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1 AN INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON

2 MACROSCOPIC SPRAY CHARACTERISTIC UNDER GCI
3 ENGINE CONDITIONS

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4 Nguyen Ho Xuan Duy1 and Ocktaeck Lim2*
5 1Graduate School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ulsan, Ulsan 44610, South Korea

6 2School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ulsan, Ulsan 44610, South Korea

7 *Corresponding Author

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8 Email address: otlim@ulsan.ac.kr

9 ABSTRACT
10 Spray characteristics play an important role in the application of GCI engines because it
11 affects engine performance as well as engine design. When the ambient temperature, the fuel

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12 temperature as well as the injector body temperature increase, the spray morphology changes
13 significantly. The evidence is that the evaporation of the droplet will increase significantly, leading
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to the spray characteristics and spray structure also changing in different directions. In the current
work, the effect of high temperature chamber is studied to understand the spray forming behavior
as well as the change of spray characteristics with the experimental matrix set up through the
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17 condition of the GCI engine. The experimental process is performed on the CVC system with a
18 variation of chamber temperature at different levels: 323K, 398K, and 473K. The common rail
19 system is equipped to change the fuel injection pressure from 50MPa-80MPa and 110MPa with
20 the CVC chamber density increased from 15kg/m3 to 30kg/m3. In addition, the injectors are set
21 up at vertical and horizontal angles to create an overview parameter of spray characteristics for
22 the case study on GCI engine conditions simulated by CVCC or RCEM. Differences in spray
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23 evolution were noted as chamber temperature increased. Spray penetration length tends to reach
24 the limit of the chamber wall more quickly at high temperatures. The results were noted to shorten
25 the touch time by 12% and 9.5% respectively at the injection pressure of 50MPa and the chamber
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26 density of 15kg/m3. The cone spray angle tends to decrease on average from 3o to 10o across all
27 experiment cases when the chamber temperature is high. However, when entering the period
28 after 450 μs-600 μs, the change of the spray cone angle is not much during the injection into the
29 stable phase.
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30 Keywords: Gasoline-Biodiesel, temperature, spray characteristics, non-vaporizing condition

31 1. INTRODUCTION
32 Means of transport have grown tremendously with new technologies constantly being
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33 born. Especially in cars, new generations of engines are constantly being improved. Not
34 only that, electric vehicles and fuel cell vehicles have also been successfully applied and
35 used on a wide scale. However, there is currently no viable solution to completely replace
36 the internal combustion engine (ICE). Although electric vehicles and fuel cells have been
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37 completed, the battery performance and range are not quite as satisfying as traditional
38 fuel-powered vehicles. Therefore, the internal combustion engine will still exist for several

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39 decades, provided that there are solutions for fuel economy and cleaner combustion
40 modes. To that end, research on improving combustion efficiency as well as reducing
41 emissions on internal combustion engines is still very necessary [1].
42 The CI engine is always rated higher than the SI engine because of the efficiency it

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43 achieves due to its high compression ratio. Self-ignition and oxidation are mainly
44 dependent on injection and mixture. Although the combustion of the CI engine is better,
45 there are still rich regions that make up Soot and PM. On the other hand, when operating
46 in high load mode, the temperature in the combustion chamber increases leading to high
47 NOx generation. There have been many application studies on CI engines to limit harmful

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48 emissions such as controlling injection strategies, applying advanced injection systems,
49 using exhaust gas recirculation systems and exhaust gas treatment systems. [1-2]. It can
50 be seen that the CI engine still has the potential to be used for a long time, but it needs
51 to be changed to match the goals and requirements set forth by modern trends.

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52 Recent studies are gradually focusing on low-temperature combustion. All LTC
53 techniques provide flameless, homogenous combustion of a premixed fuel-air
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combination because of the lack of a fuel-rich zone in the combustion chamber, resulting
in very low NOx generation and minimal soot formation [3]. However, exhaust gas after-
treatment equipment is required to limit CO and HC emissions because of a reduction in
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57 exhaust gas temperature [1-4]. To this end, it requires very different control over the
58 conditions in the cylinders associated with typical flame-driven energy release. According
59 to the amount of premixing of the fuel-air mixture, LTC techniques are classified into two
60 types: homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) and partially stratified charge
61 compression ignition (PSCCI) [5].
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62 One of the developing technologies of the LTC is the GCI engine. It works based on
63 the replacement of Diesel fuel with gasoline and works on the principle of the CI engine.
64 Because of its volatile nature and high resistance to self-ignition, gasoline can help make
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65 the mixing process more homogeneous. However, the research and application of the
66 GCI engine are still facing many problems when the engine operates at high loads that
67 have not been thoroughly resolved. At low load operation, the GCI engine uses the same
68 mode as the HCCI. Pre-injection strategies are applied to form a partial pre-combustion
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69 (PCC) mode when operating at medium load [6]. Depending on the operating conditions
70 of the engine, the degree of fuel stratification will affect the ability to automatically ignite,
71 the division of combustion stages, the stability of the combustion process, and the amount
72 of emissions generated [7-9].
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73 There has been a lot of research focused on the combustion of GCI engines. In the
74 study by Zhong [10] focusing on combustion and soot formation using Gasoline-Biodiesel
75 (hydrogenated catalytic biodiesel) fuel on GCI engines, the soot development process
76 was reduced. In another study, Cung [11] and colleagues performed an experimental
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77 process on a multicylinder engine using GCI combustion mode with 3 different fuels. The
78 results show that the engine knock by combustion is within an acceptable threshold

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79 (<90DB) and combustion is stable. Pinazzi [12] investigated the effect of injector spray
80 angle ratio on low-load operation in a gasoline compression ignition (GCI) engine using
81 a bespoke 1460 (UA146) umbrella angle diesel injector and a second injector with a 700
82 umbrella angle (UA70). According to the researchers, the narrower UA70 injector

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83 enhanced the local mixture strength.
84 However, studies on the injection process are still necessary and have a certain
85 influence on the overall operation of the engine. Some studies have also been performed
86 at high fuel injection pressures for gasoline with variations in environmental density.
87 Research by Kim et al. [13] found that gasoline provided a shorter injection penetration

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88 length than diesel under the condition of injection pressure of 400-1000 bar at 2 bar
89 chamber pressure in a constant volume chamber. Kim et al. [13] also performed another
90 study on the combustion of diesel and gasoline with injection pressures at 400 and 60 bar
91 in a single-cylinder optical engine. The results show that both fuels shown the same peak

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92 indicated mean effective pressure but the NOx emissions of gasoline fuel were lower than
93 diesel. In addition, the penetration of gasoline is significantly lower than that of diesel
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under volatile conditions. The study conducted by Payri et al. [14] was also performed on
CVC to compare the injection process of gasoline and diesel at injection pressures from
600 to 1500 bar with chamber pressures of 25 and 50 bar. However, the authors
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97 concluded that penetration length and momentum flux were the same at the non-
98 evaporative condition for diesel and gasoline. In another study, Medina et al. [15] also
99 performed experiments on gasoline fuel with variable pressure from 300 to 1500 bar with
100 chamber pressure varying from 1 to 20 bar at a temperature of 298K. The results also
101 show that spray tip penetration length tends to increase with increasing injection pressure.
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102 Meanwhile, the spray cone angle also increased similarly at higher chamber pressures at
103 constant fuel injection pressure.
104 In addition to the above information, there have been many experimental studies on
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105 GCI engines using low octane fuel to ensure stable combustion and reduce fuel costs
106 [16-19]. However, to replicate the model of GCI, it is very difficult to use low-octane fuel
107 when all commercial fuels have high octane numbers. In this study, the goal of utilization
108 of high-octane fuel is investigated to facilitate the practical application of GCI engines.
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109 However, the viscosity of gasoline is very low, so it significantly affects the operating mode
110 of the fuel injectors. Therefore, an amount of Biodiesel is added to the fuel mixture to
111 ensure stable viscosity and increase the ability to use biofuel in the combustion process
112 of the engine. Another notable point is the change in the properties of the fuel mixture
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113 itself, the reduction of gasoline composition will help the ignition delay phase to be
114 improved effectively [20]. In another case, changing the injector angle was performed in
115 many different studies. However, the comparison between vertical or horizontal injector
116 placement on CVCC or RCEM experiments or related studies has not been focused on
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117 yet. This study also provides an additional reference on the spray process with the change
118 of injector angle at 90o (vertical) and 180o (horizontal). It will provide a more general view

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119 to evaluate the factors affecting the jet formation process as well as mix the mixture to
120 avoid unnecessary errors when setting up the experimental process.
121 To sum up, this paper focuses on studying the spray characteristics of the non-
122 vaporizing process based on the conditions of the GCI engine. Combined with previous

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123 research, the study can provide a comprehensive parameter for the spray process for the
124 research of GCI engines and be the foundation for carrying out further studies on the
125 vaporization and combustion processes. The chamber temperature was changed from
126 323K to 473K to better understand the influence of temperature on spray formation.
127 Besides, the main influence investigated was the angle of the injectors at two different

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128 positions, 90o and 180o respectively with injection pressure from 50-80-110 MPa and gas
129 density from 15-30kg/m3. The fuel used in this study was GB20 (Gasoline 80%-Biodiesel
130 20%) which has been shown in previous studies to be optimal for this process. The
131 resulting spray properties include spray development, spray penetration length, spray

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132 cone angle, spray penetration rate and spray area will be analyzed as follows.

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2. METHODOLOGY
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2.1 Experiment setup and optical arrangement for macroscopic spray visualization
Figure 1 shows the experimental layout with a constant volume chamber (CVC) system,
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136 optical setup, and related systems including a fuel system, control system, and nitrogen gas
137 supply system. The cylindrical structure of the constant volume chamber is made of stainless
138 steel to withstand high temperatures and pressures. The dimensions of the combustion chamber
139 include a cylinder length of 335 mm and a diameter of 300 mm. The combustion chamber is
140 formed in the middle of the cylindrical chamber with dimensions of 105 mm and a visible optical
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141 distance of 100 mm. The sides of the CVC can be customized to accommodate injectors, mixer
142 fans or air supply systems. Therefore, it is easy to change the position of the injector at an angle
143 of 90o or 180o. The top and bottom of the chamber are two assembled sides of quartz windows to
144
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easily observe the progress of the spraying or combustion process. The temperature of the
145 chamber is increased by 8 heaters installed in 2 planes of the cylinder and uniformly arranged 4
146 each. The temperature control system is set to control the desired temperature level. The
147 chamber will be heated for a period of 2 hours for each test to ensure uniform temperature at all
148 points.
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149 A National Instruments (NI) computer (model NI PXI-8106) with a multifunction DAQ (model
150 NI PXI-6251) and a reconfigurable I/O (cRIO 9151) was used for preparing the gas filling program
151 with a combination of NI modules 9237 and 9238. Before each experimental process, gas is
152 charged inside the chamber and guaranteed not to leak through the solenoid control valve
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153 (Burkert 8065 and Burkert 2875) corresponding to the pressure set on the LabVIEW control
154 software. Leak identification was developed using a comparison algorithm between the static
155 pressure sensor (Static pressure sensor 4045A) set up on the Nitrogen gas intake system and
156 the pressure transducer sensor (Kistler 6061B) located in the chamber. If the pressure is reduced
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157 by more than 0.2 bar, the test process will not be able to continue because the injector control

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158 signal and camera trigger cannot be synchronized. In addition, a vacuum pump was set up to
159 clean the chamber after each experimental process.
160 The system included a 0.2mm diameter single-hole Bosch injector. A Zenobalti device (ZB-
161 1100) controlled the pressure via a standard rail system driven by pressure sensor and control
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valve signals. Similarly, the injection timing was synchronized with the high-speed camera and
163 the controller, which is commonly known as the rail solenoid injector peak and hold driver (ZB-
164 5100) device. The Zenobalti multi-stage injection engine controller (ZB-8035) also controls the
165 injection duration and cycles.
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167 The Schlieren approach with the Z-model is used in this optical setup. Spray images from the

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168 chamber are collected using halogen lamps, high-speed cameras, and concave spherical mirrors
169 (diameter 150 mm, focal length 2000 mm). To capture moving spray, a halogen light source is
170 shone through the first concave spherical mirror with the diverging light source. This diverging
171 light source is then transformed into a parallel light source and directed directly to the camera via

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172 the second concave mirror. The photos were taken at 40,000 frames per second using a Photron
173 SA3 high-speed camera with a resolution of 256x128 pixels.

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Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of an experimental system for Non-vaporizing condition

174 2.2 Fuel properties and preparation

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175 Commercial gasoline was selected as a baseline fuel in this study. The GB mixture was created
176 with 80% of Gasoline and 20% Biodiesel. The detailed properties of Soybean biodiesel are list in

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177 Table 1. GB fuel blends have been tested for stability, agitation, and guaranteed no delamination
178 for two weeks prior to testing. The properties of the GB20 blend were tested by K-Petro, which
179 are presented in Table 2.
180 Table 1. Composition and properties of Biodiesel

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Property Test method Results
Ester content, mass% KS M 2413 97.8
Flashpoint, °C KS M 2010 190
Viscosity at 40 °C, mm2/s KS M 2014 4.4
Carbon residue, wt% KS M ISO 10375 0.01
Sulfur content, mg/kg KS M 2027 1
Ash, wt% KS M ISO 6245 0.001
Copper strip corrosion (3 h at 50 °C) KS M 2411 1A

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Density at 15 °C, kg/m3 KS M 2411 878
Water content, % KS M ISO 12937 0.04
Total contaminant, mg/kg EN 12662 7
Acid value, mg KOH/g KS M ISO 6245 0.20
Total glycerol, mass% KS M 2412 0.16
Monoglyceride, mass% KS M 2412 0.47

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Diglycereol, mass% KS M 2412 0.17
Triglycereol, mass% KS M 2412 0.00
Free glycerol, mass% KS M 2412 0.0132
Oxidation stability, 100°C, h
Methanol content, mass%
Methanol content, mass%
Metal (mg/kg) Na+K
Ca+Mg
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EN 1411
EN 14110
EN 14108, 14,109
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15
0.01
0.01
LT1
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Phosphorous content, mg/kg EN 14107 LT1
Color (ASTM) ASTM D1500 1.0
Pour point, °C KS M 2016 0
CFPP, °C KS M 2411 -2
Appearance Naked eyes Clear
181
182 Table 2. Physical properties of GB20
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Property Unit Test method GB20

Density at 15°C kg/m3 KS M ISO 12185:2003 757.1
Lubricity μm KS R ISO 12156-1:2012 236
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Cloud point at 15°C 15°C KS M ISO 3015:2008 -16

Pour point °C ASTM D6749:2002 <-57
Kinematic viscosity at 40°C mm2/s KS M ISO 3104:2008 1.4338[21]
Heating value MJ/kg ASTM D240:2009 43.6
Surface tension at 20°C mN/m ASTM D971:2009 21.53[22]
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Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio – – 14.276

Blend ratio – – 0.8

183
184 2.3 Experiment conditions
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185 The experimental process is carried out through the influence of temperature on the spray
186 process. The chamber temperature was changed from 323K, 398K and 423K, respectively. In
187 addition, the injector position is also changed to 90o and 180o. To further clarify the characteristics
188 of the spray to the operating conditions of the engine, the injection pressure during the test was
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189 50-80-110 MPa, respectively. In addition, the difference in ambient gas density also greatly affects
190 the spray formation process. It corresponds to the change of compression ratio on the actual

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191 engine. In this study, the ambient gas density was changed by 15 kg/m3 and 30 kg/m3. Table 3
192 lists the injection process conditions as well as the experimental parameters of the highspeed
193 camera.
194 Table 3. Experimental test matrix

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Fuel type GB20

Injection pressure (MPa) 50-80-110

Ambient gas density

15, 30
(kg/m3)

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Injector type Bosch (single hole)

Injector position 90o-180o

Injection duration (μs) 1500

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Chamber body
323-398-473
temperature (K)

Fuel temperature (K) 323

Nozzle diameter (mm)

Frame rate (frames/sec)

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40000
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Exposure time 1/307000

Random reset 150

Image resolution 256x128 pixels

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195
196 The process of changing experimental conditions to give an overview of the effects of a study.
197 However, error and instability are always problems encountered in experimental processes. Table
198 4 shows the uncertainty values of experimental equipment that may affect the overall results.
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199
200 Table 4. Experimental boundary conditions and error
Experiment conditions Average value Error value (%)

Injection pressure (MPa) 50-80-100 0.68-0.625-0.5

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Density (kg/m3) 15-30 0.1-0.15

Chamber temperature 323K-398K-423K 0.95-1.15-1.3

Fuel temperature (K) 323 1.5

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201
202 2.4 Image processing
203 The image processing techniques are applied to determine the necessary parameters of spray
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204 characteristics including spray penetration length, spray cone angle, and spray area. The spray
205 penetration rate is taken from penetration time history. The image processing is done by

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206 referencing code from the Engine combustion network (ECN) [23] before rebuilding the algorithm
207 to match the frame rate and threshold. Image processing steps are performed by converting color
208 images to grayscale. From the gray scale, the image is converted to a binary image to determine
209 the required results mentioned above. After identifying the coordinate system's origin as the
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center and end of the nozzle, the spray penetration length is calculated as the distance between
211 the spray's furthest point and the center of the nozzle. The spray cone angle is the angle of the
212 spray at one-third of its length. The area of the spray is determined based on the formula for the
213 total number of pixels of the image where the spray beam appears minus the original image at
214 the beginning of the spray process. The parameters are determined based on the number of
215 pixels and then multiplied by 1 pixel/0.18mm to get the result converted to mm or mm2. To ensure

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216 that the uncertainty is within acceptable limits, the result of the spray characteristic is the average
217 value calculated over the 10 spray events.
218

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Fig. 2. Spray definition image for single-hole injectors[24].

219 3. Results and discussion

220 In this chapter, the results on spray characteristics including spray evolution, spray
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221 penetration length, spray penetration rate, spray cone angle, and spray area are presented. The
222 results are shown as a graph of changes in time from the formation of the spray to the
223 impingement the wall. With the experimental conditions presented above, the influence of
224 temperature on the injection process will be shown through two cases of injector angle 90o and
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225 180o. The aim of the study is to combine with previous studies to provide a comprehensive
226 parameter for the practical application of GCI engines with high octane fuel. In addition, the laws
227 of the spray characteristics are demonstrated through experiments with controlled uncertainty. It
228 will be the basis for the convenient application of machine learning or deep learning related
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229 research to shorten the time for studies of the injection process.
230 3.1 Spray evolution process of Gasoline-Biodiesel fuel blended
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231 The spray evolution process is the foundation on which other characteristics of the spray can
232 be analyzed. Based on the spray evolution process, the results recorded through the images can
233 provide the characteristics of the spray penetration length, spray cone angle, spray area and so
234 on. Typical results of the spray evolution in this study are presented in the condition of injection
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pressure of 110MPa, chamber density of 30 kg/m3, injector angle 90o and 180o, chamber
236 temperature of 323K and 473K to evaluate the difference of spray image as well as spray behavior
237 under high temperature. The results shown below in Figures 3 and 4 are selected according to
238 time intervals to give the most intuitive view of the spray development.

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Fig. 3. Comparison between 90o and 180o of injector positions to spray development at chamber temperature 323K,

injection pressure of 110 Mpa and gas ambient density of 30 kg/m3.

239 According to the images of the spray evolution process displayed, the temperature has a
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240 major impact on the spray formation features. The stability of the environment in the chamber is
241 greatly affected because the molecules move faster as the temperature increases from 323K to

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242 473K. The spray formation time was also shortened by about 300 μs under the same conditions
243 of injection pressure and gas density in the chamber. The shortening of the spray forming time
244 and the impingement process will result in a more uniform mixture and better combustion
245 improvement [25]. In addition, the Schlieren method significantly contributes to the quality of the
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experimental results compared to previous studies. When the injection pressure is increased, the
247 shock waves are created with a denser density. However, shock waves are more difficult to
248 observe clearly at 473K and create noise at the edge of the injector.

249 In addition to the large influence of temperature, the study also shows a comparison between
250 two different injector angles at 90o in the vertical and 180o in the horizontal. The results show that
251 the spray angle in the case of 90o is larger and faster in terms of time to finish the process. This

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252 means that the spray penetration length of the 90o injector angle will be higher than the 180o under
253 the same test conditions. This problem can be explained due to fact that the influence of gravity
254 has had a significant impact on the jet formation process in the case of 180o.

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Fig. 4. Comparison between 90o and 180o of injector positions to spray development at chamber temperature

473K, injection pressure of 110 Mpa and gas ambient density of 30 kg/m3.
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255 3.2 Spray penetration length

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256 The spray penetration length of GB20 fuel is shown in Figures 5 and 6 with the experiment
257 conditions listed above. In this study, the injection duration was fixed at 1500 μs. Based on the
258 graph below, the left side represents the 90o injector placement angle and the right side is the
259 180o injector placement angle. The results are presented with a time step of 150 μs. Experimental
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comparisons are guaranteed under the same conditions of optical setup to avoid the influence of
261 uncertainty. The permissible error in all test cases does not exceed 2% including ancillary
262 equipment. To determine the spray penetration length, the start and end points are determined
263 by the position of the injector tip and when the spray impingement on the wall.
264 The spray tip penetration time is separated into two main areas by a key breakup time based
265 on spray characteristics theories proposed. The spray breakup time (tbreak) is based on the

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266 equations of Hiroyasu and Arai[26], which can be expressed as:
𝜌𝑓 𝑑𝑜
267 𝑡𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 28.65
𝜌𝑐∆𝑃

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268 The details of the equation construction process have been presented in the previous study
269 with relevant parameters. The results of the tbreak moment are presented in Table 5 with the
270
271
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respective values of injection pressure and ambient gas density. Tbreak is defined as an
intersection, when t<tbreak the spray development and remains in the primary breakup region, and
the spray penetration length tends to be linear. During this stage, the spray droplets emerge from
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273 the nozzle hole with a large spray angle and pointed tip structure before breaking due to the fact
274 that when t>tbreak, the fuel from the injector continues to be molecularized into smaller droplets
275 thanks to the resistance of the external pressure and the density of the liquid and gas. At this
276 time, the fuel enters the secondary injection stage and the spray development is slow due to the
277 influence of the surrounding gas density. The development of spray penetration length is
278 nonlinear and distinct from that of the primary spray stage. In this present work, we also observed
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279 this two-stage based spray tip development phenomena, and all of the associated tbreak values
280 are obtained and given in Table 5.
281
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Table 5. Spray breakup time for GB20 under ambient densities of 15kg/m3 and 30kg/m3

Ambient density Injection pressure

(kg/m3)
50 MPa 80 MPa 110 MPa
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15 160.839μs 126.423μs 106.798μs

30 163.385μs 127.648μs 108.285μs

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282
283 Higher injection pressure results in increased spray penetration length, which can be
284 attributed to increased spray momentum flux. This considerable rise is seen following the
285 secondary breakup stage (tbreak). However, the resulting spray penetration length has a longer
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286 penetration time with increasing ambient air density. This can occur as a result of significant
287 ambient resistance to the spray evolution process. Also, this study's lowest injection pressure

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288 case was 50Mpa, which resulted in a complete absence of spray break before impingement on
289 the wall. It seems to have overcome the drawback introduced in the previous study [27-28].
290 Temperature variation was recorded from a low of 323K to a high of 473K. The gas supplied
291 to the inside of the chamber is heated due to the high temperature of the chamber. This leads to

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292 a faster diffusion of the molecules inside. The faster movement of molecules will promote the
293 spray beam to grow faster. It can be seen that in the case of increasing temperature, the
294 completion time of the process takes place quickly and shortens the touching time to a maximum
295 of 400 μs. This phenomenon completely obeys the laws of thermodynamics and molecular
296 diffusion. The above phenomenon is recorded through a comparison between the injector angle
297 of 90o and 180o, at the injection pressure of 50Mpa and the gas density of 15 kg/m3, the

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298 impingement time decreases by 12% and 9.5%, respectively, when increasing temperatures from
299 323K to 473K. In another condition, when increasing the injection pressure to 110 MPa and the
300 density of 30 kg/m3, the impingement time decreased to 22.5% and 16.6%, respectively. However,
301 in Figures 5 and 6 for the period from start to finish, the effect of temperature did not seem to be

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302 so great in the case of spray penetration properties. Spray penetration length increases neither
303 much nor linear in most test cases. But at the last stage, the change of temperature affected this
304
305
306
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characteristic. Note that, The comparative relationship between 90o and 180o injectors shows a
clear difference when the impingement speed of 90o is always higher.Through the results, it can
be determined that the 90° injector angle always prevails for the injection and mixture formation
inside the combustion chamber.
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308 In addition, the addition of biodiesel composition in the fuel ensures stable operating
309 conditions of the injectors as well as directly affects the spray formation process due to increased
310 fuel volume. Moreover, it also enables overcoming some of the fundamental disadvantages of
311 high-octane gasoline fuel when used in the case of GCI engines. Indeed, it also shows the
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312 potential of GCI engines to be able to use commercial fuel directly when the combustion modes
313 and injection strategies are improved.
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Fig. 5. Spray penetration length temporal development of 90o and 180o injector angles at 15 kg/m3

with injection pressures of 50, 80, and 100 MPa and chamber temperatures of 323K-398K-423K.

314
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315

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Fig. 6. Spray penetration length temporal development of 90o and 180o injector angles at 30 kg/m3
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with injection pressures of 50, 80, and 100 MPa and chamber temperatures of 323K-398K-423K.

316

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317 3.3 Spray penetration rate
318 The spray penetration rate results are shown in Figures 7 and 8. Although the spray
319 penetration rate results are mainly based on the spray penetration length, it helps to show the
320 specific development process more clearly. The spray penetration rate is calculated based on

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321 spray penetration length over time. As shown the results, it can be seen that the spray penetration
322 rate peaks at about 300 μs after the spray starts to appear and decreases over time until the
323 spray impingement on the wall. The fluctuation in spray penetration rate over time can be
324 explained by the fact that during the injection phase, the fuel injected in the previous stage
325 undergoes acceleration due to the large pressure difference between the nozzle inside and
326 outside gas density. Then, because of the promotion of the amount of the fuel in the next phase,

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327 the volume of the spray beam increases along with the diffusion by temperature, and the
328 surrounding environment hinders the axial force of the spray to make the velocity slow down and
329 cause a strong deceleration. After the spray beam enters the steady state, it means that the fuel
330 is continuously supplied, causing the kinetic energy of the spray beam to increase to achieve a

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331 balance between the main thrust of the spray beam and the drag force of the outside ambient
332 density. At this point, the spray penetration rate is still decelerating but with a slower amplitude
333
334
335
until impingement on the wall.
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All test cases showed penetration rates within the allowable range and similar trends to related
studies [15,29]. The penetration rate values are recorded at 66 m/s, 130 m/s and 146 m/s
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336 respectively at a pressure of 50 MPa, 80 MPa, and 110 MPa in the case of 473K-30 kg/m3 at a
337 90° of injector angle. In addition, the effect of temperature is almost pronounced when compared
338 under the same experimental conditions of injection pressure and ambient gas density. For
339 example, in the case of 80MPa, the penetration rate result was reported to increase by 9.4% and
340 12.6% for the 398K and 473K temperatures respectively compared to the 323K chamber
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341 temperature. Meanwhile, a significant upward trend for the highest injection pressure was
342 recorded at 22% for the 473K case at 90° of injector angle. However, the influence of the injector
343 angle also affects the penetration rate results. At 110MPa injection pressure, the result of the 90°
344 injector angle is 3.6% higher than the 180° injection angle at the same 473K temperature
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345 condition. Meanwhile, the number was recorded 4.5% higher at 398K temperature with 80MPa
346 injection pressure, also inclined to 90o injector angle.
347 The results also support that the 90o injection angle will have an advantage because it is not
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348 affected by the effect of gravity. Noted at a high pressure of fuel rail pressure, the influence of
349 injector angle between 90o and 180o can be quite acceptable when the jet develops at a rapid
350 rate. In addition, the increased temperature will also help the penetration rate, and spray
351 penetration tend to be perfect for better mixing. But the possible trade-off of earlier touching will
352 affect the increase in soot formation. An injection strategy as well as appropriate temperature and
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353 pressure regulation are required to reduce soot formation during the time of combustion. The
354 diameter of a single-hole injector or the arrangement of the nozzles on a multi-hole injector will
355 also play an important role in influencing the mixture and emissions throughout the entire
356 combustion process.
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357

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Fig. 7. Spray penetration rate temporal development of 90o and 180o injector angles at 15 kg/m3 with

injection pressures of 50, 80, and 100 MPa and chamber temperatures of 323K-398K-423K.
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358

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Fig. 8. Spray penetration rate temporal development of 90o and 180o injector angles at 30 kg/m3 with

injection pressures of 50, 80, and 100 MPa and chamber temperatures of 323K-398K-423K.
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359

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360 3.4 Spray cone angle
361 Results of the spray cone angle are shown in Figures 9 and 10. It is shown in turn under the
362 experimental conditions with the variation of injection pressure, ambient gas density, and chamber
363 temperature as aforementioned. The resulting spray cone angle is captured through spray

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364 imaging and then processed by MATLAB code to provide an accurate value and is suitable for
365 data analysis with a remarkably large number of images.

366 The value of the spray cone angle decreases over time. When the atomization of the fuel
367 starts to take place, the high axial velocity and radial momentum together with the impact of the
368 resistance from the external pressure make the spray cone angle at the initial formation times

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369 have a big value. The result on the graph shows this trend very clearly, the spray cone angle has
370 the largest value 47o and 45o respectively of the 90o and 180o injector angle position in the case
371 of 323K. In addition, it is affected by reduced surface tension and increased ambient gas
372 momentum that leads to some initial moments of formation which accounts for the spray being

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373 stalled in the axial direction and tending to diffuse around. However, the spray cone angle
374 decreases slightly during the steady-state phase of the spray over time and changes very small
375 until reaching the wall. Besides, the average value of spray cone angle reduction is considered
376
377
378
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according to the development time of the spray. The maximum reduction at 50MPa injection
pressure is 72% while at 110MPa injection pressure the reduction is only 55.5% in the case of
323K- 30kg/m3. This proves a more stable operation of the spray formation as well as the
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379 operation of the engine at high injection pressure. As the temperature increases, the spray cone
380 angle has a tendency to decrease over the entire injection pressure and ambient gas density
381 conditions. Within the period from the time of spraying to 600μs, the change is very clear with the
382 difference from 3o to 10o between the temperature levels. After the period from 450μs -600μs, the
383 change in the cone injection angle is not significant because it is determined mainly from the end
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384 of the jet.

385 Additionally, the relationship between injection pressure and surrounding ambient gas density
386 is quite clear. The proof is that the spray cone angle decreases over time after the spray breakup
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387 time. It is indisputable the fact that the larger the spray cone angle before impingement on the
388 wall, the better the mixing process will be. One comprehensive theory is that the larger the spray
389 cone angle, the better the mixture, but that can also be prevented by too much fuel being attached
390 to the cylinder walls. Therefore, small diameter injectors are often used for the spray research
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391 process to help promote the initial molecularization stage and form a more stable jet.

392
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393

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Fig. 9. Spray cone angle temporal development of 90o and 180o injector angles at 15 kg/m3 with injection

pressures of 50, 80, and 100 MPa and chamber temperatures of 323K-398K-423K.

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Fig. 10. Spray cone angle temporal development of 90o and 180o injector angles at 30 kg/m3 with
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injection pressures of 50, 80, and 100 MPa and chamber temperatures of 323K-398K-423K.

394 Figure 11 shows the correlation between the evolution of the jet length and the cone injection

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4340588
 ed
395 angle. The typical case of is shown at a temperature of 473K and a chamber density of 30 kg/m3
396 with the injection pressure levels outlined in the experimental conditions of this paper. The spray
397 cone angle is set to the horizontal axis and the spray penetration length is set to the vertical axis.
398 This graph represents the trade-off of the spray development. It can be seen from the arguments
399

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of the previous results that the growth of the jet length will lead to a smaller injection angle. The
400 gradual decrease of the cone injection angle with time is almost a rule at different injection
401 pressure values. This trade-off relationship can be further optimized to reduce the negative effect
402 of spray impingement on the combustion chamber wall by promoting the air-fuel mixing process
403 with a larger spray cone angle and a suitable spray penetration length for higher engine efficiency.
404 When increased injection pressure is from 50MPa to 110MPa, at the initial time when the spray

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405 cone angle has the maximum value for each case, the spray penetration length values of the
406 80MPa and 110MPa pressure levels are almost doubled compared to the 50MPa case. At the
407 beginning of the steady-state phase of spray development, from the first timing since 20° of spray
408 cone angle and below, the increases in spray penetration length were 9.5% and 11.5% of the

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409 80MPa and 110MPa pressure levels compared to 50MPa, respectively. When entering the
410 second half of the spray development, the spray cone angle does not change much and ranges
411 from 13o to less than 20o. However, at this point, the increase of spray penetration length becomes
412
413
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rapid and reaches the finishing touch point, especially for cases with high injection pressure. This
is completely consistent with the relevant physical properties of velocity and pressure.
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Fig. 11. The trade-off of spray penetration length and spray cone angle during the time interval of

spray process of 90o and 180o injector angle at 30 kg/m3 under injection pressure of 50, 80 and 100
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MPa at 423K chamber temperature

414 3.5 Spray area
415 The spray area is an important parameter in the spray characteristics to evaluate the injection
416 process. During the experiment, the spray area is calculated based only on the change in pixel
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417 count of the next and first images of the process. The assessment of the spray area is only
418 approximate because the results are only obtained as 2D images while the spray beam is formed
419 in 3D space. During the spray formation process, turbulence within the spray is complex, so the
420 assessment of the spray area is not entirely accurate, but it can represent a comparison between
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421 different test cases and can highlight the connection between spray penetration and spray cone
422 angle.

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423 Figures 12 and 13 show the trend of the results in terms of spray area with temperature varying
424 from 323K to 473K and the experimental matrix as above. The spray area value increases steadily
425 with time and temperature. This is completely in line with the spray penetration length and spray
426 cone angle results shown in this paper. For the most part, the spray area of the 110 MPa injection
427

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pressure gives the highest results in the majority of test cases. However, due to the unknown
428 perturbation of the spray beam, in some cases, the result of the average temperature of 398K in
429 this experimental matrix was higher than that of 423K. This can be explained that when increasing
430 the ambient pressure enhances the perturbation of the molecules, leading to a large degree of
431 diffusion, making the area larger when compared between different temperatures.

432 Another remarkable feature is that as the gas density increases, the spray area tends to follow

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433 the same pattern. This is explained by the spray cone angle, when the gas density increases, it
434 creates a great resistance and causes an imbalance in the spray forming process, making the
435 spray tend to diffuse to the sides and gradually reduce the spray impingement time to reach the
436 wall. In addition, when increasing the temperature from 323K to 423K, the spray area also

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437 recorded a similar increasing trend. In some cases of 180° injector placement, although the
438 impingement time is very fast, it is not possible to compensate for the area of the spray. The
439
440 er
reason why this 180o angle is affected is quite large because the force of gravity tends to be
perpendicular to the radial axis of the spray.
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Fig. 12. Spray area temporal development of 90o and 180o injector angles at 30 kg/m3 with injection

pressures of 50, 80, and 100 MPa and chamber temperatures of 323K-398K-423K.
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441

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442

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Fig. 13. Spray area temporal development of 90o and 180o injector angles at 30 kg/m3 with injection
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pressures of 50, 80, and 100 MPa and chamber temperatures of 323K-398K-423K.

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 ed
443 4. Conclusions
444 This current work focuses on studying the spray characteristics of GB blended fuel under GCI
445 conditions. It provides overview data and insights related to high octane fuel injection as well as
446 an established basis for studies on GCI engines. The change of temperature from low to high is

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447 the main influencing criterion in this study aside from changing injection pressure, chamber
448 density and injector angle. Spray evolution tend to fully developed as the chamber temperature
449 increases. In addition, the results show a decreasing trend of the spray cone angle when the
450 temperature is gradually increased under the same conditions of rail pressure and ambient
451 density. Similar to the trend of spray penetration length, the results of spray penetration rate and
452 spray area also followed the same increasing trend with chamber temperature leveling under the

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453 same test conditions. One notable difference is that the optical setup has overcome the
454 disadvantages from the previous study. The shock wave image is shown more clearly when
455 increasing the injection pressure with larger and denser turbulence. In addition, changing the
456 injector angle also evaluates the influence on the result of spray formation. The evidence has

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457 always shown that the spray formation process at the 90° injector angle is dominant. It also
458 provides the necessary reference data for research on fuels using combustion simulation systems
459
460
461
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such as CVCC or RCEM. Based on the obtained results of this study, it provides a necessary
parameter to evaluate the relationship between the spray characteristics and the premise study
of the evaporation process with the conditions of GCI.
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462 NOMENCLATURE
Abbreviations

GCI Gasoline compression ignition

ICE Internal combustion engine

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CVCC Constant volume combustion chamber

GB Gasoline Biodiesel
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LTC Low-temperature combustion

RCEM Rapid compression engine machine

HCCI Homogenous charge compression ignition

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PPC Partially premixed combustion

DAQ Data acquisition

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NI National Instrument

PID Proportional integral derivative

GB Gasoline Biodiesel
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PM Particular matter

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PSCCI Partially stratified charge compression ignition

ECN Engine combustion network

UA Umbrella angle

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ZB Zenobalti

SI Spark ignition

CI Compression ignition

463 Reference

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464 [1] Maurya R.K., 2018. Characteristics and Control of Low Temperature Combustion
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