science document. a really detailed one.

 rotation ― it is the movement of earth on its axis. it takes twenty-three hours and fifty-
six minutes or twenty-four hours (one day) to complete one rotation causing day &
night. the earth spins from west to east.
 revolution ― the movement of the earth on its orbit around the sun while it is tilted
23.5 degrees on its axis. one earth revolution is equivalent to 365 ¼ days or one year.
 orbit ― the path around the sun which the earth follows.
 axis ― the imaginary vertical line around which the earth spins.
🌷 difference between axis and orbit: axis is defined to be an imaginary line
that remains constant in the rotating body, and the rotating body actually
rotates keeping that axis constant. whereas, orbit is defined as an imaginary line
or path on which somebody revolves in some circular or elliptical path keeping
somebody in either of its foci.

 equinox: either of the two days of the year when the sun is directly above the earth’s
equator. at these times, the days and nights are of nearly equal length everywhere on
the earth.
o the term equinox has its roots in Latin language where "aequi" signifies "equal"
and "nox" means "night."
o equinoxes occur on 03/21 or 03/20 and on 09/22 or 09/23

 the phenomenon of day and night is
a consequence of the earth's
rotation on its axis.
 it is day on the part of the earth that
is facing the sun.
 the regions of the earth that are not
oriented towards the sun experience
nighttime.
 the earth rotates in a
counterclockwise direction.

cool facts!
 each planet in the solar system has a
unique rotational speed on its axis.
 as a result, the duration of a day on
each planet is distinct from one
another.
 jupiter completes one full rotation
or day in just ten earth hours.
 a complete rotation or day on venus
requires 243 earth days.

what are seasons?! seasons are different periods of the year that are distinguished by
special weather and climate conditions. seasons are four distinct periods of approximately
three months each, characterized by changing weather patterns, daylight hours, and natural
cycles. the four seasons are spring, summer, fall (or autumn), and winter, caused by the earth's
axial tilt of about 23.5 degrees.

 spring; the season after winter and hemisphere from march to May and
before summer, in which vegetation in the southern hemisphere from
begins to appear, in the northern september to november
  autumn; the third season of the
year, when crops and fruits are
gathered and leaves fall, in the
northern hemisphere from
september to november and in the
southern hemisphere from march to
May.
 summer; it’s the hottest of the four
temperate seasons, occurring after
spring and before autumn.)
 winter; is a season of cold weather,
shorter days, and longer nights,
occurring between Dec-Feb in the
North and Jun-Aug in the South.

reasons for the seasons? it is the tilt of the earth and its revolution around the sun that
causes seasons, the earth’s tilt causes the sun’s radiation to strike the hemispheres at different
angles.

identifying the seasons.

 northern hemisphere is summer and
southern hemisphere is winter
because the northern hemisphere is
tilted towards the sun.
 northern hemisphere is fall and
southern hemisphere is spring.
neither hemisphere is tilted directly
towards the sun.
 northern hemisphere is winter and
southern hemisphere is summer
because the northern hemisphere is
tilted away from the sun.
 northern hemisphere is spring and
southern hemisphere is fall. neither
hemisphere is tilted directly towards
the sun.
the earth reaches four important points in its orbit
summer solstice winter solstice
• late June
• earth is tilted toward sun
• longest day, shortest night
• begins summer
autumnal equinox vernal/spring equinox
• late september
• earth’s tilt is balanced
• 12 hrs. day, 12 hrs. night
• begins autumn/fall
facts about the moon ♡
1. it is the natural satellite of the earth.
a satellite is an object in space that
revolves around another object
(planet)
2. our closest neighbor in space is the
moon. a rocky ball about 1/4 size of
the earth.
3. it is the 6th largest moon in the solar
system.
• late December
• earth is tilted away from sun
• shortest day, longest night
• begins winter
• late march
• earth’s tilt is balanced
• 12 hrs. day, 12 hrs. night
• begins spring
4. the moon is one of the heavenly
bodies reached by man. the first
person to step on the moon was neil
armstrong, on july 21, 1969
5. like earth, the moon does not have
the light of its own. the moon can be
seen in the sky because it reflects
lights from the sun.
6. the moon is the second brightest
object in the sky next to the sun. its
name is Luna.
7. it is about 406, 676 km away from
the earth with a diameter of 3476
km almost as large as the mercury.
8. it has no air and water.
9. it revolves around the earth.
10. it makes one complete revolution
every 27 days and 7 hours and 43
minutes.

where the hell did the moon come from?

here are some theories!

the spin or fission theory failed planet theory

 the moon was once part of the
earth, cast off by the rapid spinning
 proof: a giant hole at the Pacific
Ocean.
the capture theory
 the moon was an object floating in
the solar system and was pulled out
of its orbit by the earth’s gravity
 the moon was formed near the
earth and gradually fell on earth’s
gravity.
the giant impact theory.
 formed 4-5 billion years ago, caused
by impact of mars-sized
“planetesimal” on earth, debris
melted together to form the moon.

 the moon orbits the earth at a 5° degree angle with respect to the earth’s orbit around
the sun.
 the moon has an elliptical orbit around the earth. (what is an elliptical orbit? elliptical
orbits are of ellipse shape and tend to have an eccentricity that falls between zero (0)
and one (1). nearly all the planets in the solar system tend to have elliptical orbits, which
makes them take on an oval and long shape. there can be a difference in the sizes and
eccentricities of these elliptical orbits.)
 it remains on its orbit because the earth’s gravity and the moon’s gravity pull on each
other.

 apogee ― point at which the moon is farthest from earth

 distance: 405,696km
 perigee ― point at which the moon is closest to earth
 distance: 363,104km

 revolution: the moon orbits the earth every 27.3 days

 rotation: moon turns on its axis every 27.3 days
  the moon’s period of rotation is equal to its revolution. this is called synchronous
rotation.

 the moon revolves around the earth  it takes for the moon 29 ½ days to
counterclockwise within a period of go from one phase to another, this is
27 ⅓ days known as sidereal month. called synodic month.

 half of the moon is always lit up by the sun. as the moon orbits the earth, we see
different parts of the lighted area. the revolution of the moon around the earth makes
the moon look as if it is changing shape in the sky. 
o this is caused by... the different angles from which we see the lighted part of the
moon's surface.  these are called "phases" of the moon. 

illumination of the moon

- waxing- occurs when the size of the - waning- occurs when the size of the
lighted part of the moon is lighted part of the moon is
increasing or growing bigger. decreasing or growing smaller.

phases of the moon!

1) new moon ― the lighted side of the
moon faces away from the earth. in
this phase, the moon that we see
looks very dark
2) waxing crescent moon ― about 24
hours after new moon, a thin slice of
the lighted side is seen.
3) first quarter moon ― follows about a
week after the waxing crescent. in this
phase, half of the moon is illuminated
by direct sunlight.
4) waxing gibbous moon ― in this
phase, more than half of the moon is
illuminated by direct sunlight.
5) full moon ― about two weeks after
the new moon phase, the moon is
positioned on the side of the earth
opposite the sun. in this phase, the
moon appears bright and visible as
seen from earth.
6) waning gibbous moon ― more than
half of the other side of the moon is
lighted by direct sunlight.
7) last quarter moon ― sometimes
called third quarter moon. the left half
of the moon appears lighted, and the
right side of the moon appears dark.
8) waning crescent moon ― this moon
can be seen after the last quarter
9) moon and before the new moon.  the
crescent will grow smaller and smaller
every day, until the moon looks like
the new moon.
 after undergoing the eight complete phases, the cycle is repeated.

 superstitions ― are beliefs and traditions that existed before our ancestors. it has been
passed on from generation to generation till modern times.
1) no. 1: the moon influences our weather. when the sun, moon and earth are
aligned, and the moon is closest to the earth, you could expect lower
temperature. this is due to the combined gravitational force. the moon’s
gravitational pull causes the earth and its waters to bulge during the full and
new moon and the same thing happens with the atmosphere.
2) no. 2: the moon affects the occurrence of high and low tides.
3) no. 3: our farmers’ ancestors believed that planting when the moon was in
full or new moon phase was beneficial and would yield good harvest.
because they affect the rate of plant growth.
4) no. 4: for a long time, people believed that the phases of the moon were
related to the menstrual cycle in some way. the lunar cycle is about the same
length as a woman’s average menstrual cycle.
5) no. 5: the full moon influences animal behavior. they howled at the moon
and even in the dark sky, just like wolves. the presence of the moon
influences certain animals, but it is the light that affects them, not the moon.
they are more active and more likely to be out when there is lighter.

 eclipse ― an eclipse takes place when one celestial body such as a moon or planet moves
into the shadow of another celestial body, blocking its light; an eclipse is an astronomical
event that occurs when one celestial body, such as the moon, passes between another
celestial body, such as the sun, and the observer on earth. there are two main types of
eclipses: solar eclipses and lunar eclipses.
  the shadow thingies “penumbra” and “umbra” are terms pertaining to the
parts of shadows. basically, the umbra is the darkest area while the penumbra is
the lighter region which is found at the perimeter. they are often associated with
astronomy specially when it comes to eclipses. for instance, a lunar eclipse
occurs when the moon passes through the earth’s umbra.

types of eclipse
- solar eclipse ― occurs during a new moon and takes place during the day; a solar eclipse
happens when the moon blocks the sun's light, casting a shadow on the earth during a new
moon phase. the moon appears to completely cover the sun, causing a brief period of
darkness. a total solar eclipse occurs when the moon completely covers the sun, revealing
the sun's corona. solar eclipses are rare and can only be seen along a narrow path. it's
crucial to take precautions when viewing a solar eclipse to avoid eye damage.
 it happens when the moon passes between the earth and the sun
 in this case the moon blocks the light coming from the sun to earth, a shadow of
the moon is casted on the surface of the earth.
 a solar eclipse can only last for about 7.5 minutes.
 not everyone has the chance to observe eclipses your location on the shadow of the
moon casted on earth will determine the type of solar eclipse that you will observe.
i. total solar eclipse
a) a total solar eclipse occurs when the moon completely covers the sun.
b) this creates a brief period of darkness during the day.
c) the surrounding will appear like an early evening.
d) the sun's outer atmosphere, or corona, becomes visible during a total
solar eclipse.
e) total solar eclipses are rare events that can only be seen along a
narrow path on the earth's surface.
o example!

ii. partial solar eclipse

a) a partial solar eclipse occurs when the moon only partially
covers the sun.
b) the moon only covers part of the sun’s light
c) the sun's corona is not visible during a partial solar eclipse.
d) a partial solar eclipse can be seen from a wider area than a total solar
eclipse, but precautions should still be taken to avoid eye damage.
o example!
 o

iii. annular solar eclipse

a) an annular solar eclipse occurs during a new moon phase when the
moon is farthest from the earth, making it appear smaller in the sky.
b) the moon passes in front of the sun, but doesn't completely cover it,
leaving a ring of sunlight visible around the moon.
c) annular solar eclipses are different from total solar eclipses because
the moon appears smaller than the sun, creating a "ring of fire"
effect.
d) precautions should still be taken to avoid eye damage when viewing
an annular solar eclipse.
o example!

- lunar eclipse ― an eclipse in which the moon appears darkened as it passes into the
earth's shadow; a lunar eclipse occurs during a full moon when the earth's shadow falls on
the moon as the earth comes between the sun and the moon. the moon can appear darker
and change color, ranging from light gray to red or copper. there are three types of lunar
eclipses: penumbral, partial, and total. lunar eclipses are visible from anywhere on the
nighttime side of the earth and occur several times a year, offering a spectacular sight for
stargazers and astronomy enthusiasts.
 the moon is in its full phase when a lunar eclipse occurs, meaning it is completely
illuminated by the sun.
 during a lunar eclipse, the earth is situated in between the sun and the moon,
with the three celestial bodies in alignment.
 when the earth blocks the sunlight from reaching the moon, its shadow falls on
the moon causing a lunar eclipse.
 lunar eclipses can be observed during the nighttime, since they occur when the
moon is visible in the sky.
 the duration of a lunar eclipse can vary, but it usually lasts for a few hours.
 while solar eclipses can only be seen from a limited area on earth, lunar eclipses
are visible from anywhere on the night side of the planet.
 this means that people in different parts of the world can observe the same
lunar eclipse, as long as it is visible in their area during the nighttime.

i. total lunar eclipse

a) this happens because as the light coming from the sun enters the
earth's atmosphere the blue light and other colors are filtered out
b) only the red color enters the atmosphere and refracted on the moon
c) a total lunar eclipse occurs when the earth completely blocks the
sun's light from reaching the moon.
d) during a total lunar eclipse, the moon can appear reddish or coppery
in color due to the earth's atmosphere scattering the sun's light and
allowing only the longer red wavelengths to pass through.
e) the total phase of a lunar eclipse can last for up to an hour, while the
entire eclipse can last for several hours.
f) total lunar eclipses are safe to observe with the naked eye, unlike
solar eclipses which require special equipment.
g) lunar eclipses have been observed and recorded by humans for
thousands of years, and they continue to be a popular and accessible
astronomical event for people around the world.
h) scientists study lunar eclipses to better understand the earth-moon-
sun system and the behavior of light in our atmosphere.
o example!

ii. penumbral lunar eclipse

a) when the moon travels on the penumbra of the earth shadow a
penumbral eclipse happens
b) this type of eclipse is quite hard to spot unlike a total eclipse which
can turn the entire moon red.
c) a penumbral lunar eclipse occurs when the earth's outer shadow,
known as the penumbra, falls on the moon's surface.
d) during a penumbral lunar eclipse, the moon appears slightly darker,
but the change is often subtle and difficult to notice.
 e) penumbral lunar eclipses are less dramatic than partial or total lunar
eclipses.
f) they are still interesting to observe, especially for those interested in
astronomy or celestial events.
g) penumbral lunar eclipses occur more frequently than partial or total
lunar eclipses, with about two to four of them happening per year.
h) like all lunar eclipses, penumbral lunar eclipses occur during a full
moon phase and can be observed anywhere on the night side of the
earth, weather permitting.
o example!

iii. partial lunar eclipse

a) a partial lunar eclipse occurs when only a portion of the moon is
covered by the earth's shadow.
b) during a partial lunar eclipse, the moon appears to be partially
obscured or "bitten" by the earth's shadow.
c) partial lunar eclipses are less dramatic than total lunar eclipses, but
they are still interesting to observe.
d) partial lunar eclipses occur less frequently than penumbral lunar
eclipses, with about one to two of them happening per year.
e) like all lunar eclipses, partial lunar eclipses occur during a full moon
phase and can be observed anywhere on the night side of the earth,
weather permitting.
f) partial lunar eclipses are safe to observe with the naked eye, making
them accessible to anyone interested in observing this type of
celestial event.
g) scientists use lunar eclipses to study the earth-moon-sun system and
to better understand the behavior of light in our atmosphere.
 o example!

 asteroids ― asteroids, which are rocky objects that orbit the sun, are also known as
minor planets or planetoids. the majority of asteroids can be found in the asteroid belt,
situated between mars and jupiter, but some are also found in other parts of the solar
system, including those near earth. these objects vary in size, ranging from small
fragments to large bodies that span several hundred kilometers in diameter. scientists
believe that asteroids are remnants from the early solar system that never developed
into planets. while some asteroids contain metals like iron and nickel, others are made
primarily of dust and rock. researchers can study asteroids through observation from
earth, or by launching spacecraft to fly past or orbit them. in some cases, spacecraft
have even landed on asteroids and returned samples to earth for analysis.
o asteroid belt ― most of the asteroids in our solar system are located in the
asteroid belt, a region of space positioned between the orbits of mars and
jupiter, where they orbit around the sun.
is it possible for an asteroid to be pulled out of its orbit?
if a planet's gravitational force is strong enough, it can cause an asteroid to deviate from
its original orbit. if this occurs, the asteroid may then be caught in the gravitational pull
of the planet and begin to orbit it, turning into a satellite of that plane!
 astronomers believe that the two satellites of mars, phobos and deimos, are
captured asteroids.

what prevents the asteroids in the belt from moving towards the sun and
hitting the inner planets, including our mother earth?
Jupiter’s massive size causes it to exert a greater gravitational force on the asteroids in
the asteroid belt than the sun. this causes the asteroids to be pulled outward, away
from the inner planets and into orbit around jupiter, since the belt is closer to jupiter
than to the sun. this helps to keep the asteroids in place and prevents them from
potentially colliding with the inner planets.

asteroid theory
scientists believe that the asteroid belt, a region between mars and jupiter, was once
packed with asteroids. however, due to Jupiter’s strong gravitational pull, many of these
 asteroids were flung out of the belt. this pull also prevented the asteroids from coming
together to form a new planet. over time, the area became filled with debris from the
formation of other planets, which eventually coalesced into the small rocky objects we
now call asteroids. so, the asteroid belt is no longer an empty space, but rather a
crowded area full of these asteroids.

asteroids classifications.
c-type: carbonaceous asteroids are a type of asteroid that are grayish in color. they are the
most common type of asteroid, accounting for about 75% of all asteroids in the
asteroid belt. these asteroids can be found throughout the asteroid belt, which is a
region of the solar system between the orbits of mars and jupiter where many
asteroids are located.
s-type: silicaceous asteroids are a type of asteroid that are greenish to reddish in color,
and are composed of iron and magnesium silicate. these asteroids make up about
17% of all asteroids in the inner asteroid belt, which is the area of the asteroid belt
that is closer to the sun.

m-type: metallic asteroids are a type of asteroid that are reddish in color, due to their high
concentration of metallic substances such as nickel-iron. these asteroids are mostly
found in the middle region of the asteroid belt

two main asteroid classes

1) main belt asteroids, which refers to a cluster of asteroids located in the "missing
planet" gap between mars and jupiter.
2) near-earth asteroids, which are grouped in the following categories. near-earth
asteroids (neas) are asteroids that get relatively close to earth as they orbit the sun.
they can come closer to the sun than mars does. some of these asteroids even cross
earth's orbit and may pose a potential danger to our planet. studying NEA’s can help us
understand how our solar system formed and evolved, and how planets like earth came
to be. it's also important to study NEA’s to improve our ability to protect our planet
from potential asteroid impacts.
a. atens ― lie outside the asteroid belt, near the orbit of Mars including Ceres,
Pallas, Juno, and Vesta
b. apollos ― lie near Earth, which sometimes crosses Earth’s orbit. Some of its
examples are
i. ecarus ― which has traveled to earth from a distance of approximately
six million kilometers.
ii. geographus ― it's an elongated, rocky asteroid that belongs to the
apollo group of near-earth objects. it's also classified as a potentially
 hazardous asteroid, with an average diameter of around 2.5 kilometers
(or 1.6 miles).
iii. eros ― at about 485 thousand miles.
c. trojans, Jupiter's trojans dwell within the asteroid belt and include hector,
Diomedes, Agamemnon, Petronius, and others. they orbit the sun for 12 years
and share Jupiter's orbital path. trojans are asteroids located at LaGrange points,
which are stable positions in a planet's orbit located about 60 degrees ahead or
behind the planet. they are named after trojan warriors and are found at the
LaGrange points of other planets in addition to jupiter.
d. amor ― amor asteroids are (NEA’s) with orbits that cross mars' orbit but not
earth's. they're named after 1221 amor, the first such asteroid discovered. amors
are PHAS, and there are other earth-approaching asteroids, like apollos and
atens, that have orbits between earth and mars. these asteroids pose a potential
impact threat and are of interest to astronomers and space agencies.

the four largest asteroids.

Ceres 939 km
Vesta 525 km
Pallas 512 km
Hygiea 434 km

did you know?

ü the first discovered asteroid was named ceres. it was discovered
by an Italian astronomer named “Giuseppe Piazzi” in 1801.
ü astronomer “William Herschel” first coined the word asteroid,
ü which means “star like” in 1802.
ü Chicxulub crater in Mexico has a diameter of approximately
150 kilometers, believed to be an impact of an asteroid hitting the earth.

meteroids
o meteoroids are remnants or fragments of
asteroids and comets located outside the earth's
atmosphere.
o meteoroids originated from the collision of
asteroids.
o they were also known to be the debris of comets that travel around the sun or debris
from the impact of collision of mars or the moon with asteroids.
 meteor
o if a meteoroid comes close enough to the earth atmosphere, it is pulled by the
earth’s gravity. it burns, vaporizes, and turns into a meteor.
o a meteor is a spark of light in the sky caused by a meteoroid that crashes
towards the earth’s atmosphere; commonly known as a “shooting star” or
“falling star”.
o a meteor that hits the earth’s surface is called a meteorite.

approximate size of meteorites number of pieces that hit the earth

pea size 10 per/hour
kayos-nut size 1 per/hour
lawsones size 1 per/10 hours
basketball size 1 per/month
50 meter size 1 per/100 years
1km size 1 per/500,000 years.

did u know?

- only one person has been hit by a
meteorite, in 1954 in Alabama.
- millions of meteoroids enter earth's
atmosphere daily.
- the largest meteorite found in the us
is the Willamette meteorite,
weighing 15.5 tons.
- the Allende meteorite fell in 1969 in
Mexico and scattered in pieces.
- the hob iron meteorite in Namibia is
the largest single meteorite known,
estimated to have weighed up to
100,000 kg, but some parts have
rusted away.

 what are comets? ― a comet is a celestial object composed of dust, ice, and gas
that orbits the sun. when a comet gets closer to the sun, its ice vaporizes,
forming a glowing cloud called a coma, which is pushed away from the sun by
radiation and solar wind, creating a tail. comets are referred to as "dirty
snowballs" due to their composition, and they offer insights into the solar
system's formation. while some comets can be seen with the naked eye, most
require telescopes or spacecraft for observation.
 meteor shower ― happens when earth passes through the orbital path of a
comet that left a lot of dust behind.

parts of a comet
- nucleus - it is the central solid part of the comet. also
known as the core.
- coma - is the most visible portion of the comet
surrounding the nucleus.
- hydrogen envelope - it is the only invisible layer of the comet found surrounding the
coma.
 - ion tail- it is made of electrically charged molecules of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and
water. the ion tail is also called the plasma or gas tail.
- dust tail - it is the layer away from the sun.

where do comets come from?

comets come from Kuiper belt and Oort cloud. Kuiper belt has icy bodies including dwarf planet pluto.
comets from here complete orbits in less than 200 years. Oort cloud is distant, around 50,000 au away, and
comets from here take thousands or millions of years to complete one orbit.
o Kuiper belt ― a doughnut shaped o Oort cloud ― a spherical region of
region that extends from beyond comets that surrounds the solar
Neptune’s orbit to about 100 times system out to more than 1000 times
earth’s distance from the sun. the distance between pluto and the
sun.
comet classifications
short period or periodic comet
- originates from the Kuiper belt and has a predictable orbit around the sun.
- example ― Halley’s comet
two subcategories:
o jupiter family (come into view less than every 20 years.)
o halley family (appears every 20 or more years but less than 200 years.)

long period or non-periodic comet

- come from the oort cloud.
- "displaced" or "pushed" from their original place and shot off into the solar system.
- example - hale-bopp comet

did you know?

- comet comes from the greek word
“kometes” meaning long hair
- halley's comet is the most famous
and appears every 76 years, it made
it’s last appearance in 1986
- comets are made of frozen water,
methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide,
rock, dust, and other metallic bits
- the tail of a comet always points
away from the sun because of solar
winds

a person can see approximately 3,000 stars on the average!

what is a star? a star is an enormous glowing ball of hot gas. there are billions of stars
contained in the galaxies of the universe. the milky way is the galaxy where our solar system
belongs. all the individual stars you see in the night sky are members of our galaxy.
a star is born! the formation of a star starts when hydrogen gas is pulled into the spinning
clouds of nebula. as the clouds spin, the atoms of the hydrogen gas collide. friction heats other
gases in the cloud and the temperature in the center of the cloud rises. this give rise to a
protostar. according to scientists, it is in a nebula where a star is born.

• to become a true star, protostar must be at least 80 times as massive as Jupiter.

how long will stars live? after perhaps billions of years, the nuclear fuel of a star, which is the
hydrogen, runs out. when this happens, the star expands while the core contracts. the star
now begins to glow red.

then what happens next? the destiny of a star depends on how massive it is. when the last of
the hydrogen gas in the outer shell of a star with a mass equal to or less than the mass of the
sun, it becomes a white dwarf.
a) white dwarf star is extremely dense and shines with a white, hot light.
b) when a star that has a mass equal to two or three times the mass of the sun runs out of
hydrogen, it becomes a neutron star.
c) a neutron star is an extremely dense star composed of tightly packed neutrons formed
by the welding together of protons and electrons.

how long will stars live? (2) the star is considered old when it has reached the red giant phase
that eventually explodes and turns into a dim, cool object. the collapse and explosion of a not
so big star is called nova, the explosion of a massive star is called supernova. some red giant
stars undergo a nonexplosive fashion. these stars become planetary nebulae.

then what happens next? a massive star that has a mass equal to three to four times the solar
mass becomes a black hole when no nuclear fuel is available to support its core. a black hole is
a region in space where light cannot escape. according to studies made, a black hole swallows
any matter or energy that comes near it. the more massive the star is, the more dramatic its
end will be.

why do stars twinkle? do you know that stars do not twinkle? they seem to twinkle when we
see them from the earth’s surface. the light of the stars is bent or refracted as it travels
through the thick layers of the earth’s atmosphere. this bending of light results in the twinkling
of the stars

why do you not see stars in the daytime? during daytime we cannot see any star other than
the sun. this is the only star we can see during the day. as the sun lights up the sky, more light is
coming from the sky than from the stars. but though you can’t see other stars during the day, it
does not mean they are not there.

Distance of Stars to the Earth

STAR NAME DISTANCES FROM EARTH
Sirius 8.6 light years
 Vega 26 light years
Betelgeuse 300 light years
Deneb 400 light years
Rigel 540 light years

how bright are the stars? star brightness is described in terms of magnitude.
 apparent magnitude - the brightness of a star as seen from earth.
 absolute magnitude – is the star’s true brightness.

STAR NAME APPARENT MAGNITUDE ABSOLUTE MAGNITUDE

Sun -26.8 4.83
Sirius -1.47 1.41
Betelgeuse 0.41 -5.6
Vega 0.04 0.5
Polaris 1.99 -3.2
The brightest stars have the largest negative number. Dimmer stars are positive numbers.

that stars have different colors

what does the color of the star tell us?
Ø color of the star indicates its temperature.
Ø astronomers can determine the
surface temperature of a star by
measuring its color.
Ø they use different methods in
determining the temperature of stars.
Ø one method is the use of an
instrument called photometer.
Ø a photometer consists of three filters
that transmit light in three different
wavelength ranges.
Ø blue stars are hotter than red stars.
Ø rigel is an example of a bright blue star while betelgeuse is a bright red star.

how hot is a star?

o stars have temperatures between about 2,600 degrees kelvin and 50,000 degrees
kelvin.
o our sun has a surface temperature of
5,780 degrees kelvin.
o in general, the more massive a star is, the
hotter its surface.
 o one of the most important tools of astronomers is the Hertzsprung Russel diagram or
simply called h-r diagram.
o it was developed by a Danish astronomer Ejnar Hertzsprung and an American
astronomer henry Norris Russel.
o the h-r diagram is a plot of different stars indicating their brightness versus their
temperatures.

star classification
stars are grouped into 7 main categories (also
called, classes). these were created by
astronomer Annie Jump Cannon the classes are
called O, B, A, F, G, K AND M. stars in the 'O'
class are the most massive and hottest, stars in
the 'M' class are the smallest and coolest.

what is a constellation?
Ø group of stars that looks like a
particular shape in the sky and has
been given a name (after mythical
figures, animals, gods, heroes, and
objects)
Ø constellations are invented rather
than discovered. different cultures
have made up different
constellations based on their
interpretations of the images they
see in the sky.
Ø the constellations you can see at
night depend on the time of year.
Ø your location on earth also
determines what stars and
constellations you see, and how high
they appear to rise in the sky.
why do the stars appear to move in the sky?
Ø this is because earth rotates on its
axis.
Ø the simplest way to look for
constellations is to look for the
reference star- polaris or north star.
Ø parallax is the term used to refer to
apparent change in the position of a
star in the sky.
why do we see different constellations at
different times of year?
Ø this is because the earth orbits
around the sun from west to east
making the star seems to rise in the
east and set in the west.
Ø the rotation of the earth on its axis
causes the observed movement of
the stars in the night sky.
Ø the revolution allows the observer
to see a certain part of the sky at
different months of the year.