Science and Technology (EMPA). It is located in Dübendorf near Zürich,
Switzerland. for
Laboratories ThisMaterials
bridge was designed
Science by researchers
and Technology of EMPA
(EMPA). and was
It is located in installed
Dübendorf in near
spring 2007.
Zürich,
Switzerland.
The The
This
EMPA bridge wasArch
Bowstring designed by Arch
Footbridge researchers of EMPA andinsmall
was installed in spring 2007.
photo and
Switzerland. sketch
This of EMPA
bridge Bowstring
was designed by is a pedestrian
of bridge
Footbridge
researchers are shown
EMPA over
and awas pond
Figure atinSwiss
23 [33].
installed Federal
spring 2007.
The photo and
Laboratoriessketch
The photo and of
forsketchEMPA
Materials Bowstring
Science
of EMPA Arch
and Technology
Bowstring Footbridge
(EMPA).are
Arch Footbridge are shown
It isshown
located in
in in Figure 23
Dübendorf
Figure [33].
23 [33].near Zürich,
Switzerland. This bridge was designed by researchers of EMPA and was installed in spring 2007.
The photo and sketch of EMPA Bowstring Arch Footbridge are shown in Figure 23 [33].
Figure 23. EMPA Bowstring Arch Footbridge, (a) photo (photo credit: Urs Meier) and (b) sketch.
Figure 23. EMPA Bowstring Arch Footbridge, (a) photo (photo credit: Urs Meier) and (b) sketch.
Figure
The 23. EMPA
EMPA Bowstring
Bowstring Arch
Arch Footbridge,
Footbridge is (a) photo (photo
a bowstring arch credit:
bridgeUrswith
Meier) and (b)
a span of 12sketch.
m and
a width
The of
Figure3 m (see
EMPA23. EMPA Figure Arch
Bowstring 23). The
Bowstring Arch bridge deck
Footbridge,
Footbridge (a) is mainly made
photo
is a bowstring (photo of Swiss
credit:
arch bridgeUrs grown
Meier)
with and Norway
(b)
a span sketch.
of 12 m spruce
and
a(Picea
The width abies),
EMPA which
m (seewas
of 3 Bowstring laterally
Arch
Figure strengthened
23).Footbridge
The isby
bridge deck a CFRP
bowstringstrips.made
is mainly In
archtheoflongitudinal
bridge
Swiss with
grown direction,
a Norway
span of sixspruce
CFRP
12 m and
(Picea
a width The
of 3 EMPA
non-laminated
abies), which
m (see Bowstring
strip-loop Arch
cables
was laterally
Figure 23). Footbridge
were arranged
strengthened
The bridge isby
deck a CFRP
bowstring
under the deck
strips.
is mainly arch
and
In
made bridge
theevenly with agrown
span over
distributed
longitudinal
of Swiss ofNorway
direction, 12six
itsmwidth
and
CFRPspruce
anon-laminated
towidth
serve of
as 3 mstrip-loop
(see Figure
bowstrings. Each 23).
cables The
cable is
were bridge
30 mm
arranged deck
wide is mainly
and
under its
the made
nominal
deck and of
cross Swiss grown
section
evenly is 60
distributed Norway
mm 2. The
over itsspruce
CFRP
width
(Picea abies), which was laterally strengthened by CFRP strips. In the longitudinal direction, six
(Picea
cable abies),
and which was
aspin-loaded laterally
anchorage strengthened
areis shown in by CFRP
Figure
and24 itsstrips.
[33]. In the longitudinalis direction, six CFRP
CFRPto serve bowstrings. Each cable 30 mmarranged
wide nominal cross section 60 mm 2. The CFRP
non-laminated strip-loop cables were under the deck and evenly distributed over its
non-laminated strip-loop cables were arranged
cable and pin-loaded anchorage are shown in Figure 24 [33]. under the deck and evenly distributed over its width
widthtoto 2
serve as bowstrings. Each cable is 30 mm wide and its nominal cross section is 60 mm2. The CFRP. The
serve as bowstrings. Each cable is 30 mm wide and its nominal cross section is 60 mm
CFRPcable
cableandand pin-loaded
pin-loaded anchorage
anchorage are shown
are shown in Figure in Figure
24 [33].24 [33].
Figure 24. (a) CFRP non-laminated strip-loop cable and (b) pin-loaded anchorage (photo credit: Urs Meier).
The CFRP cable used is a non-laminated pin-loaded strip-loop (see Figure 23b). Such cable,
supplied
Figure by(a)Carbo-Link
The24.CFRP CFRP GmbH,
non-laminated
cable used Switzerland, isand
strip-loop cable
is a non-laminated manufactured
(b) pin-loaded
pin-loaded byanchorage
continuously
strip-loop winding
(see (photo
Figure credit: a very
23b). Urs thin
Meier).
Such cable,
supplied by Carbo-Link GmbH, Switzerland, is manufactured by continuously winding a very thin
The CFRP cable used is a non-laminated pin-loaded13 strip-loop (see Figure 23b). Such cable,
The CFRP
supplied by cable used GmbH,
Carbo-Link is a non-laminated 13
Switzerland, ispin-loaded
manufactured strip-loop (see Figure
by continuously 23b).
winding Such
a very thincable,
supplied by Carbo-Link GmbH, Switzerland, is manufactured by continuously winding a very thin
13
2090
Polymers 2015, 7, 2078–2099

(approximately 0.1mm mmthick)
thick) CFRP strip
(approximately 0.1 striparound
aroundtwo tworound
roundpins (the(the
pins pinspins
are made of GFRP
are made in this in
of GFRP
thiscase). After
case). winding,
After winding, onlyonly
the end
the ofend theofoutermost layer is
the outermost bonded
layer to the next
is bonded to theoutermost layer
next outermost
(approximately 0.1 mm thick) CFRP strip around two round pins (the pins are made of GFRP in this
through
layer fusion to form a closed loop (thermoplastics matrix is adopted to produce
through fusion to form a closed loop (thermoplastics matrix is adopted to produce the CFRP strip). the CFRP strip).
case). After winding, only the end of the outermost layer is bonded to the next outermost layer
Compared
Compared with
with the the laminated
laminated strip-loop,
strip-loop, thethe shear
shear and
radialradial
andmatrix stresses at the anchorage zone
through fusion to form a closed loop (thermoplastics isstresses
adopted at the anchorage
to produce thezone
CFRP (especially
strip).
(especially
theCompared the
layer contacting layer contacting
the laminated the pin)
pin) of thestrip-loop,
non-laminated of the non-laminated
strip-loop strip-loop
will distribute will
more distribute more
with the the shear and radial stresses at theuniformly,
anchoragebecause
zone
uniformly, because different layers of the non-laminated one can mutually slide and thus achieving
different layers of the non-laminated one can mutually slide and thus
(especially the layer contacting the pin) of the non-laminated strip-loop will distribute more achieving more uniform
more uniform strain distribution than the laminated one. This will lead to relatively small stress peak
strain distribution
uniformly, because than the laminated
different layers ofone. This will lead to
the non-laminated onerelatively
can mutuallysmallslide
stress
andpeak
thusin the CFRP
achieving
in the CFRP non-laminated pin-loaded strip-loop cables and help increase their ultimate bearing
non-laminated
more uniformpin-loaded strip-loop
strain distribution thancables and helpone.
the laminated increase theirlead
This will ultimate bearing
to relatively capacity
small stress[14,33].
peak
capacity [14,33].
in the CFRP non-laminated pin-loaded strip-loop cables and help increase their ultimate bearing
4.9.capacity
TU Berlin CFRP Stress-Ribbon Footbridge
[14,33].
4.9. TU Berlin CFRP Stress-Ribbon Footbridge
The TU Berlin CFRP Stress-Ribbon Footbridge is the first CFRP stress-ribbon bridge in the world.
4.9. TUTheBerlin
TU Berlin
CFRPCFRP Stress-Ribbon
Stress-Ribbon Footbridge is the first CFRP stress-ribbon bridge in the world.
Footbridge
It is located in Berlin, Germany, and was designed by the research team of Prof. Schlaich at Technical
It is located in Berlin, Germany, and was designed by the research team of Prof. Schlaich at Technical
University The of
TUBerlin
Berlin(TU
CFRPBerlin). This bridge
Stress-Ribbon was completed
Footbridge is the firstin Maystress-ribbon
CFRP 2007. After completion,
bridge in the an active
world.
University of Berlin (TU Berlin). This bridge was completed in May 2007. After completion, an active
It is located
vibration in Berlin,
control system Germany,
was and was
installed in designed
the by The
bridge. the research
photo team
and of Prof.
sketch of Schlaich
this at Technical
bridge are shown
vibration control system was installed in the bridge. The photo and sketch of this bridge are shown
University
in Figure 2525 of Berlin (TU Berlin). This bridge was completed in May 2007. After completion, an active
[34].
in Figure [34].
vibration control system was installed in the bridge. The photo and sketch of this bridge are shown
in Figure 25 [34].
Figure 25. TU Berlin CFRP Stress-Ribbon Footbridge (a) photo (photo credit: Achim Bleicher); (b) sketch.
Figure 25. TU Berlin CFRP Stress-Ribbon Footbridge (a) photo (photo credit: Achim Bleicher); (b) sketch.
Figure 25. TU
The TU BerlinCFRP
Berlin CFRPStress-Ribbon
Stress-Ribbon Footbridge
Footbridge(a) photo (photo 25)
(see Figure credit:
is Achim Bleicher);
a single (b) sketch.
span stress-ribbon
The with
bridge TU Berlin CFRP Stress-Ribbon
the sag-to-span Footbridge
ratio of 1/60. Six 50 mm wide (seeCFRP
Figure 25) is a single
non-laminated span stress-ribbon
pin-loaded strip-loop
The TU Berlin CFRP Stress-Ribbon Footbridge (see Figure 25) is a single span stress-ribbon
cables
bridge are the
with used as load bearing
sag-to-span ratio components
of 1/60. Six in50 this
mmbridge, whichnon-laminated
wide CFRP were also provided by Carbo-Link
pin-loaded strip-loop
bridge with the sag-to-span ratio of 1/60. Six 50 mm wide CFRP non-laminated pin-loaded strip-loop
GmbH,
cables Switzerland.
are used as load Each cable
bearing has 2 × 5 layers
components in thisand the total
bridge, which thickness
were alsois approximately 1.1 mm.
provided by Carbo-Link
cables are used as load bearing components in this bridge, which were also provided by Carbo-Link
The load
GmbH, bearing capacity
Switzerland. of a single
Each cable has 2 ˆcable is 105and
5 layers kN.the
These
totalcables are similar
thickness to the CFRP1.1
is approximately strip-loop
mm. The
GmbH, Switzerland. Each cable has 2 × 5 layers and the total thickness is approximately 1.1 mm.
cables used in the EMPA Bowstring Arch Footbridge, while the differences are that
load bearing capacity of a single cable is 105 kN. These cables are similar to the CFRP strip-loop cablesthe steel pins are
The load bearing capacity of a single cable is 105 kN. These cables are similar to the CFRP strip-loop
used
used in
in thethis
EMPA case and the
Bowstring part between the
Arch Footbridge, strip start
while the and strip end
differences was bonded
are thatarethe together
steel through
cables used in the EMPA Bowstring Arch Footbridge, while the differences that thepins
steelare used
pins are in
thisfusion.
case The the
and diagrams
part of the cable
between the anchorage
strip start are illustrated
and strip end in Figure
was 26 [34].
bonded together
used in this case and the part between the strip start and strip end was bonded together through through fusion. The
diagrams of the
fusion. The cable anchorage
diagrams of the cableareanchorage
illustratedareinillustrated
Figure 26in [34].
Figure 26 [34].
Figure 26. Pin-loaded anchorage system, (a) assembled view and (b) exploded view.
Figure
Figure
The above 26.26.Pin-loaded
anchoragePin-loaded
systemanchorage
anchorage system,
mainly system,
consists(a) assembled
ofassembled
two round view
view anda(b)
and
pins, (b)exploded
exploded
triangular view.
view.
steel box and two
bolts for the connection to the ground. Among the two pins, the anchor pin, with the diameter of
The above anchorage system mainly consists of two round pins, a triangular steel box and two
80The
mm,above
is foranchorage
anchoring;systemwhile mainly
the steering pin,ofwith
consists twothe diameter
round pins, aoftriangular
100 mm, steel
is forbox
changing
and two
the force direction to facilitate pre-tensioning and fixing [34].
80 mm, is for anchoring; while the steering pin, with the diameter of 100 mm, is for changing
80 mm, is for anchoring; while the steering pin, with the diameter of 100 mm, is for changing
14
14
2091
Polymers 2015, 7, 2078–2099

4.10. Cuenca Stress-Ribbon Footbridge
4.10. Cuenca Stress-Ribbon Footbridge
The Cuenca Stress-Ribbon Footbridge, across the Jucar River, is located in Cuenca, Spain. It is
ownedPolymers 2015,
by Cuenca 7, page–page
City and it was designed and constructed by ACCIONA, S.A. This bridge was
owned by Cuenca City and it was designed and constructed by ACCIONA, S.A. This bridge was
completed and opened to the public in 2011. The photo and sketch of the Cuenca Stress-Ribbon
completed
4.10. Cuencaand opened toFootbridge
Stress-Ribbon the public in 2011. The photo and sketch of the Cuenca Stress-Ribbon
Footbridge are shown
Footbridge in Figure
are shown 27 27
in Figure [35].
[35].
owned by Cuenca City and it was designed and constructed by ACCIONA, S.A. This bridge was
completed and opened to the public in 2011. The photo and sketch of the Cuenca Stress-Ribbon
Footbridge are shown in Figure 27 [35].
Figure 27. Cuenca Stress-Ribbon Footbridge, (a) photo (photo credit: Juan Rodado Lopez) and (b) sketch.
Figure 27. Cuenca Stress-Ribbon Footbridge, (a) photo (photo credit: Juan Rodado Lopez) and (b) sketch.
The Cuenca Stress-Ribbon Footbridge (see Figure 27) is a stress ribbon bridge with three spans
(72 m × 3 m). The bridge width is 3 m and the total length is 216 m, which makes it become the longest
(72 m ˆ 3Figure
m). The bridgeStress-Ribbon
27. Cuenca width is 3 Footbridge,
m and the(a) total
photolength
(photoiscredit:
216 m,Juanwhich
Rodado makes
Lopez)itand
stressed ribbon bridge in Spain and the eighth in the world. This bridge has two concrete piers, whose
become the longest
(b) sketch.
stressed
heights are 21.6 m and 16.98 m, respectively. The bridge decks are steel reinforced concrete slabs withwhose
ribbon bridge in Spain and the eighth in the world. This bridge has two concrete piers,
heightstheare 21.6 m and
dimension of 3 16.98
m × 3.5m, m respectively. The bridge
and the stress ribbon decksthem
supporting are consists
steel reinforced
of 16 CFRP concrete slabs with
cables. These
(72 m × 3 m). The bridge width is 3 m and the total length is 216 m, which makes it become the longest
the dimension
CFRP cables of 3were
m ˆdivided
3.5 m and the stress
into four groupsribbon supporting
in transverse direction them
andconsists
fixed underof 16
theCFRP
concretecables.
slabs.These
stressed ribbon bridge in Spain and the eighth in the world. This bridge has two concrete piers, whose
Longitudinally,
CFRP heights
cables were the stress
divided intoribbon
four was divided
groups inThe into five sections,
transverse direction and
and each
fixedsection
under is the
a CFRP cable slabs.
concrete
are 21.6 m and 16.98 m, respectively. bridge decks are steel reinforced concrete slabs with
with a
Longitudinally, length of 43.7
theofstressm and a
ribbon diameter of 41 mm. These CFRP cables were connected by an “8” shaped
the dimension 3 m × 3.5 m andwas divided
the stress ribboninto five sections,
supporting and each
them consists of 16section is a CFRP
CFRP cables. These cable
pin connection with each other. This segmentation measure was to facilitate manufacture and
with aCFRP
length of were
cables 43.7 divided
m and intoa diameter
four groupsof in41transverse
mm. These directionCFRP andcables werethe
fixed under connected by an “8”
concrete slabs.
transportation. Outside of the cables are aramid braided sleeves for protecting them [35].
shaped Longitudinally,
pin connection thewith
stresseach
ribbon wasThis
other. divided into five sections,
segmentation measure andwaseachtosection is amanufacture
facilitate CFRP cable and
These CFRP cables used in the Cuenca Stress-Ribbon Footbridge were specially manufactured
with a length
transportation. of 43.7 mofand
the acables
diameter ofaramid
41 mm. braided
These CFRP cables were connectedthemby an [35].
“8” shaped
by Future Outside
Fibers for this project.are
Different from CFRPsleeves
cables forusedprotecting
in EMPA Bowstring Arch
pin
These connection
CFRP and with
cables each other. This segmentation measure was to facilitate manufacture and
Footbridge TUused in the
Berlin CFRPCuenca Stress-Ribbon
Stress-Ribbon Footbridge
Footbridge, these were
cablesspecially
are CFRP manufactured
laminated by
transportation. Outside of the cables are aramid braided sleeves for protecting them [35].
Futurestrip-loops
Fibers forcables
this project. Different from
with stainless-steel ringCFRP cables used
terminations. in EMPA
Indeed, the CFRP Bowstring Arch Footbridge
non-laminated and
These CFRP cables used in the Cuenca Stress-Ribbon Footbridge were specially manufactured
and TU laminated
Berlin pin-loaded
CFRP strip-loop cables
Stress-Ribbon have both
Footbridge, merits
these and are
cables demerits.
CFRP Inlaminated
general, the former hascables
strip-loops
by Future Fibers for this project. Different from CFRP cables used in EMPA Bowstring Arch
higher ultimate bearing
with stainless-steel capacity, while the latter has greater stiffness and smaller creep. pin-loaded
As a
Footbridge andring TU terminations. Indeed,
Berlin CFRP Stress-Ribbon the Footbridge,
CFRP non-laminated
these cablesand are laminated
CFRP laminated
consequence, it is better to say that they have different uses rather than to judge which is better.
strip-loop cables cables
strip-loops have bothwith merits and demerits.
stainless-steel In general,
ring terminations. the former
Indeed, the CFRP has higher ultimateand
non-laminated bearing
In order to anchor and connect the CFRP cables in the Cuenca Stress-Ribbon Footbridge,
capacity, while the
laminated latter has
pin-loaded greatercables
strip-loop stiffness
haveand bothsmaller
merits and creep. As a consequence,
demerits. In general, theitformer
is better
hasto say
pin-loaded anchorages and connections were designed by engineers of ACCIONA, which are
higher
that they have ultimate
differentbearing capacity, while the latter has isgreater
better.stiffness and smaller creep. As a
illustrated in Figure uses rather than
28 [35]. to judge which
In order to anchor and connect the CFRP cables inrather
consequence, it is better to say that they have different uses the than
Cuencato judge which is better.
Stress-Ribbon Footbridge,
In order to anchor and connect the CFRP cables in the Cuenca Stress-Ribbon Footbridge,
illustrated in Figure 28 [35].
illustrated in Figure 28 [35].
Figure 28. (a) Anchorage and (b) Connection for CFRP cables.
Figure 28a presents the anchorage structure of CFRP cables, which consists of steel fork, steel
bar and anchor pin. Figure 28b shows the connection structure between two CFRP cables, which is
Figure 28. (a) Anchorage and (b) Connection for CFRP cables.
Figure
formed by “8” shaped (a) Anchorage
28.plates
steel andpins.
and anchor (b) Connection
The steel barfor
ofCFRP cables. is pre-tensioned
the anchorage
and anchored at the abutment back wall by spherical nut and anchor plate [35].
FigureFigure 28a presents
28a presents thethe anchoragestructure
anchorage structure of
of CFRP
CFRPcables,
cables,which
which consists of steel
consists fork, fork,
of steel steel steel
bar and anchor pin. Figure 28b shows the connection15 structure between two CFRP cables, which is
bar and anchor pin. Figure 28b shows the connection structure between two CFRP cables, which is
formed by “8” shaped steel plates and anchor pins. The steel bar of the anchorage is pre-tensioned
formed by “8” shaped steel plates and anchor pins. The steel bar of the anchorage is pre-tensioned
15
2092
Polymers 2015, 7, 2078–2099
5. Future Development of CFRP Cable Structures

As can be seen from the above section, all the existing CFRP cable structures are cable bridges.
Moreover, majority of them are cable-stayed bridges. Up to now, there is not yet any CFRP cable roof
or cable facade in the world.
However, cable roofs and cable facades are ideal structures for CFRP cables, because most of
them are orthogonally loaded by external loads. In orthogonally loaded cable structures, such as
many cable roofs and cable facades, the structural stiffness is mainly comprised of the geometric
stiffness, which is controlled by the pre-tension force of cables, instead of the elastic stiffness
controlled by the elastic modulus of cables. This means, for such cable structures, increasing the
tensile strength of cables to increase the pre-tension force is a more efficient way to either raise the
structural stiffness if the amount of cable used remains unchanged or reduce the amount of cable used
if the structural stiffness is maintained, compared to increasing the elastic modulus of cables. This
phenomenon also indicates that using CFRP cables, whose tensile strength is considerably greater
than that of steel cables (see Table 3), in the orthogonally loaded cable structures will improve the
economic efficiency of structures, although the elastic modulus of CFRP cables is usually smaller
than that of steel cables (see Table 3) and their unit price is also much higher [36,37].
Therefore, using CFRP cables in cable roofs and cable facades is an important development
direction in the future.
5.1. Prototype of CFRP Spoked Wheel Cable Roof

To investigate the feasibility of applying CFRP cables to cable roofs and cable facades, a small
CFRP spoked wheel cable roof was built at TU Berlin in 2013 [36].
This prototype structure had a diameter of 4 m and contained all three primary structural
elements of a real spoked wheel roof: the compression ring, the tension ring and the radial cables.
All tension-loaded structural members, such as the tension ring and the eight radial cables, were
made of CFRP. The material of the compression ring, pillars and nodes was aluminum [36].
The radial cable was a loop-shaped CFRP tension member, and the tension ring was a closed
octagon CFRP loop. They were all composed of parallel carbon fibers embedded in a polymer matrix.
The C 30 fiber type from the SGL Group was used with an epoxy resin matrix. The cross section of
the radial cable and the tension ring was 30 mm ˆ 1.2 mm, which contains approximately 20 million
carbon fibers and could bear nearly 80 kN tension force. Both types of CFRP structural elements were
manufactured at TU Berlin by laminating a continuous carbon fiber tow coated with epoxy resin on
a rotating form and using vacuum technique to harden [36].
The connection between the radial cables and both rings was made with aluminum nodes.
Because all CFRP cables were loop-shaped, the aluminum nodes also had cylindrical surfaces
(see Figures 29c and 30) [36].
To pre-tension the CFRP cables, each node of the tension ring was separated into two parts,
which were linked together by four bolts. By tightening the bolts and hence shortening the distance
between these two parts, the CFRP cable system of the spoked wheel cable roof was pre-tensioned to
a sufficient level [36].
This prototype demonstrated that CFRP cable roofs are already feasible today. According to
the experiences of building this prototype, new cable shapes and anchoring strategies different from
those for steel cables should be developed for CFRP cables according to their unique characteristics.
5.2. CFRP Continuous Band Winding System

The CFRP Continuous Band Winding System is a novel design of using CFRP in cable roofs and
cable facades. As its name suggest, the cables used in such system are CFRP continuous bands, which
will be wound through all the intermediate nodes and only anchored at both end nodes or which
will form closed loops without any anchorages. The greatest advantage of the CFRP continuous
2093
Polymers 2015, 7, 2078–2099
band winding system is that the number of anchorages is minimized and thus exploiting to the full
favorable conditions
Polymers of CFRP cables and avoid the unfavorable ones [38].
2015, 7, page–page
Figure 29. (a) Photo of CFRP spoked wheel cable roof at TU Berlin (photo credit: Till Beckmann);
Figure plan(a)
(b)29. Photo
view; andof(c)CFRP spoked
nodes of wheelring
compression cable
androof at TU
tension Berlin (photo credit: Till Beckmann);
ring.
(b) plan view;
Figure 29.and (c) nodes
(a) Photo of compression
of CFRP ring
spoked wheel and
cable tension
roof at TU ring.
Berlin (photo credit: Till Beckmann);
(b) plan view; and (c) nodes of compression ring and tension ring.
Figure 30. (a) Node at outer compression ring and (b) node at inner tension ring.
There areFigure
several
30.forms of CFRP
(a) Node Continuous
at outer compressionBand Winding
ring and Systems.
(b) node at inner One of them
tension ring. is illustrated
in Figure Figure 30. (a)
31, which is aNode
cableatsystem
outer compression ring and
of cable membrane (b)for
roof node at inner tension
a swimming pool. ring.
The details of
the CFRP
Therecontinuous
are severalband
formsused and the
of CFRP nodes areBand
Continuous illustrated
Windingin Figure 32 [38].
Systems. One of them is illustrated
There are 31,
in Figure several
whichforms of CFRP
is a cable systemContinuous Band Winding
of cable membrane roof for aSystems.
swimming One of them
pool. is illustrated
The details of
the CFRP
in Figure continuous
31, which band used
is a cable and of
system thecable
nodesmembrane
are illustrated in Figure
roof 32 [38].
for a swimming pool. The details of
the CFRP continuous band used and the nodes are
17illustrated in Figure 32 [38].
17
2094
Polymers 2015, 7,
Polymers 2015, 7, 2078–2099
page–page
Figure 31. Swimming pool cable roof with CFRP Continuous Band Winding System.
Figure 32. (a) CFRP continuous band used; (b) intermediate node; and (c) end node.
As can be Figure 32.

seen32.from(a) CFRP continuous
the above figures,band used;
there (b) intermediate
is only one cable, i.e.,node; and (c) end node. band, used
a CFRP
Figure (a) CFRP continuous band used; (b) intermediate node; and (c)continuous
end node.
in the structure, which makes the cable structure very concise and aesthetically pleasing. Furthermore,
As cancontinuous
the CFRP be seen from bandtheisabove
only figures,
anchored there is only
at both endone cable,(see
nodes i.e., Figure
a CFRP32c),continuous
while itband, used
is wound
As can
in the structure,be seen from
which makesnode the above
the cable figures,
structurethere is only one cable, i.e., a CFRP continuous
very concise and aesthetically pleasing. Furthermore, band,
through every intermediate (see Figure 32b).
used in the
the CFRP structure,band
continuous which is makes
only the cable
anchored at structure
both very concise
end nodes (see and 32c),
aesthetically pleasing.
Another form of the CFRP Continuous Band Winding System is Figure
illustrated inwhile
Figureit 33,
is wound
which
Furthermore,
through every the CFRP
intermediate continuous
node band
(see is
Figureonly anchored
32b). at both end nodes (see Figure 32c), while it
is a CFRP spoked wheel cable roof. The details of the CFRP continuous band used and the nodes are
is wound
Anotherthrough
formevery
of34the intermediate
CFRP Continuous node (seeBand Figure
Winding32b). System is illustrated in Figure 33, which
illustrated in Figure [38].
Another
is a CFRP spokedform of
wheel the CFRP Continuous Band Winding System is illustrated inand
Figure 33, which
As can be seen fromcable roof. The
the above details
figures, of the
there areCFRP
only continuous
two cables band in theused
structure, the nodes
i.e., are
a CFRP
is a CFRP
illustrated spoked
in Figure wheel
34 cable
[38]. roof. The details of the CFRP continuous band used and the nodes are
continuous band acting as the spoke cables and a CFRP inner ring. The CFRP continuous band forms
illustrated
As can in Figure 34 [38].the above figures, there are only two cables in the structure, i.e., a CFRP
a closed loopbe andseen from
is wound around all nodes without any anchorages.
As
continuous can be seen
band acting from as the above
thethe
spoke figures,and
cables there are only two
a CFRP cables structure, i.e.,
in thecontinuous a CFRP
Admittedly, aside from advantages, the CFRPinner ring.
continuous The CFRP
band winding system band forms
also has
continuous
a closed band acting
loop and is wound as the spoke
aroundthe cables and
all failure a
nodes withoutCFRP inner
anysegmentring.
anchorages. The CFRP continuous band forms
some disadvantages. For example, of a single of the CFRP continuous band may
a closed loop and asideis wound around all nodes without anycontinuous
anchorages.band winding system also has
resultAdmittedly,
in the failure of thefrom the advantages,
whole system; therefore,the CFRPthe safety factor for the CFRP continuous band
Admittedly,
some disadvantages. aside from
For example, the advantages,
the failure the CFRP
of a single continuous
segment band winding systemband alsomay
has
might be set higher than that for ordinary cables. In general, the of the
CFRP CFRP continuous
Continuous Band Winding
some
resultdisadvantages.
inisthe ofFor example, the failure of a single segment of the CFRP continuous bandband may
System an failure
interesting theand whole system;
promising therefore,
way of using theCFRP
safety infactor
cable forroofstheand
CFRP continuous
cable facades. More
result in
might be setthe failure of the whole system; therefore, the safety factor for the CFRP continuous band
researches arehigher
needed thanfor that for ordinary cables. In general, the CFRP Continuous Band Winding
its realization.
might
Systembeisset an higher than and
interesting thatpromising
for ordinary waycables. In general,
of using CFRP inthe CFRP
cable roofsContinuous
and cable Band Winding
facades. More
System is an interesting and
researches are needed for its realization. promising way of using CFRP in cable roofs and cable facades. More
researches are needed for its realization.
2095
18
18
Polymers 2015, 7, 2078–2099
Figure 33. Spoked wheel cable roof with CFRP Continuous Band Winding System.
Figure 34. (a) CFRP continuous band used; (b) node at compression ring; and (c) node at tension ring.
6. Existing Challenges for CFRP Cable Structures

Figure 34. (a) CFRP continuous band used; (b) node at compression ring; and (c) node at tension ring.
Figure 34. (a) CFRP
Although thecontinuous band cable
future of CFRP used; structures
(b) node atiscompression ring;
brilliant, there areand
still(c)some
nodechallenges
at tension or
ring.
6. Existingwhich
problems, Challenges for CFRP
may obstruct Cable
their wideStructures
applications. The difficulty of anchoring CFRP cables is one
6. Existing Challenges
of theAlthough
challenges, for
thewhichCFRP
future Cable
hasofbeen
CFRP Structures
introduced
cable with possible
structures solutions
is brilliant, in previous
there chapters.
are still some challenges or
Besides
problems, being
which hard
may to be their
obstruct anchored, poor fire resistance
wide applications. of CFRP
The difficulty cables is another
of anchoring challenge.
CFRP cables is one
Although
Most thematerials
future degrade
of CFRP cable structures is brilliant, there are stillconditions
some challenges or
of theCFRP
challenges, which has been when exposed
introduced to moderately
with elevated
possible solutions intemperature
previous chapters. [39].
problems, which
Usually,
Besides
may
the polymer obstruct
being hard resin,
to be
their
which wide applications.
is the poor
anchored, organic firematrix
The
resistance
difficulty
of CFRP,
of CFRP becomes of anchoring
cables rubbery
is another
CFRP
andchallenge.
viscous, cables is
one of the
if
Most challenges,
the temperature
CFRP materials which
ranges has
frombeen
degrade 65
when°Cintroduced
toexposed
130 °C [39].to with possible
At temperatures
moderately solutions
elevatedabove 300in°C,
temperature previous
theconditions
polymerchapters.
resin
[39].
may
Besides combust
Usually,being and
hardevaporate,
the polymer toresin, releasing
be anchored,
which heat,
is thepoor smoke,
organic soot and
fire matrix of toxic
resistance ofvolatiles
CFRP, CFRP
becomes [40,41].
cables
rubberyIt
isfurther
another causes
and viscous, challenge.
decomposition
if the temperature of carbon
ranges fibers
from [39].
65 °C Meanwhile,
to 130 °C theAt
[39]. CFRP will lose the
temperatures strength
above 300 °C,andthestiffness,
polymer which
resin
Most CFRP materials degrade when exposed to moderately elevated temperature conditions [39].
will result in the failure of CFRP cable structures [42].
soot Consequently, appropriate Itfire protection
Usually,may thecombust
polymer andresin,
evaporate,
which releasing
is theheat, smoke,matrix
organic andoftoxic
CFRP,volatiles [40,41].rubbery
becomes further causes
and viscous,
measures should be considered
decomposition of carbon fibers [39]. in the design
Meanwhile, of CFRP cable structures.
the CFRP will lose the strength and stiffness, which
if the temperature ranges from 65 ˝ C to 130 ˝ C [39]. At temperatures above 300 ˝ C, the polymer
will Up to now,
result in thethere are of
failure twoCFRP
maincablemeasures that can
structures prevent
[42]. or minimize
Consequently, the possible
appropriate firefire damage
protection
resin mayto combust
CFRP
measures cable
shouldand beevaporate,
structures. The first
considered inreleasing
method
the designisheat,
to
of spray
CFRPsmoke,
acable soot and
fire resistant
structures. toxic on
coating volatiles
the surface[40,41].
of CFRP It further
cablesUp[39].
causes decomposition This there
to now, intumescent
of carbon coating
are twofibers can ensure
[39].
main measures thatthat
Meanwhile, canthe temperature
the
prevent CFRP of lose
will
or minimize CFRP
thethe cables dofirenot
strength
possible reach
and
damage stiffness,
their
which will
to CFRPcritical
result intemperature
cable the
structures. forCFRP
failure The
of the required
first isduration
to spray during
cable structures
method a[42]. fire. The
Consequently,
fire resistant critical
coating temperature
appropriate
on the surface of can
fire be
protection
CFRP
defined
cables as the
[39]. temperature
This intumescent at coating
which the cancables
ensure lose
thatsothemuch of their strength
temperature of CFRPorcables
stiffness thatreach
do not they
measures should be considered in the design of CFRP cable structures.
can
theirnocritical
longer temperature
support the applied
for theloads [43]. There
required duration are now
during several
fire. appropriate
The criticalfire resistant coatings
temperature can be
Upontothe now, thereforare two main FF measures that canCoatings,
prevent or Itminimize the possible fire damage
definedmarket, example,atthe
as the temperature which88the from Firefree
cables lose so much ofInc. their is a water-based
strength intumescent
or stiffness that they
to CFRPcoating,
cable which
structures.
can no longer support
The
can withstand first method
extreme
the applied
is to spray
loadstemperatures
[43]. There are (up atofire
now 1093resistant
for ancoating
°C appropriate
several extended on the surface
period
fire resistant time ofof CFRP
ofcoatings
cables [39]. This intumescent coating can
on the market, for example, the FF 88 from Firefree ensure that the temperature of CFRP
19 Coatings, Inc. It is a water-based intumescent cables do not reach
their critical
coating, which can withstand extreme temperatures (up to 1093 °C for an extended period of timebe
temperature for the required duration during fire. The critical temperature can ofdefined
as the temperature at which the cables lose so much 19 of their strength or stiffness that they can no
longer support the applied loads [43]. There are now several appropriate fire resistant coatings
on the market, for example, the FF 88 from Firefree Coatings, Inc. It is a water-based intumescent
coating, which can withstand extreme temperatures (up to 1093 ˝ C for an extended period of time of
2096
Polymers 2015, 7, 2078–2099

up to 1 h) [39,44]. Another method is to increase the fire resistance of the CFRP itself, which is the
fundamental
up to 1method toAnother
h) [39,44]. solve the fire protection
method is to increaseproblem.
the fire For example,
resistance of thethe
CFRPorganic
itself,resin-based
which is the matrix
fundamental method to solve the fire protection problem. For example,
of CFRP can be replaced with a fire resistant cement-based matrix [45]. For another instance, the organic resin-based
nanoclay
matrix of CFRP can be replaced with a fire resistant cement-based matrix [45].
particles can be added into the polymer resin of CFRP to significantly increase the fire resistance For another instance, [39].
nanoclay particles can be added into the polymer resin of CFRP to significantly increase the fire
In addition to the obstacles in respects of mechanics and physics, high unit price is also
resistance [39].
a challengeInthat obstructs
addition to thetheobstacles
widespread use ofofCFRP
in respects cables
mechanics andinphysics,
cable structures.
high unit priceUsually, the unit
is also
price ofaCFRP cables is influenced by the tensile strength and the elastic modulus.
challenge that obstructs the widespread use of CFRP cables in cable structures. Usually, the unit Through personal
inquiries of ofthe
price CFRPproducers and also by
cables is influenced considering the information
the tensile strength from
and the elastic the Internet,
modulus. Through Literature
personal [38]
inquiries
estimated the unitof the producers
prices (pricesandperalso considering
unit weight) the information
of CFRP cablesfrom
withthedifferent
Internet, tensile
Literature [38]
strengths σu
estimated
and different the unit
elastic prices (prices
moduli E, whichper unit weight)in
is shown of Figure
CFRP cables with different
35, compared tensile
with thestrengths σu
steel full-locked
and different elastic moduli E, which is shown in Figure 35, compared with the steel full-locked coil
coil rope cable whose unit price is approximately 10 €/kg. In this figure, the percentages represent
rope cable whose unit price is approximately 10 €/kg. In this figure, the percentages represent
the ratios of unit prices of CFRP cables to that of steel cable and the directions of arrows indicate
the ratios of unit prices of CFRP cables to that of steel cable and the directions of arrows indicate
the increasing directions
the increasing of σof
directions u and
σu andE. E.
Figure 35. Estimate of unit prices of CFRP cables compared to that of steel cable.
Figure 35. Estimate of unit prices of CFRP cables compared to that of steel cable.
As seen from Figure 35, the unit prices of CFRP cables are much higher than that of steel cable;
moreover,
As seen from theFigure
unit price
35,rises
the with
unit the increase
prices of either
of CFRP σu orare
cables E ofmuch
CFRP cables
higherand the that
than increase of E cable;
of steel
makes the price increase slightly faster than that of σu.
moreover, the unit price rises with the increase of either σu or E of CFRP cables and the increase of
The exorbitant unit price of CFRP cables might prevent the CFRP cable structures
E makes the price increase slightly faster than that of σu .
achieving economic efficiency compared to the corresponding steel cable structures. However,
The
theexorbitant unit price
literature [36–38] of CFRP
demonstrated cables
that using might prevent
CFRP cables the cable
in some CFRP cable structures
structures (e.g., cable achieving
net
economic efficiency compared to the corresponding steel cable structures. However,
facade) can achieve the economic efficiency through considerably reducing the amount of cable the literature
used. [36–38]
demonstrated that using
Furthermore, CFRPstructures
CFRP cable cables incan some cable structures
be economically (e.g., in
competitive cable
somenet facade)
cases, if thecan achieve the
life-cycle
cost is taken into consideration [46,47].
economic efficiency through considerably reducing the amount of cable used. Furthermore, CFRP
cable structures can be economically competitive in some cases, if the life-cycle cost is taken into
7. Conclusions
consideration [46,47].
The history of building is a history of building materials. The emergence of a new material can
usually promote the development of the structures. Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) is a
7. Conclusions
new high performance composite material with many advantages, such as long breaking length, no
The historyand
corrosion of excellent
buildingfatigue
is a history of building
resistance. In the earlymaterials. The emergence
1980s, the introduction of CFRPof instead
a new ofmaterial
steel can
usuallyfor
promote thealready
cables had development of theAfter
been proposed. structures. Carbon
decades of Fiber Reinforced
development, CFRP cables arePolymer (CFRP) is a
now driving
new highthe performance
progress of cable structures.material with many advantages, such as long breaking length, no
composite
corrosion andThisexcellent
paper mainly reviews
fatigue the ten existing
resistance. CFRP1980s,
In the early cable structures in the world.
the introduction All of instead
of CFRP them areof steel
CFRP cable bridges. Although these CFRP cable structures were principally built for test purposes,
for cables had already been proposed. After decades of development, CFRP cables are now driving
their successful constructions and good long-term services have fully confirmed that replacing steel
the progress
cables of cable
with CFRPstructures.
cables in cable structures is feasible based on the present technology. Because of
This
thepaper
strong mainly
orthotropyreviews
of CFRP,the tencable
steel existing CFRPcannot
anchorages cabledirectly
structures in the
be used world.
to anchor Allcables.
CFRP of them are
CFRP cable
In thebridges.
existing Although
CFRP cablethese CFRP the
structures, cable structures were
corresponding principally
anchorages built fordesigned
were specially test purposes,
their successful constructions and good long-term services have fully confirmed that replacing steel
cables with CFRP cables in cable structures is feasible 20 based on the present technology. Because of the
strong orthotropy of CFRP, steel cable anchorages cannot directly be used to anchor CFRP cables. In
the existing CFRP cable structures, the corresponding anchorages were specially designed according
to the characteristics of CFRP. In addition, using CFRP cables in cable roofs and cable facades is
2097
Polymers 2015, 7, 2078–2099
overviewed in this paper, which is a great potential application area for CFRP cables in the future.
A prototype CFRP spoked wheel cable roof is introduced and a novel design without any anchorages,
i.e., the CFRP Continuous Band Winding System, is also presented.
Admittedly, there are still several challenges and obstacles hindering the wide applications of
CFRP cables, such as difficulty in anchoring, the fire safety problem and the relatively high price.
However, this should not prevent us from going ahead with the advancement in the domain of CFRP
cables. The structural engineering community of today needs to encourage the engineering practice
of CFRP cables structures, so as to promote the further development of cable structures.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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© 2015 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open
access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons by
Attribution (CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Review

Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer for Cable

Keywords: fiber reinforced polymer; CFRP cable; cable structure; anchorage

Polymers 2015, 7, 2078–2099; doi:10.3390/polym7101501 www.mdpi.com/journal/polymers

The a mortar called

Figure 10. Principle

Polymers 2015, 7, page–page

Polymers 2015, 7, page–page

in thePolymers 2015, Tube

Polymers 2015, 7, page–page

Polymers 2015, 7, page–page

Polymers 2015, 7, page–page

5. Future Development of CFRP Cable Structures

5.1. Prototype of CFRP Spoked Wheel Cable Roof

5.2. CFRP Continuous Band Winding System

Polymers 2015, 7, page–page

Polymers 2015, 7, page–page

As can be Figure 32.

Polymers 2015, 7, page–page

6. Existing Challenges for CFRP Cable Structures

Polymers 2015, 7, page–page

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

1. Krishna, P. Cable-Suspended Roofs; McGraw-Hill: New York, NY, USA, 1978.

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