Human Biology – 1001NSC

Topic One: Chapter One

Learning Outcomes:
 Define levels of structural organisation within the human body
 Identify principal systems of the body
 Describe various regions of the body using anatomical planes, positions and terms
 Assess the appropriate diagnostic ability of several medical imaging techniques

Module One: The Human Body

o Human anatomy – the study of structure
 E.g. the structure of an eyeball – lens, retina, iris etc.
o Human physiology – the study of function
 E.g. the functional process of vision
o Cytology (cyte = cell) – study of cells
o Histology (hist = tissues) – study of tissues
o Systemic anatomy – the study of the structure of a whole system
 E.g. digestive system organs and glands
o Systemic physiology – the study of the function of a whole system
 E.g. process of food digestion

Systems of the Human Body

1. Integumentary 2. Skeletal
3. Muscular 4. Nervous
5. Endocrine 6. Circulatory (Cardiovascular)
7. Lymphatic/Immune 8. Respiratory
9. Digestive (Gastrointestinal) 10. Urinary (Renal)
11. Reproductive

Basic Activities of a Human Body

o Maintenance of boundaries
o Movement (running, jumping, talking…)
o Digestion (eating, drinking)
o Excretion (urination, defecation, CO2 in lungs)
o Growth (neonate — child — youth — adult)
o Repair (trauma, broken bones)
o Responsiveness (taste, smell, hearing, sight, touch)
o Metabolism (food — energy; catabolism, anabolism)
o Reproduction of species

Homeostasis of Bodily Fluids – Cellular Level

o Homeostasis (homeo = same; stasis = remain fixed) – a state of balance within the body
 Breakdown of homeostasis leads to disease
o Separation of fluid compartments
 Extracellular fluid (ECF) = outside the cell
 Contains molecules and nutrients spread for a part
 Might be fluid around tissues – interstitial fluid (between)
 Within blood - plasma
o Cells need these substances but at a different concentration
  Intracellular fluid (ICF) = within cells
 Concentrations of molecules and nutrients integral to life

Nutrients and molecules moving between both fluids aid in maintaining homeostasis

“Feedback” Mechanisms Maintain Homeostasis

Negative Feedback Mechanisms
o Reduces intensity of original stimulus
 Control of body temperature, control of blood pressure, hunger response
Positive Feedback Mechanisms
o Increases intensity of original stimulus
 Inflammatory response to infection, uterine contractions during childbirth

Basic Anatomical Terminology

o Disease – homeostatic imbalance with distinct:
 Symptoms – changes in body function felt by the patient such as nausea
 Signs – changes in body function that can be observed by the doctors such as a rash or fever
o Diagnosis – skill of distinguishing one disease from another
o Epidemiology – how, when and where the disease was transmitted
o Pharmacology – how drugs are used to treat disease
o Prognosis – forecasting the probable course and outcome of a disease

Clinical Observation Techniques

o Visualisation – observe the body surface (surface anatomy)
 Look for abnormalities in size, shape and angulation
o Palpation – feel the body surface with hands
 Pulses, breathing rates, temperature
o Auscultation – listen to body sounds with stethoscope
 Abnormal fluid in lungs
o Percussion – tap on body surface and listen to echo
 Air in intestines

Anatomical Position
o Standardised position from which to describe directional terms
 Standing upright
 Facing the observe, head level
 Eyes facing forward
 Feet flat on the floor
 Arms at the sides
 Palms turned forward
o Supine – lying on back completely
o Prone – lying on stomach
o Semi-supine – half back, half side
o Semi-prone – half stomach, half side

Planes and Sections

o Plane – an imaginary flat surface that passes through the body
o Section – is one of two surfaces (pieces) that results when the body is cute by a plane passing
through it
Sagittal Plane
o Sagittal plane – divides the body or an organ into left and right sides
o Mid-sagittal plane – produces equal halves
o Para-sagittal plane – produces uneven sections

Other Planes and Sections

o Frontal (or coronal) plane – divides the body or an organ into front (anterior) and back
(posterior) portions
o Transverse (cross-sectional) or horizontal plane – divides the body or an organ into upper
(superior) or lower (inferior) portions
o Oblique plane – some combination of two other planes

My brain is superior to my inferior posterior

Medial or Lateral
o Medial – nearer to the midline of the body
 The heart lies medial to the lungs
o Lateral – further away from the midline of the body
 The thumb is on the lateral side of the hand

Proximal or Distal – in relation to limbs

o Proximal – nearer to the attachment of the limbs to the trunk
 The knee is proximal to the ankle
o Distal – more distant from the attachment
 The wrist is distal to the elbow

Dorsal = Posterior Ventral = Anterior

Dorsal Body Cavity
o Near dorsal surface (back) of body
 The meninges (special protective coverings) line the dorsal body cavity
o Two subdivisions:
1. Cranial Cavity
 Holds the brain
 Formed by the skull
2. Vertebral (or spinal) Cavity
 Contains the spinal cord and spinal nerve roots
 Formed vertebral column

Ventral Body Cavity

o Near ventral surface (front) of body
o Two subdivisions:
1. Thoracic Cavity
 Above diaphragm
 Encircled by ribs, sternum, vertebral column and muscle
 Divided into two pleural cavities by the mediastinum
 The mediastinum contains all thoracic organs (heart, oesophagus, trachea, major blood vessels
etc.)
 Pleural Cavities
 Two membranes attached to the lung producing an oily substance for mobility
 Visceral clings to lung surface (very close to organ)
 Parietal lines the chest wall (pretty close to organ)

Pericardial Cavities
 Membranes surrounding the heart
 Visceral pericardium covers the hearts surface (secretes pericardial fluid)
 Parietal pericardium lines pericardial sac

2. Abdominopelvic Cavity
 Inferior portion of the ventral body cavity below the diaphragm
 Cavity is encircled by abdominal wall, bones and muscles of pelvis
 Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants
 Divided into 4 sections crossing over the belly button

The Classic Nine Abdominopelvic Regions

Non-invasive Medical Imaging

o Allows visualisation of structures without surgery
o Useful for confirmation of diagnosis
Conventional Radiology
o A single burst of x-rays
o Produces 2-D image on film
o Called radiography or x-ray
o Shows dense tissues (bone)
o Poor resolution of soft tissues
o Major use is osteology (study of bones)

Radiography is employed quite often in forensic investigation

Computerised Tomography (CT Scan)
o Moving, slicing x-ray beam
o Image produced on a monitor of a cross-section through the body
o Multiple scans used to build 3-D views
o Computer generated image reveals more soft tissue detail than conventional x-ray
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
o Body exposed to high-energy magnetic field
o Protons in hydrogen align themselves relative to magnetic field
 Field is up to 60,000 times stronger than that of the Earth’s gravity
o Pulse of radio waves used to generate an image on video monitor
o Cannot use on patient with metal implants in their body
o Best technique for viewing fine detail within soft tissues (lots of water present)
Ultrasound (Sonography)
o High-frequency sound waves emitted by hand-held device
o Safe, non-invasive and painless
o Image or sonogram is displayed on video monitor
o Used for foetal ultrasound and examination of pelvic and abdominal organs, heart and blood
flow through blood vessels
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
o Substance that emits positively charged particles is injected into the body
o Collision with negatively charged electrons in tissues released gamma rays
o Camera detects gamma rays and computer generates image displayed on monitor
o Measures cell activity/metabolism
 Cancer cells have a higher metabolic rate than normal cells
Endoscopic Technique
o Use of an endoscope – a fibre-optic device to visually inspect the interior of the organs and
cavities of the body
Topic Two: Chapter Three
Learning Outcomes:
 Name the main components of the cell
 Relate the function of the plasma membrane back to its structure
 Articulate the function of integral and peripheral proteins of the plasma membrane
 Describe the structure and function of the cell’s organelles

Module One: Cell Structure

Cell Structure
o Cells differ in their structure, shape, function and life-span according to their location and
specialisation

Three Key Components of the Cells

1. Plasma Membrane
 Outer cell membrane
 Barrier that minimises interaction between the extracellular space and intracellular space
2. Cytoplasm
 Cytosol: the intracellular fluid
 Cytoskeleton – integrity to the cell
 Organelles – have different biochemical properties that allow the cell to function
3. Nucleus
 Holds most of the genetic material
 “Instruction booklets”
The Plasma (Cell) Membrane
o Functions:
 Acts as a barrier separating the intracellular and extracellular fluid
 Controls the flow of substances into and out of the cell
 Helps identify the cell to other cells (e.g. immune cells)
 Participates in intercellular signalling
The Lipid (Fatty) Bilayer of the Cell Membrane
o Phospholipid molecules – contain one phosphate group and two lipid tails
o Consists of a polar (charged) head group which is attracted to water (hydrophilic)
o Two tails consist of fatty acid chains causing the tails to be hydrophobic
o Occurs naturally

Summary of Phospholipids
o Comprises 75% of the cell membrane
o Phospholipid bilayer = 2 parallel layers of molecules
o Each molecule is amphipathic (has both polar and non-polar regions)
o Polar parts are hydrophilic
o Face on both surfaces towards an aqueous environment
o Two aqueous compartments – inside and outside cell
o Non-polar parts are hydrophobic
o Line up next to each other in the interior of the bilayer
Cholesterol within the Plasma Membrane
o Contains polar hydroxyl group (OH-)
o Contains non-polar tail
o Rigid ring structure – stops the phospholipid tails
from associating to tightly or loosely, maintaining
fluidity of the membrane
o Comprises 20% of cell membrane lipids
o Interspersed among phospholipids (both layers)
o Used in steroid hormone synthesis
Selective Permeability of Plasma Membrane
o Lipid bilayer
 Is permeable to water
 Is permeable to non-polar and charged molecules (O2, CO2, steroids, small lipids)
 Is impermeable to polar and charged molecules, ions and macromolecules
o Transmembrane proteins act as specific channels or carrier proteins
 Used for small and medium-sized polar and charged molecules (e.g. glucose), water and ions (Ca2+,
Na, Cl-)
o Macromolecules (e.g. large proteins)
 Unable to pass through the cell membrane so use other forms of transport (vesicular)
Fluid Mosaic Model
o A “sea of lipids (fats) in which proteins float like icebergs”
o Lipid (fat) forms a barrier to entry or exit of polar (electrically charged) substances
o Proteins are the “gatekeepers” – they regulate the “traffic”
o Fifty lipid molecules to each protein molecule
Cell Membrane Proteins – Integral vs. Peripheral Proteins
o Integral – embedded within the membrane
 Hydrophobic part that sits within the hydrophobic tails of phospholipids
 Difficult to separate from bilayer – difficult to characterise
 Some will span in one lipid bilayer, others will span in both (transmembrane)
o Peripheral – outside of the lipid membrane
 Attached not embedded

|Proteins Functioning as Channels|

Passive Transport
o Simple diffusion – occurs with small, non-polar molecules that can integrate through the bilayer
 Substances move from high concentration to low concentration through the plasma membrane
o Facilitated diffusion – occurs with charged, polar molecules – a protein is required
 Substances move from high concentration to low concentration via a protein

1. Protein Acts as a Channel

o Transmembrane protein
o Aqueous channel
o Selective based on pore size and amino acid composition
o May be gated – open/closed
E.g. Cystic Fibrosis
 A defect in the chloride ion channel (Cl-) known medically as the cystic fibrosis transmembrane
conductance regulator (CFTCR) protein
2. Transporter/Carrier Proteins
o Transmembrane proteins
o Larger proteins
o Changes shape moving the binding site from one face of the membrane to another
o Specifically comes from binding site
 E.g. Amino acids to be used for protein synthesis

Active Transport
o Substances move from low concentration to high concentration via a protein and energy

3. Transporter/Carrier Protein
 o Transmembrane protein
o Hydrolysis of adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP) phosphorylation the carrier protein causing a
shape change which pumps the bound solute across the membrane
o Specificity comes from binding shape

Transport Across the Plasma Membrane

o Substances cross membranes by a variety of processes:
 Mediated transport moves materials with the help of a transporter protein = facilitated
 Non-mediated transport does not use a transporter protein = simple diffusion
Transporting Macromolecules Across the Plasma Membrane
o Vesicular transport moves large bulky materials across membranes in small “vesicles”
o Endocytosis – endo (to the inside)
 Processing something to the inside of the cell
 There are two forms of endocytosis:
 Phagocytosis – phago = eating
 Pinocytosis – pino = drinking
o Exocytosis – exo (to the exterior)
 Process of removing waste and pushing it to the cell exterior
Functions of Membrane Proteins
o There are six major functions of membrane proteins:
 Transport (active/passive)
 Cell-cell recognition
 Anchorage/Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix (ECM)
 Signal transduction
 Intercellular joining
 Enzymatic activity
Cell-cell Recognition
o Protein on one cell binds to receptor on another and alters the cell’s function in some way
 E.g. Allows cells to interact with each other
 Communication – cellular differentiation
 Adherence – cell’s attaching to each other to become tissues
 Defence – pathogen recognition (remain in homeostasis)

Connecting the Membrane to the Cytoskeleton/Extracellular Matrix

o Proteins anchor the cell membrane to the cytoskeleton maintaining the cell’s shape and
stabilising attachments to other cells/substances
o Restrict the mobility of some membrane proteins
o Proteins connect the plasma membrane with the Extracellular Matrix (ECM)
Signal Transduction
o If a ligand is not lipid soluble then it must bind to a receptor protein on the plasma membrane
o The receptor-ligand interaction alters the activity and function of the cell
 Binding causes the receptors to change and in doing so it causes the activation of further relay
proteins
 Eventually a specific cellular response will be triggered (gene expression, cell division, apoptosis – cell
death)
Adventures of Signal Transduction Pathway:

Cell Attachment
o Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) allows cells to:
 Adhere to each other via Intercellular Junctions
 Move
Enzymatic Activity
o Catalyses (speeds up) chemical reactions

NOTE: If a protein ends in “-ase”, then it is an enzyme

The Cytoskeleton
o Network of protein filaments throughout the cytoplasm
o Functions:
 Aids cell movement
 Confers cell shape
 Maintains cell structural support
 Aids in cell division
 Organisation of chemical reactions
 Cell and organelle movement
o Continually organised
The Cytoskeletal Filaments
1. Microfilaments
o Strands of protein: actin
 Actin protein subunits form F-actin protein
 F-actin = filamentous actin
o Dense cross-linked network
 Called the terminal web attached to the cytoplasmic side of the plasma membrane
o Aid in maintaining cell shape and cell motility
 Cells moves when they get their act(in) together
2. Intermediate Filaments
o Intermediate in size
o Composition varies in different cell types
 Rope-like fibrous proteins
 Tetramer subunits
o High tensile strength
 Internal guy-wires to resist pulling forces exerted on the cell
3. Microtubules
o Largest of the filaments
 Still very small!
o Composed of repeating units of alpha and beta tubulin
 Forms hollow tubes
o Functions – diverse
 Repositioning of organelles
 Chromosomal movement during division of cells
 Movement of cilia and flagella
Centrosomes and Centrosoles
o Microtubules need anchoring and an initiation point for formation
o Centrosome matrix providing anchoring
o Comprised of paired centrioles
o Centrioles have a nine triplet microtubules configuration
o Microtubules organising centres – initiate mitotic spindle
Functions of Microtubules
1. Repositioning of organelles
o Like a railway system
 Provide cell structure like the track does to a train
 Directionally transports organelles and vesicles containing proteins via proteins called Kinesin and
Dynein (motor proteins)
 Kinesin always walks towards plasma membrane
 Dynein always walks away from plasma membrane
2. Spindle formation during cell division
o Structures called the centrioles produce and maintain the microtubules in the cell
o Key part in mitosis – spindle shrinkage
3. Movement of cilia and flagella
Cilia Flagella
Structure Multiple small projections that One long projection from the
come out of the membrane of the membrane
cell
Movement Strong uniform movement, More of a wave-like movement,
collapses and comes back individualised
Purpose To move fluid around the cell To move the cell itself
Location Respiratory and genital tracts Sperm
Formation of Cilia and Flagella

Structure of Cilia and Flagella

Microvilli
o Extensions of the plasma membrane
o Core of bundled actin filaments that extend into the terminal web of the cell

Microvilli aid in increasing absorptive surface area of the cell

Organelles
o Organelle = tiny organ
The Nucleus
o Largest and most prominent organelle
 Usually spherical or ovoid
o Main store for the cell’s genetic information
o Consists of three regions
 Nuclear envelope – membrane
 Nucleoli – RNA
 Chromatin
The Nuclear Envelope:
o Consists of double membrane
o Outer surface is continuous with Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
o Punctuated by nuclear pores
 Aqueous transport channel regulating entry and exit of molecules
o Selectively permeable
 Pores are hydrophobic
The Nucleolus:
o Sits in the nucleus
o Not membrane bound
o Typically one or two per nucleus
o Spherical bodies that make ribosomal subunits
o Subunits then leave the nucleus via the nuclear pores
o Sense cellular stress

Nucleolus = singular, nucleoli = pleural

Chromatin:
o The DNA from one cell, stretched out, is approximately two metres long
 Needs to be condensed
o Chromatin in composed of approximately
 30% DNA
 60% Histone proteins (what DNA is wrapped around)
 10% RNA

Nature has exceptions to the rule – Polymorphonuclear:

o Some white blood cells (the neutrophils) are called polymorphonuclear leukocytes
 Poly = many shaped nucleus (occurs in white blood cells)
 Multinucleated = many nuclei (skeletal muscle cells, osteoclasts)
 Mature erythrocytes = no nuclei (structural importance, absorption of oxygen)

The Endomembrane System

o System of membranous organelles
 Produce, store and export biological molecules
 Degrade potentially harmful substances
The Endoplasmic Reticulum
o A network of membranes closely associated with the nucleus
1. Rough ER (RER)
o Ribosomes attached to surface
o “Studded” appearance
2. Smooth ER (SER)
o No ribosomes attached
o Looks like coral
Functions of the SER:
o Synthesise phospholipids and cholesterol
o Synthesise steroid-based hormones
o Detoxify drugs
o Break down stored glycogen
Ribosomes:
o Function
 Translate messenger RNA (mRNA – nuclei acids) into proteins (amino acids)
o Structure
 Ribosomal RNA and many small proteins
 Large subunit
 Small subunit
o Location
 Can switch between the two
 Free in the cytosol
 Membrane-bound attached to the endoplasmic reticulum
Polyribosomes or Polysomes:
o Multiple ribosomes attached to a single mRNA
 Can occur in both the cytoplasm or associated with RER
Functions of the RER:
o Synthesis of many soluble proteins used within the cell
 E.g. cellular digestive proteins, enzymes
o Synthesis of soluble proteins which are secreted from the cell
 E.g. secreted hormones, antibodies
o Synthesis of many cell membrane proteins
 E.g. receptor and channel proteins
The Golgi Apparatus (Body/Complex)
o A stack of “pancake-like” membranous sacs near the RER
o Has two faces
 A “receiving” face
 Cis face, cis = on this side of
 A “transporting” face
 Trans face, trans = cross/beyond
o Vesicles (containing synthesised proteins) bud off from the RER and fuse into the cis face
o Proteins are then modified and repackaged in the Golgi apparatus prior to secretion from the
cell
 Like a post office
o Vesicles leave via the trans face — the lysosome, the cell membrane or the extracellular
environment

o Three pathways after the Golgi apparatus

Pathway A: Soluble proteins, excreted
 Vesicle contents destined for exocytosis
Pathway B: Membranous proteins, exported to plasma membrane
 Vesicle membrane to be incorporated into the plasma membrane
Pathway C: If they don’t exit the cell they are stored in the lysosome
 Lysosome containing acid hydrolase enzymes
Lysosomes (The Cell’s “Demolition Crew”
o Membrane-bound acidic vesicles that contain powerful digestive enzymes (pH = approx. 5)
o Digestive particles
 Bacteria, viruses, intracellular parasites and toxins (degraded)
o Re-cycle worn-out organelles and cell membrane material (autographs = self-eating)
o Degrade non-useful tissues (autolysis)
 Webbing between fingers/toes prior to birth
 Endometrial lining of uterus (menstruation)
o Perform metabolic activities
 Breakdown of glycogen to glucose (when energy needed)
 Breakdown of bone (osteoclasts)
 Ca2+ ions into bloodstream (when required)

Organelles NOT in the Endomembrane System

Peroxisomes
o Small membrane-bound vesicle
o Contain powerful enzyme
Oxidases
 Detoxify harmful/toxic substances
 E.g. formaldehyde, alcohol
 Neutralise and convert dangerous free radicals to H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide) BUT H2O2 is bleach
Catalases
 Quickly converts H2O2 to harmless H2O
o Bile salt and cholesterol synthesis
o Very long chain of fatty acid (lipid/fat) metabolism
o Synthesis of important phospholipids in brain tissue
Mitochondria – The Powerhouse of the Cell
o Oval – bi-layered structures
 Outer membrane
 Folded inner membrane (cristae)
 Electron Transport Chain – ETC (produces ATP)
 Jelly-like matrix
 Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle)
o Contain their own DNA (mtDNA)
o Contain their own RNA and ribosomes
 Allows independent replication
 Synthesise 13 proteins in the ETC
o Circular chromosome (bacteria-like)
o Similar membrane composition to bacteria
o Endosymbiotic theory – used to be prokaryote, free-living, taken up by eukaryotic cell
(benefitted from energy production)
Functions of Mitochondria:
o Synthesis of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
 ATP = cell energy source
 Via the Krebs Cycle in matrix
 And the Electron Transport Chain (ETC) in cristae
o Storage and release of Ca2+ ions
 Calcium ions activate many cellular processes
 Muscle contraction
 Cell signalling cascades
Topic Three: Chapter Four
Learning Outcomes:
 Identify four basic types of tissues
 Describe the characteristics of epithelial tissue
 Predict the type of epithelial tissue present based on location/function

Histology
o Whole body contains approx. 200 cell types
o Four primary tissue classes
 Epithelial
 Connective
 Muscular
 Nervous
o Organ = structure with discrete boundaries
 Composed of two or more tissue types
o Pathology (pathos) = sickness
Biopsy Collection
o A biopsy:
1. Removal and examination of tissue from the body
2. A useful diagnostic aid, especially for cancer
3. Samples of human tissue can be obtained from many areas of the body by quick, safe techniques
using instruments such as
 Scalpels
 Needles
 Endoscopic tubes
 Scissors
 Brushes
Gross Pathology
o Can be seen with the naked eye
o Tissue changes that indicate disease
 E.g. discolouration of liver
Visualising Tissue Sections
o Tissue is preserved, sectioned and stained (for contrast) before microscopic viewing

Four Basic Tissue Types

1. Epithelial Tissue
o Covers surfaces and lines open cavities as well as covering walls and organs of closed body
cavities
o Forms glads when cells sink under the surface (forms boundaries)
2. Connective Tissue
o Material found between cells
o Supports and binds structures together (bones, tendons)
o Stores energy as fat
o Provides immunity to disease
3. Muscle Tissue
o Cells shorten in length producing movement
 Skeletal
 Cardiac
 Smooth
4. Nerve Tissue
o Cells conduct electrical impulses
o Detects changes inside and outside the body
o Interprets data from external and internal information
o Responds with nerve impulses
o Controls and coordinates body activities
From Cells to Tissues
o Cell Adhesion Molecules (CAMs)
o Functions:
 Joining cells together
 Allowing cell communication
 Forming a barrier
o Connect back to the cytoskeleton to provide strength
Desmosomes
o Attach cells to each other via CAMs called cadherins
o Cadherins from both cells bind together like Velcro
o Desmosomes attach to the intermediate filaments of the cytoskeleton
Tight Junctions
o Integral protein molecules circle the cell within the plasma membrane
o These molecules fuse together in adjacent cells
o Controls the movement of solutes and fluids between the cells
o Solutes much move transcellular via specific receptors
Gap Junctions
o CAMs are connexins
o Form a hollow cylinder with varying selectivity
o Allows the passage of small molecules such as ions and synchronises activity between cells
Epithelial Tissues – Functions
o Closely packed cells forming continuous sheets
 Protection
 Absorption
 Filtration
 Excretion
 Secretion
 Sensory reception
Five General Features
o Polarity
 Apical surface
 Basal surface
 Sits on basal lamina
o Junctions
o Supported by the basal membrane
 Basal lamina plus the reticular lamina
o Avascular but innervated
o Able to regenerate
The Basement Membrane
o Composed of two layers
1. Basal lamina – made by epithelial cells
2. Reticular lamina – secreted by connective tissue cells
o Function of basement membrane
 Holds epithelial cells to connective tissue underneath
 Guides cell migration during tissue development and repair
Classification for Epithelium
o Classified by arrangement of cells into layers
  Simple = one cell layer thick
 Stratified = many cell layers thick
 Pseudostratified = single layer of cells where cells don’t reach apical surface (only appears to be
stratified)
 Nuclei found at different levels so it looks multi-layered

Module Two: The Integumentary System

Topic One: The Integumentary System

Learning Outcomes:
 Discuss the attributes of the three layers of the skin
 Describe the glands associated with the skin
 Discuss the structure and life cycle of hair

Epithelial Membranes of the Body

o Cutaneous membrane
 Exposed to air
 Dry membrane
o Mucosa (mucous membrane)
 Lines body cavities that open to the exterior
 Moist
o Serosa (serous membrane)
 Line body cavities that are closed to the exterior
 Occur in pairs, separated by fluid

The Integumentary System

o Consists of: 2m2 surface area, 7% of body weight
o Skin = largest organ of the body
o Many layers thick
o Modifications such as:
 Sweat glands and oil glands
 Hair follicles
 Nails
 Specialised nerve endings (sense of touch)
Basic Functions of the Skin
o A physical and chemical barrier
 Oil and sweat form an “acid mantle” (pH 4-6)
o Maintains body temperature
o Enables the body to sense its environment
 Receptors for touch, pain, temperature, pressure, vibration
o Vitamin D synthesis
 UV-B light penetrates blood in skin
 Converts cholesterol derivative to “inactive” vitamin D
 Carried to kidneys via the blood then activated to “active” vitamin D 3
 Aids in bones/teeth formation
Skin: The Largest Organ
o Three basic layers of skin:
 Epidermis – outer layers: stratified squamous epithelium (avascular)
 Dermis – connective tissue, glands, blood and lymph vessels, nervous tissues
 Hypodermis – below the dermis, adipose tissue (subcutaneous fat cells = adipocytes) and connective
tissue
The Epidermis
o Three main cell types of the epidermis:
1. Keratinocytes
 Produces the fibrous intermediate filament protein Keratin
2. Melanocytes
 Secrete pigment - melanin
3. Langerhans’ cells (also called Antigen-Presenting Cells)
 For immune surveillance
 Present antigens (foreign particles) to immune system
Five Layers of Epidermis
o Stratum corneum
 “Horny” outermost layer
o Stratum lucidum
 Clear layer
o Stratum granulosum
 Granular layer
o Stratum spinosum
 “Spiny” layer
o Stratum basale
 Germativum
 Innermost-base
Properties of the Epidermal Layers
o Stratum corneum
 Filled with keratin, thickened plasma membrane, glycolipids in extracellular space – waterproof and
tough
o Stratum lucidum
 Clear layer, thick skin only (palms, soles)
o Stratum granulosum
 Two types of granules: one helps form keratin, the other contains the glycolipids which are spewed
into the ES space
 Last area receiving nutrients
o Stratum spinosum
 Desmosomes, dendritic cells and melanin
o Stratum basale
 New keratinocytes proliferation, melanocytes

New epidermis layer every 25-45 days

Melanocytes
o 10-25% of cells of stratum basale are melanocytes
o Melanocytes secrete melanin which accumulates in membrane-bound granules called
melanosomes which via actin filaments are trafficked to keratinocytes
o Melanin shields DNA from UV rays
o Melanin pigments derived from tyrosine
Types of Melanin
o Two main types of melanin
1. Eumelanin (dark melanin)
 More eumelanin produced, the darker the skin
2. Phaeomelanin (red/yellow melanin)
 Less eumelanin AND more phaeomelanin, RED HAIR
o All humans have the same number of melanocytes
o Varying shade of skin (and hair and eye) colour
 Up or down activity of melanocytes
 Type produced (genetic)
o Activity is determined by environmental and genetic factors
Other Skin Pigmentations:
o Carotene
 Yellow/orange pigment
 Precursor to vitamin A
 Can accumulate in stratum corneum and hypodermis
 “Sallow” or yellowish appearance
 (also used in self-tanner and margarine)
o Haemoglobin
 Reddish hue (depends on O2 binding)
 Oxygenated blood = bright red
 Deoxygenated blood = dark, bluish red
Clinical Disorders – Skin Cancer
o When UV exposure is greater than the protective effects of melanin, DNA damage can occur
which can give rise to cancer
 Keratinocytes – Basal Cell Carcinoma
 Slow growing
 Low risk of metastasis
 Keratinocytes – Squamous Cell Carcinoma
 Rapid growth
 Risk of metastasis
 Melanocytes – Melanoma
 Appears spontaneously or 1/3 from pre-existing moles
 High risk of metastasis
The Dermis
o Made up of connective tissue
o Highly vascularised (many blood vessels)
 1cm2 of dermis = contains approx. 1m of blood vessels
 Lymph vessels also present
o Cushions the body from stress and strain
o Involved with temperature regulation
o Protects underlying tissues
o Origin of your “fingerprints” – dermal ridges (papillae)

Blood vessels are a part of the epidermis NOT the dermis

o Areolar = “small open space”
 Supports and binds tissues
 Holds body fluids
 Defends against pathogens
 Stores nutrients
 Many cell types
o Closely packed, thick bundles of collagen fibres
 Provides resistance to tension
 Fibres are arranged in more than one plane
The Dermis Consists of Two Layers
o Papillary – 20%
 Areolar connective tissue – loose
 Dermal papillae
o Reticular – 80%
 Dense irregular connective tissue
 Some elastin to provide stretch
Clinical Disorders – The Dermis:
o Stretch-marks = silvery-white tears in dermis
o Blisters = separation of epidermis from dermis
 Space fills with clear, serous fluid (extracellular fluid)
The Dermis also Contains:
o Sweat (sudoriferous) glands
 Distributed over most of the skin surface
 Up to 3 million per person
 Exocrine gland
 Multicellular
 Merocrine
 Two types of sweat glands
 Eccrine
 Apocrine
Eccrine Sweat Glands:
o Palms of hands, soles of feet and forehead (2000 glands/cm 2)
o Simple, coiled tubular gland
 Sweat flows onto skin surface through a pore, via a duct
o Secrete “true” sweat
 99% water, salts, vitamin C, antibodies, a microbe-killing peptide (dermcidin), wastes (urea and
others) and sometimes ingested drugs
o Major role is to regulate body temperature
Apocrine Sweat Glands:
o Armpits and genitals
o Larger than eccrine glands and deeper in the dermis
 Secrete into ducts that empty into air follicles
 Do not confuse with oil glands
o Similar components as true sweat but also the addition of fatty substances and proteins
o Begin to function around puberty
o Role in pheromone secretion and sexual arousal
 Also, female menstrual cycling
o Modified apocrine sweat glands
 Ceruminous glands
 Secrete cerulean – bitter, waxy secretion (ear-wax)
 Found in the outer one third of the external ear canal
 Mammary glands
 Secrete milk (in human female) – a specialised “sweat” secretion
The Dermis also Contains:
o Sebaceous (oil) glands
 All over the body except the thick skin of the palms and soles of the feet
 Associated with hair follicles
 Secrete sebum (oily substances)
 Functions to lubricates hair and slow water loss from the skin
 Holocrine gland
  Secretion is controlled mainly by sex hormones
 E.g. testosterone
Hair Follicles
o Epithelia root sheath
 Epithelial
o Peripheral connective tissue
 Tissue
o Papilla contains capillaries for nourishment
o Above papilla is the hair matrix which produces new hair cells
o Melanocytes surround the hair papilla
Hair
o Composed of concentric rings of keratinised cells
 Medulla, cortex and cuticle
o Keratin in hair is tougher than in skin cells
o Hair colour is determined by pigments produced
 Black, brown, and blonde hair (eumelanin – dark brown)
 Red hair (sulfur-containing pigment — phaeomelanin)
 White hair – no pigment
3 Coats of Hair:
o Lanugo (down – lose it 1-2 months before birth)
o Vellus (fleece – fine, pale, body hair)
o Terminal hair (scalp, eyebrow, lashes, axilla, pubis)
Hair Growth:
o Approx. 80% of body hair is in growth phase
o Approx. 20% of body hair is in resting or regression phase
o Scalp hair: approx. 100,000 per head
 Grows 10-18cm per year
 2-4 years growth, then dormant for 3-4 months
 Then new hair pushes out old hair
 10,000 hairs lost per day
o Other hair (eyebrows, eyelashes, axilla, pubic, legs)
 Grows only 3-4 months
Hair-raising Experiences:
o Around hair follicles and associated oil glands are:
 Nervous (sensory) tissues
 Microscopic muscle tissue
 Arrector pili muscle – controls each hair
 Causes “goosebumps”
 Contraction forces sebum out of hair follicles lubricating the skin
The Hypodermis
o Consists of adipose tissue
 Adipo = fat
o Major cell type: adipocyte
 (Number is determined by genes)
o Storage depot for triglycerides (fats)
o Anchors the skin to underlying structures
 Mostly to muscles
o Shock absorber and insulates underlying tissues
Topic Two: Bones of the Skeletal System
Module Two: Bones of the Skeletal System
Learning Outcomes:
 Name the types of bones
 Name the structures of the long bones
 Describe the functions of the different cells of bone tissue
 Describe the microscopic structure of compact bone
 Discuss how bones grow and the hormonal regulations of growth
 Describe the types of cartilage and where they are found

The Human Skeleton

o Comprised of bone and cartilage
 Bone-strong and light but prone to wearing
 Cartilage – more durable and flexible material
o Provides support and protection
o Assists movement
o Calcium/Phosphate storage
o Blood cell production (red bone marrow)
Two Types of Skeleton – 206 Bones
o Axial skeleton
 80 bones
 Lie along longitudinal axis (up and down)
 Skull, hyoid, vertebrae, ribs, sternum, ear ossicles
o Appendicular skeleton
 126 bones
 Upper and lower limbs and pelvic and pectoral girdles
Types of Bones
o Long – elongated shaft plus two expanded ends
 E.g. humerus
o Short – roughly cubed shaped
 Sesamoid – form in tendons
 E.g. talus
o Flat – thin, flattened, usually slightly curved
 E.g. sternum
o Irregular – complicated shapes
 E.g. vertebrae
Gross Anatomy of Bones
o Compact bone
 Dense outer layer
 Smooth and solid
o Spongy bone
 Internal to compact bone
 Honeycomb of trabeculae
 Contains red (and yellow) bone marrow
Bone Structure
o Short, irregular and flat bones
 Spongy bone between 2 layers of compact bone is called diploë (helps protect)
  Periosteum membrane on outer compact bone
o Long bones
 Tubular diaphysis
 Surrounds medullary cavity
 Medullary cavity
 Yellow marrow (fat)
 2 x Epiphyses
 Surrounds spongy bone
 Membranes
 Periosteum – outer
 Endosteum – inner
Cells of Bone Tissue
o Osteoprogenitor cell
 Osteogenic
 Stem cells – periosteum and endosteum
o Osteoblasts
 Matrix – synthesising cell
 Responsible for bone growth – osteoid
o Osteocytes
 Mature bone cell
 Monitors and maintains the mineralised bone matrix
o Osteoclasts
 Bone-resorbing cell
Under the Microscope

Chemical Composition of Bone

The Structure of the Compact Bone
o Osteon
 Pillars
o Lamella
 Makes the osteon
 Concentric circles
o Central canal
 Arteries, nerves and veins
o Perforating canal
 Taking nutrients from central canals and distributing it across the bone
o Lacunae
 Little spaces – osteocytes
o Caniculi
 Little canals that allow lacunae to communicate – gap junction
 Link all osteon songs together
Bone Growth
Long Bone Growth
o Epiphyseal plate – cartilage growth plate
o Between 18-25 years: epiphyseal plate closes
 Cartilage cells stop dividing and bone replaces the cartilage
o Growth in length stops at age 25 years
Hormonal Control of Bone Remodelling
o Parathyroid glands
 4 small glands attached to the back of the thyroid gland
 Secrete parathyroid hormones (PTH)
 Stimulates osteoclast activity
 Bone degradation
 Increases blood calcium levels
 Ca2+ released from bones
Hormonal Influences on Bone Growth
o Childhood growth is stimulated by growth hormone
 Hypersecretion of human growth hormone = gigantism
 Hyposecretion = pituitary dwarfism
o At puberty sex hormones promote growth spurts and later induce epiphyseal closure
Abnormal Bone Deposition and Resorption
o A delicate balance exists between osteoblasts and osteoclasts
 Osteoclast>osteoblasts osteoporosis (spongy bone)

Bone Marrow
o Approx. 3kg in adults
Two Types of Bone Marrow
o Red
 Found in spongy bone
 Site of blood cell production (hematopoiesis – blood cells)
o Yellow
 Oily, greasy substance
 Found in medullary cavity of long bones
 Site of fat (triglyceride) storage
Cartilage
o All cartilage consists of cells, chondrocytes, and extracellular matrix consisting of:
 Collagen fibres – provides strength
 Elastin fibres – provides flexibility
 Chondroitin sulphate – proteoglycans
 Chemical compound that attracts water
 Causes cartilage to be stiff – due to being filled with water
o Surrounded by a layer of dense irregular connective tissue, the perichondrium which helps resist
outward expansion during compression
o Contains no nerves or blood vessels
Three Types of Cartilage
o Hyaline cartilage
o Elastic cartilage
o Fibrocartilage
Hyaline Cartilage:
o Bluish-white, rubbery substance
o Most abundant (but weakest) type of cartilage
 Articular cartilage – covers ends of long bones
Elastic Cartilage:
o More elastic fibres in matrix
o Maintains the shape of a structure while allowing flexibility
 Supports the external ear, epiglottis
Fibrocartilage:
o Matrix similar to hyaline (less firm); thick collagen fibres
o Tensile strength allows it to absorb compressive shock
 Found in intervertebral discs; pubic symphysis; discs of knee joint
Intervertebral Discs
o Between adjacent vertebrae and absorb vertical shock
o Permit various movement of the vertical column
o An intervertebral disc consists of:
 A fibrocartilage ring (annulus fibrous)
 A pulpy centre (nucleus pulposus)
o Ruptured vertebral disc (disc prolapse)
 Nucleus pulposus pushed out into the vertebral canal
 Presses on the spinal cord and a spinal nerve
 Leads to pain in lower back, buttocks and back of leg

Topic Three: Joints and Movement

Learning Outcomes:
 Identify types of joints by their structural or mobility classification
 Give examples of fibrous, cartilaginous and synovial joints
 Describe the structure of the synovial joint
 Discuss how synovial joints can be stabilised
 Describe the three main categories of joint movement

Joints (Articulations) Functions

o Hold bones together
o Facilitate movement

Classification of Joints
o Structural classification:
 Fibrous connective tissues
 For strength and support
 Cartilage
 For cushioning
 Strength and flexibility
 Mixture of both plus a special fluid (synovial fluid)
 Synovial joint – for cushioning, lubrication of the joint

1. Fibrous Joints
o No joint activity
o Collagen fibres extend from matrix of one bone to another
o Amount of movement within the joint depends on the length of collagen fibres

Examples of Fibrous Joints:

 Suture
 Joint held together with very short, interconnecting fibres, and bone edges interlock
 Found only in the skull
 Syndesmosis
 Joint held together by a ligament, varying in length but is however longer than sutures
  Found between the radius and ulna; tibia and fibula
 Gomphosis
 “Peg in socket” fibrous joint
 Periodontal ligament holds tooth in socket
2. Cartilaginous Joints
o No joint activity
o Bones held together by cartilage
o 2 types:
 Symphyses
 Synchondroses
Examples of Cartilaginous Joints:
 Symphyses
 Bones united by fibrocartilage
 Found in vertebrae and pubic symphyses
 Synchondroses
 Bones united by hyaline cartilage
 Bony joint synostoses
3. Synovial Joints
o Most common
o Articulating bones are separated by a fluid-fluid joint cavity
o Lubricated by synovial fluid (hyaluronic acid)
o Enclosed in a double-layered fibrous capsule
o Reinforced by ligaments

Basic Structure of a Synovial Joint:

1. Articular cartilage (hyaline)
2. Synovial cavity
3. Articular capsule
 Outer fibrous layer
 Inner synovial membrane
4. Synovial fluid
 Secreted by the synovial membrane
 Fluid plus hyaluronic acid plus phagocytes
 Traps water in synovial cavity
5. Ligaments (“strap-like” tissue)
Hyaluronic Acid
o Hyaluronic acid consists of two (repeating) sugar molecules
o Proteoglycans containing Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) join the central chain
o Lists of sugar groups: retains water
Bursa and Tendon Sheaths
o A tendon sheath is an elongated fluid-filled sac that wraps around a tendon to decrease friction
o A bursa is a fluid-filled sac that decreases friction where a ligament (or other structure) would
rub against a bone
o Little bags of lubricant
 Reduce friction when two surfaces rub

“Tendons hold muscle to bone, Ligaments hold bone to bone”

Classification of Joints
o Functional classification:
 Synarthroses
 Syn = together
 Immovable joints
 Amphiarthroses
 Amphi = both sides
  Slightly moveable
 Diarthroses
 Dia = apart
 Freely moveable
1. Synarthroses
o No movement within joint
 E.g. sutures of the skull
2. Amphiarthroses
o Some movement within joint
 E.g. intervertebral discs
3. Diarthroses
o Freely moveable joints
 E.g. knee joints, elbow, shoulder
Changing from Amphiarthrotic to Synarthrotic Joints – Infant Skull
o During the delivery process the skull contract (the bones overlap) in the birth canal
 May cause temporary distortion of the head – normal in 6 weeks
 Sutures also allow skull expansion during rapid brain growth in the first 2 years of life
Diarthrotic Joints: Movement in Synovial Joints
o Movement is determined by architecture of the joint structure
Examples:
 Ball-and-socket joint (shoulder, hip)
 Hinge joint (elbow)
 Saddle (carpometacarpel joint, wrist)
 Condy loud joints (knuckles of fingers, toes)
 Others (pivot and planar joints)
Different Types of Synovial Joints (Based on Architecture)
o Pivot – a ring of bone rotating around another bond
 E.g. Neck
o Ball-and-socket – allows movement in all directions
 E.g. Shoulder joint
o Hinge – allows the joint to bend and straighten, but does not rotate
 E.g. Elbow joint
o Ellipsoid – a less flexible version of the ball-and-socket joint
 E.g. Wrist joint
o Saddle – fit together to allow all movements except rotation
 E.g. Thumb joint
o Gliding – two generally flat surfaces gliding over each other
 E.g. Joints between the tarsals of the foot
Joint Movement
o Movement is classified in 3 main categories:
1. Gliding Movement (simplest)
- One bone simply glides over surface of another
 E.g. ankle and wrist joints
2. Angular
- Increase or decrease the angle between 2 bones
a) Flexion and Extension
 Usually along the sagittal plane
 Flexion decreases angle
 Extension increases angle
b) Abduction, Adduction and Circumduction
 Abduct = take away
 Adduct = toward
3. Rotation
- Movement of a bone around its own axis
 E.g. only movement allowed between the first two cervical vertebrae, hip and shoulder joints
4. Other Special Movements
 - Supination – turning outward/supine
- Pronation – turning inwards/prone
- Dorsiflexion – lifting the foot up
- Plantar flexion – pointing the toe

Topic 4: The Muscular System

Learning Outcomes:
 Identify and describe the 3 types of muscle found in the human body
 Discuss the function of the sarcomere and contraction at the microscopic level
 Describe how regulatory proteins affect muscle contraction
 Explain the role of ATP in muscle contraction
 Discuss the differences between contraction in skeletal and smooth muscles

Skeletal Muscle Contraction

o Ungated channels: leaky
o Voltage-gated channels: open due to a change in voltage
o Ligand (chemically)-gated channels: requires a specific ligand to bind to the receptor

Vocabulary:
o Mus = Latin for little mouse
o Myo, Mus = “of muscles”
o Sarco = of flesh
o Myology = the study of muscles
o Kinesiology = the study of movement of body parts

Functions of Muscles
1. Movement of body parts
 E.g. control of body openings/passages
 E.g. communication
- Facial expressions
- Body language
- Writing
- Speech
2. Stability of posture and body position
3. Stabilisation of joints
4. Heat protection – maintains body temperature

Characteristics of Muscle Tissue

o Excitability
 Responds to chemicals released from nerve cells
o Contractility
 Ability to shorten and generate force
o Extensibility
 Ability to be stretched without damaging the tissue
o Elasticity
 Ability to return to original shape after being stretched

Muscular Tissue Type

o Converts chemical energy into mechanical energy
o 3 basic types of muscle tissue:
1. Skeletal – striated, voluntary control
2. Cardiac – striated, involuntary control
 3. Smooth – non-striated, involuntary control

Skeletal Muscle
o Muscle cells = muscle fibres
o Voluntary control
o Multi-uncleared cells
o Cylindrical shape
o Striations (banding) present
o Most common – provides movement across joints

Structure:
o Skeletal muscles attach to bones via a tendon
 Bone + Muscle → two tendons
o Individual muscle fibres (cells) are wrapped in the endomysium
o A bundle of muscle fibres, called a fascicle, are wrapped in the perimysium
o A bunch of fascicles are wrapped in the epimysium
 Wrappings stop the muscles from ripping
 Blood vessels within deliver nutrients

Muscle Fibre Composition

o Sarcolemma = muscle cell membrane → plasma membrane
 Sarco = muscle/flesh; lemma = husk
o Sarcoplasm = cytoplasm
o Sarcosome = mitochondria
o Sarcoplasmic reticulum = endoplasmic reticulum
o Myofilaments = cytoskeletal filaments

Microscopic Levels of Skeletal Muscle

o Muscle Fibre (muscle cell)
  ↓ 
o Myo-fibrils
  ↓ 
o Sarcomere – unit of contraction
  ↓ 
o Filaments (myofilaments)
 Thick: myosin
 Thin: actin

Sarcomere Protein Composition

o Myofibrils have repeated regions (sarcomeres) which contain 3 kinds of protein
1. Contractile Proteins
- Myosin and actin
2. Regulatory Proteins
- Switch contraction on and off
- Troponin and tropomyosin
3. Structural Proteins
- Provide correct alignment, elasticity and extensibility
- Titan, dystrophin and others
Muscular Dystrophies:
o Inherited, muscle-destroying diseases due to mutations in dystrophin
o Sarcolemma tears during muscle contraction and muscle fibre dies
o Muscle eventually replaced by fibrous connective and fat tissues
o Enlarged calf muscles (“pseudo” hypertrophy) due to accumulated scarring
o Mutated gene is on X-chromosome, so problem is with males almost exclusively
o Appears by age 5, and child may be unable to walk by 12 years of age
Thick Filaments
o Myosin filaments
o Two globular heads
 Flexible hinge
 Intertwined helical tail
o Heads face outwards
 None in the centre of the sarcomere
o Bind to actin
o ATP binding site

Thin Filaments
o Thin filaments are composed of:
 Mainly actin
- Two twisted strings of “bread-like” actin sub-units
- G-actin = globular subunits
- F-actin = filamentous actin
 Tropomyosin
- 2 ribbons around the actin
 Troponin
- Composed of 3 protein subunits
- Links the actin strings to tropomyosin ribbons

Muscle Fibre Composition

o Around each myofibril are:
 Transverse tubules (T tubules)
- Extensions of the sarcolemma (cell membrane) into the cell
 Sarcoplasmic reticulum
 - Special endoplasmic reticulum closely associated with the T tubules
- Stores intracellular C2+ ions – vital for muscle contraction

The Function of Calcium Ions in Contraction:

o Ca2+ ions, stored in sarcoplasmic reticulum, are released
  ↓ 
2+
o Ca ions bind to troponin
  ↓ 
o Troponin changes shape
  ↓ 
o Drags tropomyosin away from the myosin-binding site
  ↓ 
o Myosin head can now bind to actin
  ↓ 
o Muscle contraction occurs

After muscle contraction, Ca2+ ions are collected and stored once again in the sarcoplasmic
reticulum, and the muscle relaxes

Why is ATP (Energy) used in muscle contraction?

o ADP (not ATP) helps bind myosin to actin
o Power stroke occurs as ADP + Pi (organic phosphate) are released from myosin head
o ATP then binds to myosin head which aids in its release from the actin
o ATP is hydrolysed to ADP + Pi → prepares myosin head for binding again to actin

The Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ)

o A chemical synapse between a somatic motor neurone and muscle fibre
Resting Membrane Potential
o Due to the selective permeability of the plasma membrane, the inside of the cell is negatively
charged compared to the outside
o Resting membrane potential is determined mainly by Potassium ions (K+)

What happens when acetylcholine binds its receptor on the sarcolemma?

1. Opens chemically-gated ion channels
2. More Na+ diffuses in than K+ diffuses out
3. The interior of the sarcolemma becomes less negative
 depolarisation
4. Spreads along the sarcolemma opening further voltage-gated sodium channels
5. A certain membrane voltage threshold is reached and an action potential is generated

Sequence of Events Leading to Contraction

1. Events of Neuromuscular Junction
 A motor neuron fires an action potential (AP) down its axon
 The motor neurones axon terminal releases ACh into synaptic cleft
 ACh binds receptors to the junction all folds of sarcolemma
 ACh binding causes a local depolarisation (End Plate Potential)
2. Muscle Fibre Excitation
 Local depolarisation triggers AP in adjacent sarcolemma
3. Excitation – Contracting Coupling
 AP in sarcolemma travels down T tubules
 Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca2+
  Ca2+ binding
4. Contraction occurs via Cross Bridge Cycling

Muscle Dysfunctions
o Changes in skeletal muscle capabilities
 Hypertrophy
 Atrophy
 Extreme strength
 Steroid abuse
 Rigor mortis

Hypertrophy:
o Too much; above
o Increase in the diameter of muscle fibres
o Resulting from forceful, repetitive muscular activity
 Body building
o Increase in cell size NOT cell number

Atrophy:
o Atrophy (a = lacking, without; trophy = nourishment)
o Wasting away of muscles
o Caused by disease or damage to nerve supply
 Leg in cast
o Can be irreversible in some cases
NOTE: Skeletal muscle size starts to decrease and some fibres are replaced by fat – begins at 30
years, so “use it or lose it”

Anabolic Steroids:
o Similar to testosterone
o Increases muscle size, strength and endurance
o BUT many very serious side effects
 Liver cancer
 Severe acne
 Kidney damage and heart disease
 Mood swings aka ‘road rage’ (violent behaviour, aggression)
 Facial hair and voice deepening (females)
 Atrophy of testes, baldness, gynecomastia (develop breast tissue)

What is rigor mortis (“stiffness after death”)?

o State of muscular rigidity
 Occurs 3-4 hours after death and lasts approximately 24 hours
o After death, Ca2+ ions leak out of the sarcoplasmic reticulum
 Myosin heads to bind to actin
o All cells of the body (plus muscle cells) stop making ATP
 ATP is required for myosin heads to release from the actin to allow muscle contraction
o Therefore, muscles of the body remain partially contracted until enzymes begin to digest the
decomposing cells

Botulinum Toxin:
o Blocks release of neurotransmitter (Acetylcholine, Ach) at the NMJ
 So muscle contraction cannot occur
o 3 forms of disease – food-borne, infant (dummies in honey)
o Death occurs from flaccid paralysis of the diaphragm
 Can’t breathe → death
o Therapeutic uses:
 Botox – to treat glabellar lines (wrinkles)
 Myalgia – muscle pain disorders
 Hyperhydrosis – excessive sweating

Curare:
o Plant poison for poison arrows
o Blocks Ach receptors on muscle cells
o Causes flaccid muscle paralysis
o Used to relax muscles during surgery (less anaesthetic)

Cardiac and Smooth Muscles

Cardiac Muscle:
o Found only in the heart
o Involuntary control
o Striations present – sarcosomes
o Short, branching shape
o One or two nuclei per cell
o Intercalated discs present
 Inter-joining of two plasma membranes
o Gap junctions
o Desmosomes
o Lost of mitochondria

Smooth Muscles:
o Involuntary control
o One nucleus per cell
o No striations – no sarcosome
o Spindle-shaped
o Lines hollow organs and tubes
o Limited connective tissue
 Small amount of endomysium around blood vessels and nerves
o Sheets of closely-packed fibres
o Longitudinal = lengthwise
o Circular layer = circumference (diameter)

One layer: E.g. Blood vessels not capillaries

 Circular muscles
Two layers: E.g. Peristalsis
 Both layers – aids in one direction
Three layers: E.g. Stomach
 Includes oblique layer
 Pummels the food, physically breaking it down in smaller fragments ramming it into the small
intestine

Microscopic Anatomy of Smooth Muscles:

o Involuntary muscle controlled by autonomic system (nervous
system)
  Autonomic neuron
o Varicosities release their neurotransmitters into a wide synaptic cleft (a diffuse junction)
 Innervating nerve fibres release neurotransmitters

Smooth Muscle Fibre Composition:

o Limited to sarcoplasmic reticulum
 No T tubules
 Effects Ca2+
o Careole – Ca2+ channels
o Outer intermediate filament netting – resist tension
o Dense bodies attracted to intermediate filaments and thin filaments (actin)
o Gap junctions
o Corkscrew like motion

Actin and Myosin in SMF:

o Actin and myosin diagonally criss-cross the cell
o Fewer thick filaments
o Thick filaments have myosin heads all along
o Contraction still requires the interaction of myosin head
with actin monomers
o Orientation of myosin heads

Smooth Muscle Contraction

o Slow, sustained and resistant to fatigue
o Contraction starts slowly and lasts longer
o Controlled by autonomic nervous system
o Vital in:
 Cardiovascular
 Respiratory
 Digestive
 Urinary
 Genital (reproductive)

Events in Smooth Muscle Contraction:

o Troponin is absent, calcium regulation requires:
1. Calmodulin
- Binds to Ca2+ – activated
2. Myosin-light-chain Kinase (MLC Kinase)
- Activated by calmodulin and Ca2+
o To relax take away calcium

Types of Smooth Muscle:

o Unitary smooth muscle (visceral muscle)
 Most common
 Same features as we have discussed
 In the walls of all hollow organs (except heart)
o Multi-unit smooth muscle
 Gap junctions and spontaneous depolarisation are rare
 Muscle fibres that are structurally independent
 Large airways to lungs, large arteries, arrector pili, internal eye muscles (pupil size, focus)
Comparison of Muscles – Table 9.3

Module Three: The Nervous and Endocrine System

Topic One – The Nervous System

Learning Outcomes:
 Describe features and functions of the nervous system
 Explain the divisions of the nervous system
 Describe the components of neutrons
 Characterise the events off the synaptic cleft, the resting membrane potential and the action
potential

Functions of the Nervous System

o Receive
 Acquisition and transmission of sensory information
o Integrate
 Process and interpret information
o Respond
 Activation of an appropriate response via transmission of information to various organs
- E.g. activation of glands, skeletal muscles etc.

A human perceives the environment via a sensory input

↓
Interprets the sensory information
↓
Responds via motor output

Divisions of the Nervous System:

Sensory Afferent Motor Efferent
Nervous Tissue
o Neurons (electrical conduits)
 Sensory
 Motor
 Inter-neurons
- Cell bodies in CNS make up grey matter
o Glial cells (supporting cells – “Neuroglia”)
 Phagocytes (immune cells)
 Insulation (myelin)
 Supports and protects neurons
 Produce growth factors

Neuronal Cells:
o Transmit nerve impulses (electrical current)
o Communicate to one another (and target organs) via sites call synapses
o Transmission at the synapse is mediated by release of neurotransmitters (chemical messengers)
o Extreme longevity – can live for over 100 years
o Most are amitotic (can’t divide/repair)
 But some exceptions (sense of smell and hippocampus)
o High metabolic rate (require O2 + glucose)

Basic Structure of a Neuron:

o Soma (cell body)
 Organelles (RER also called Nissl bodies)
 Cytoskeleton consists of microtubules and neurofibrils
- Intermediate filaments
 Nuclei: Clusters of cell bodies in the CNS
  Ganglia: Clusters of cell bodies along nerves in PNS
o Dendrites
 Special extensions (increase surface area) that receive information
o Axon (nerve fibre)
 Transmits information away from cell body
 Synaptic end-bulbs
- Terminal boutons (buttons)

Synapses and Neurotransmitters

How do nerves pass signals to other nerves?
o By a gap between nerve cells – called a synapse
o One nerve cell signals another to fire and electrical signal
o Chemicals (neurotransmitters) are released into the gap (synapse)

Gap Junctions → Chemical Junctions

o Transmission of information across a synapse is mediated by the release of chemical messengers
 Neurotransmitters
The Synapse Components:
1. Synaptic vesicles (containing neurotransmitters)
2. Pre-synaptic neuron
3. Synaptic cleft
4. Post-synaptic membrane
 The cell membrane of another neuron or a target cell
- E.g. muscle cell
 Contains chemically-gated ion channels

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that open (or close) ion channels in the target cell membrane

1. Ions rush into or out of the target cell

2. The internal electrical charge or cell alters
3. Impulse is passed on and/or triggers pathways in the target cell itself

Cobra Venom as a Neurotransmitter:

o In humans
 Neurotoxin binds to the muscle cell receptor and stops neurotransmitter from binding, leading to
flaccid paralysis
o In cobras
 A unique sugar molecule prevents the binding of the neurotoxin to the cobra’s own muscles cell
receptors but allows the neurotransmitter to bind → muscles contract normally
Examples of Neurotransmitters:
o Acetylcholine
o Biogenic amines
 Dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine
o Amino acids
 Glutamate, GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid)
o Peptides
 Endorphins, enkephalins
o ATP
 Adenosine Triphosphate
NOTE: The function of a neurotransmitter is determined by the receptor to which it binds
Biogenic Amines: Potent Neurotransmitters (NT)
o Catecholamines
 Norepinephrine, dopamine
- Feel good NT
- Release enhanced amphetamines
- Removal from synapse blocked by cocaine
- Synthesised from tyrosine
o Indolamines
 Serotonin
- Role in sleep, appetite, nausea and mood regulation
- Activity blocked by LSD
- Removal from synapse blocked by some antidepressants
- Synthesised from tryptophan

Glial Cells – Neuroglia

o Do not transmit information
o Neuroglia outnumber neurons in the CNS by about 10 to 1
o Comprise approximately 50% mass of the brain
o Support and protect the survival of neuronal cells
o Multiple cell types with different functions:
 Produce growth factors
 Produce insulating substance (myelin)
 Immune cells (phagocytes)

Neuroglia in the CNS

o Astrocytes = “star cells”
o Most abundant glial cells
o Radiating processes cling to neurons supporting and anchoring them to their nutrient supply
o Guide migration of young neurons and formation of synapses
o Mop up leaked potassium
Astrocytoma:
o Tumour derived from an abnormal astrocyte
 Most common brain tumour (more than half of all primary CNS malignancies)

Microglial Cells and Ependymal Cells

o Microglial cells monitor the health of the neurons, migrating towards injured neurons
 Can transform into phagocytes if the presence of pathogens is detected
o Ependymal cells circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the CNS

Myelin Producing Cells

o Oligodendrocytes wrap around the thicker nerve fibres producing the insulating covering called
myelin in the CNS
o Schwann cells produce myelin in the PNS

NOTE: Only axons have myelin sheaths, dendrites are always non-myelinated

o Myelin is a white phospholipid (fatty substance)

 Produced by compacted cell membranes of glial cells
 Speeds up never impulse conduction down a nerve axon
o Myelin allows saltatory conduction of the nerve impulse
 Impulse “jumps” from one node to the next = impulse very fast
 No myelin = impulse slow

Multiple Sclerosis (MS):

o Immune system (monocytes and T cells) attacks and destroys myelin in the central nervous
system
o Impulse slows down
o No control over skeletal muscles
 Leading to flaccid paralysis → death

Resting and Active Membrane Potential

o The human body is electrically neutral
 Situations where separated electrical charges of opposite sign have potential energy
o Electrical currents reflect the flow of ions across cellular membranes
o Plasma membranes have a variety of membrane proteins that act as ion channels
 Leakage (non-gated) are always open
 Gated
- Chemically – respond to chemical binding to receptor
- Voltage – respond to changes in membrane potential

Resting Membrane Potential

o Results from an unequal electrical charge distribution
 Outside cell = more positive (+)
  Inside cell = more negative (-)

Depolarisation and Hyper-polarisation

o Relative to resting membrane potential
1. Depolarisation
- Membrane potential become less negative than -70mV (up to +30mV)
2. Hyper-polarisation
- Membrane potential becomes more negative than -70mV

Signal (impulse) Transmission

o Neurons use changes in membrane potential to receive, integrate, and send information
o Information is transferred by the change in the number of open channels
 Causes a change in membrane potential
o Two types of signals
 Graded potentials – short distances
 Action potentials – long distance signals of axons

1. Graded Potentials: The Receptor/Synaptic Potential

 Either at a nerve synapse via release of a neurotransmitter
 Or at receptor cell via sensory input
- E.g. flavour chemicals on taste buds (receptors) on tongue
 Local change in membrane potential following stimulation
 Magnitude (size of change) decreases with time and distance
2. Generating the Action Potential
 An action potential is a brief reversal of membrane potential (in nerves also called a nerve impulse)
- Resting state: all gated Na+ and K+ are closed
- Depolarisation: Na+ channels open, at threshold becomes self generating (positive feedback)
- Repolarisation: Na+ are inactivating, K+ channels open
- Hyper-polarisation: Some K+ remain open, Na+ channels reset
 Stimulus must “trigger” potential (-55mV)
 Large change, spreads down entire length of axon
 Magnitude is sustained with time and distance

The Neuronal Events

1. Stimulus (neurotransmitter) causes brief opening of chemically-gated Na+ channels. Na+ ions
enter cell (causes local potential)
2. Local potential reaches “trigger zone” near axon hillock. Voltage-gated Na+ channels open →
large, rapid depolarisation down the axon (the action potential)
3. “Domino effect” as each action potential triggers next
4. Action potential opens voltage-gated Ca2+ channels in synaptic end-bulb → triggers release of
neurotransmitter
5. Neurotransmitter opens chemically-gated Na+ channels on next neuron

Topic Two – The Central Nervous System

Learning Outcomes:
 Locate the 5 lobes of the cerebrum
 Describe the functions of the functional domains of the cerebrum
 Locate the three functional domains of the cerebrum
 Describe and explain the functions of the three fibre types

The Central Nervous System

The CNS has many important functions:
o Process sensory information
o Generate appropriate responses
o Store memories
o House our consciousness, emotions, personality, morals/values etc.
 Brain function is so closely associated with what we perceive as being “alive” and “human”
 So, is “death” when cessation of brain activity occurs

Gray and White Matter of the CNS

o Brain
 Inner gray matter (brain nuclei)
 White matter
 Cortex of gray matter
o Spinal cord
 Inner gray matter
 Outer white matter
 Missing cortex
o Gray matter
 Neuron cell bodies – dendrites + glial cells
 Short non-myelinated neurons
o White matter
 Mostly myelinated axons (with some non-myelinated axons
- Both motors and sensory

Structural Regions of the Brain

o Five main structural regions of the human brain:
1. Ventricles – cavities/spaces (contain CSF)
2. Cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres)
3. Diencephalon – section going through the brain
4. Brain Stem
5. Cerebellum
Ventricles – 4 of them
o Largely continuous
o Filled with CSF
o Lined with Ependymal cells – glial circulate CSF