PAPER 103- CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION

UNIT 1: Diversity and Inequalities in Education

• DIVERSITY
Origin: The word Diversity comes from Old French word ‘diversite’ which means ‘making
dissimilar’
As per the Merriam-Webster dictionary
“Diversity is the condition of having or being composed of differing elements;
especially the inclusion of different types of people (as people of different races or
cultures) in a group or organization.”

The diversity in India is unique. Being a large country with large population. India presents
endless varieties of physical features and cultural patterns. It is the land of many languages
it is only in India people professes all the major religions of the world. In short, India is “the
epitome of the world”. The vast population is composed of people having diverse creeds,
customs and colours. Some of the important forms of diversity in India are discussed below.
Religious diversity:
India is a land of multiple religions. Apart from the tribal societies, many of whom still live in
the pre-religious state of animism and magic, the Indian population consists of the Hindus
(82.41%), Muslims (11.6%), Christians (2.32%), Sikhs (1.99%), Buddhists (0.77%) and Jains
(0.41%). The Hindus themselves are divided into several sects such as Vaishnavas,
Shaivates, Shaktas, Smartas etc. Similarly, the Muslims are divided into sects such as Shias,
Sunnis, Ahmadiyas etc.
Linguistic diversity:
Languages spoken in India belong to several language families, the major ones being the
Indo-Aryan languages spoken by 75% of Indians and the Dravidian languages spoken by
20% of Indians. Other languages belong to the Austroasiatic, Sino- Tibetan, Tai-Kadai, and a
few other minor language families and isolates. India has the world’s second highest
number of languages, after Papua New Guinea.
Racial diversity:
1931 census classified India’s racial diversity in the following groups- The Negrito, The
Proto-Australoid, The Mongoloid, The Mediterranean, The Western Brachycephals and the
Nordic. Representatives of all the three major races of the world, namely Caucasoid,
Mongoloid, and Negroid, are found in the country.
Cultural diversity:
Cultural patterns reflect regional variations. Because of population diversity, there is
immense variety in Indian culture as it is a blend of various cultures. Different religion,
castes, regions follow their own tradition and culture. Thus, there is variation in art,
architecture, dance forms, theatre forms, music etc.
Caste diversity:
India is a country of castes. The term caste has been used to refer to both varna as well as
jati. Varna is the four-fold division of society according to functional differentiation. Thus,
the four varnas include Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras and an outcaste group.
Whereas Jati refers to a hereditary endogamous status group practicing a specific
traditional occupation.. There are more than 3000 jatis and there is no one all India system
of ranking them in order and status. The jati system is not static and there is mobility in the
system, through which jatis have changed their position over years. This system of upward
mobility has been termed as “Sanskritization” by M. N. Srinivas.
Geographical diversity:
Spanning across an area of 3.28 million square kilometre, India is a vast country with great
diversity of physical features like dry deserts, evergreen forests, lofty mountains, perennial
and non-perennial river systems, long coasts and fertile plains.

In addition to the above described major forms of diversity, India also has diversity of many
other types like that of settlement patterns – tribal, rural, urban; marriage and kinship
patterns along religious and regional lines and so on.
 • SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
Social stratification refers to a society's categorization of its people into groups based
on socioeconomic factorslike wealth, income, race, education, ethnicity, gender, occupatio
n, social status, or derived power (social and political).
Stratification in India is also a form of inequality. The members of Indian society arrange
each other in categories of superiority, inferiority, and equality. In other words,
stratification is a process of differentiation where some people acquire higher ranks while
some lower. Moreover, it divides the Indian society into various levels and layers. This
creates a hierarchy of certain groups that share a similar lifestyle. Similarly, Indian society
stratifies on the basis of caste, class, gender, religion etc.
Caste System
The India Caste System is a perfect example of the stratification system. Caste is a
hereditary social group where a person’s rank and his rights are decided on the caste he is
born into. For instance, the Hindu religion has castes that range from Brahmins, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas, and Sudra. A person’s caste enables one to inherit the status and function of their
parents. While the Brahmins are the highest caste, they enjoy all the amenities which the
lower caste person isn’t allowed to. People are not allowed access to certain things solely
because of their caste. This creates a lot of division between the Indian society.
Class system
This stratification happens on the basis of a person’s class. The modern society is a victim of
the class system the most. Similarly, it decides a person’s rank in a society based on his
achievements and the amount of wealth he possesses. Moreover, the class system stratifies
in terms of educational qualification, property ownership, and other similar things.
Superiority and inferiority are common in the class system. The upper class feels superior
whereas the lower class feels inferior. In other words, the class system has three parts of
the upper class, middle class, and the lower class. However, the class system is not definite,
unlike the caste system. For instance, a person of lower class can enter the upper class and
vice versa.
Gender system
Gender has been the oldest source of social stratification. Even in modern Indian society, it
is prevalent to date. Gender stratification happens amongst various groups, communities,
and regions. Furthermore, gender does not limit to the sex of a person. Gender is more of a
socially constructed category rather than being determined biologically. For instance, there
are numerous genders now. Some of them are straight, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer
and more. The Indian society stratifies greatly between other genders other than straight
people. The LGBTQ community is at the receiving end of this stratification from time to
time.
Religion
Religious stratification separates society into different groups according to their belief
system. People are stratified based on the open stratifying systems, meaning that even
though an individual is born into a specific religion, they are not stratified based on what
religion they were born into but rather the religion and belief they currently practice and
associate with. Closed stratification, where a person is ascribed to a certain group can occur
within religions however.
 • ADVANTAGES OF MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY
Higher level of tolerance towards minorities
One important advantage of multiculturalism is that it has the potential to increase the
overall level of tolerance towards minorities in our society.
This is extremely important since minorities have been discriminated throughout history for
a quite long time and we urgently have to solve this problem in order to significantly
increase the quality of life of people who belong to those minority groups.
Multiculturalism can lead to a more peaceful society
If people become more tolerant towards minorities, chances are that the overall level of
peace in society will increase as well.
It is quite sad but there are still many regions all over the world where minorities are still
discriminated and many of them are even attacked in a verbal or even in a physical manner
by the local population who doesn’t accept those minorities and their different ways of life.
We can learn from different cultures
People also often underestimate how much they could really learn from people with
different cultural backgrounds.
We are often quite proud of our cultural values and social norms and think that they are
superior to all other ways of life.
Yet, it is crucial that we understand that our culture is not superior at all compared to other
cultures and that we should try to learn from other cultures in order to really broaden our
horizons on how the world really works.
Life becomes more interesting with multiculturalism
Another benefit of multiculturalism is that life will become much more interesting.
Many people in our society just have their standardized program from Monday to Friday,
meaning that they wake up in the morning, make breakfast, go to work, come home late in
the evening, eat, sleep and repeat.
However, this has nothing to do with what life really has to offer us.
This routine is just a robot-like way to spend your life.
With multiculturalism, you may be better able to realize all of this since people from
different cultures will often not join this sort of lifestyle and may rather live their lives on
their own terms.
We can make connections with people from many different cultures
Ethnic pluralism can also help us to make connections with many people with different
cultural and ethnic backgrounds.
This can be quite interesting since you can experience completely new ways of life.
Experiencing those different ways of life is extremely beneficial since only if you see many
different things, you will realize that what you have been told your whole life is just a one-
sided picture of reality and that there is so much more out there to experience and to learn.
This can also be a quite unique experience since you will have the chance to closely connect
to foreign cultures, not only in your home country but also in other countries and will have
the chance to really get to know how locals in other countries live their lives.
Can help to lower prejudices towards certain cultures
Many people are still quite prejudiced and skeptical about people from different ethnical
backgrounds.
This can be due to negative personal experiences in the past, but also due to a historical
perspective.
However, most of those prejudices towards ethnical minorities are not true at all and
multiculturalism can help to remove those prejudices in the long run.
Can give us a broader picture of reality
When we grow up, we are taught to behave in ways that are in line with local cultural
values and social norms.
However, those social norms have nothing to do with an absolute truth regarding how we
should live, they are just one of many different ways how people can live their lives.
This is quite important to realize.
Culture is not reality and if we really want to understand how the world works, we have to
be exposed to a variety of different cultural attitudes so that we can learn and integrate all
this knowledge.
Multiculturalism can provide us with a variety of different foods
Multiculturalism can also give us the opportunity to enjoy many different foods.
While there is nothing wrong with being proud of the local dishes a country has to offer,
relying on just one culinary direction may become boring in the long run.
Thus, it can be quite interesting to try out new dishes from foreign countries.
Quite often, you will be surprised regarding how good those foods can really taste.
You may even get additional ideas about what to cook at home when you try restaurants
that specialize in dishes from foreign countries from time to time.
You can learn a new language in multicultural regions
Also in case you are interested in learning new languages, multiculturalism can be quite
beneficial for you.
If there is a high level of ethnic pluralism in a society, you will have it much easier to find a
language buddy with whom you can practice a foreign language.
In turn, you will learn much faster compared to a state where you don’t have someone you
can talk to in person.
May foster technological progress
Multiculturalism can also help to foster our global technological progress.
People from different cultures have different knowledge, strengths and weaknesses.
Hence, it is crucial to bring people from many different ethnic and cultural backgrounds
together so that they can share their knowledge with each other in order to speed
up technological progress as much as possible.
Can improve the overall chances in the lives of many people
In general, multiculturalism can improve the overall chances in the lives of many people all
over the world since it can contribute to a more open and tolerant society.
In turn, the problem of the discrimination of minorities can be lowered, which in turn will
translate into a much higher quality of life for people who belong to these minorities.
 • CHALLENGES OF THE DIVERSE AND MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY
Tensions between people with different cultural backgrounds
While the majority of the local population is often quite tolerant and wants to coexist with
people from other cultures in a peaceful manner, there are also some people out there who
think that their way of life is the only valid one and that all other people should also follow
the same lifestyle.
In turn, this attitude implies plenty of tensions between people with different cultural and
ethnic backgrounds, which may turn into serious conflicts in the long run.
Some people have a hard time to integrate into society
Some people who come from foreign countries also have difficulties to integrate
themselves into society.
If people move to another country, everything is new for them and it can take plenty of
time until they assimilate themselves with the new conditions.
While many people are willing and integrate themselves over time, some migrants may not
be willing to do so at all, which can lead to serious problems for your society.
Language barrier as a big problem of multiculturalism
Especially if people with different ethnical backgrounds don’t speak the language of the
country they migrated to, chances are that those people will suffer from serious levels of
social isolation.
Speaking the local language is crucial in order to find work and also to make friends over
time.
In turn, if people don’t have sufficient knowledge of the local language and are also not
willing to learn it, chances are that those people will never become valued members of
society.
Local population may be skeptical towards this concept
In many regions of our planet, people are also still rather skeptical about the concept of
multiculturalism.
Many people are proud of their own culture and are not willing to accept other cultural
attitudes besides their own.
Therefore, in those regions, people with different cultural and social backgrounds may have
a quite hard time since they may not be accepted by the general public, even though they
might try their best to integrate themselves.
People may fear to lose their identity with multiculturalism
Many people also fear ethnic plurality since they think that they will lose their cultural
identity sooner or later due to this concept.
While ethnic minorities bring new ways of life, this doesn’t mean that all traditions will be
eroded.
It just means that there will be a variety of different cultural lifestyles to choose from,
which actually is a good thing since if you have more options to choose from, chances are
that you will be happier with your life in the long run.
Multiculturalism may lead to radical movements
One real danger of multiculturalism is that it can be misused for the spread of radical
religious ideas.
In fact, in many countries all over the world, gurus and other spiritual or political leaders try
to use multiculturalism for their purposes in order to spread radical ideas among the
general public.
This can be a significant threat to our overall level of freedom and we should take great
care that the spread of those radical ideas can be limited in order to prevent unpleasant
consequences in the long run.
People may become frustrated
Multiculturalism can also increase the level of frustration of certain people.
Many people in our nowadays society feel lost since they do no longer have the skills that
are needed to succeed in our current state of the world.
Those people are often quite frustrated and search for a scapegoat, which is often found in
multiculturalism.
In fact, many people claim that they are not able to find a job since migrants steal those
jobs from them.
However, this is quite flawed logic and those people should rather try to improve their skill
level so that they can find work instead of blaming other ethical minorities for their misery.
Social tensions may increase
Another downside of multiculturalism is that the social tensions in society may increase as
well.
If people get the impression that minorities are supported while the majority of the general
public is neglected in terms of welfare and social benefits, chances are that people will
become quite frustrated over time and that the social tensions in many regions all over the
globe will increase significantly.
Unemployment can be a problem
In case too many unqualified people migrate to a country, chances are that
the unemployment rate will also increase.
Many unqualified people will not be able to find a job, which can have serious adverse
effects on an economy and for society as a whole.
Multiculturalism may lead to higher sovereign debt
If unemployment rates increase due to multiculturalism and an excessive level of migration,
chances are that also sovereign debt will increase in those countries since more money has
to be spent on welfare and other social subsidies.
In the worst case, this can even lead to sovereign debt in the long run.
 • IMPORTANCE/SIGNIFICANCE OF UNITY IN DIVERSITY
National Integration
Unity in diversity is very essential for a country because it is a very simple task to divide
people with different views and ideas. If there is a unity between people despite their
variations and it is very difficult to disintegrate the nation. The unity among the citizens of
the country plays a great role in maintaining peace and prosperity in the nation.

Development and growth

Unity in diversity plays a vital role in the growth of the country because the united country
will always move on the path of development. It will face some internal issues than a
country that is socially weak and distributed on different terms.

Global recognition
A country that is assorted, but still it is united, not only joins value to the nation but is also
appreciated on international platforms. It sets an example for all nations by highlighting the
values and morals of citizens who respect and encourage each other despite their different
backgrounds and cultures.

Peaceful co-existence
Diversity can also be the reason for the origin of internal disputes but unity in diversity
plays a big role in maintaining peaceful co-existence with people with different cultures and
backgrounds.

Merits
• Unity in diversity increases the morale of individuals within the workplace,
organization and community.
• It helps to expand collaboration, relationships, interactions between people,
thereby improving performance, quality of work, productivity and lifestyle.
• This enables communication to thrive even under the most trying circumstances.
• Keep people removed from social ills and it helps to manage conflicts more easily.
• It promotes healthy human relationships and protects the equal rights of all
people.
• Unity in diversity provides a source of tourism for India. People from all walks of
life, cultures, religions, and clothing are attracted to many visitors and tourists
from all over the world.
• This, though distinctly different from one another, results in the practice of
national unity among the peoples of the world.
• It strengthens and enhances the rich heritage of the country and moreover as a
cultural heritage of India.
• It helps to fill the agricultural sector with biodiversity as well as economic
expectations.
• A source of skilled and developing professionals in various parts of the country.
 • INEQUALITIES IN EDUCATION
Educational inequality is the unequal distribution of academic resources, including but not
limited to; school funding, qualified and experienced teachers, books, and technologies to
socially excluded communities. These communities tend to be historically disadvantaged
and oppressed. Individuals belonging to these marginalized groups are often denied access
to schools with adequate resources. Inequality leads to major differences in the educational
success or efficiency of these individuals and ultimately suppresses social and economic
mobility. Inequality in education is broken down in different types: Regional inequality,
inequality by sex, inequality by social stratification, inequality by parental income,
inequality by parent occupation, and many more.

• CAUSE OF INEQUALITY IN EDUCATION FOR EACH GROUP

Absence of a National System of Education:
At present our education system has not been nationalized. Absence of a national
system of education is the greatest obstacle in the way of equality of educational
opportunities.
Poverty of Parents:
Poverty of parents is a major cause of inequality of educational opportunities. Children
from poor families fail to attend educational institutions where education/training is
expensive. The poor cannot pay the fees and their children do not find chances of
continuing in schools. From this group occurs the maximum number of dropouts.
Differential Standard of Educational Institutions:
Children from poor families receive education in substandard institutions which are
not properly equipped with teachers, teaching aids and apparatus. The children in rural
areas studying in poorly equipped schools have to compete with the children in urban areas
where there are well-equipped schools.
Differences in the Home Environment:
Inequality also arises from differences in the home environment of children. In most
cases parents are illiterate and their children arc first generation learners. These
children do not get the needed encouragement, help and academic support from
parents. On the contrary children from educated families get all the support and
encouragement from their parents for their education.
Gender Disparity:
Another cause of educational inequality is the wide disparity between the education of
boys and girls at all stages and in all areas of education. Usually parents value more and
take care of education of their sons, while the girl child in the family is neglected. The
social customs and taboos hinder the progress of girls’ education. They are given inferior
position in the family and their education is neglected.
Disparity between the Advantaged and the Disadvantaged:
Disparity between the upper class and the lower class of the society has always been a
crucial issue. In the sphere of education also disparity exists between the advantaged
community or the upper class and the disadvantaged community or the lower class
 • STATUS OF EDUCATION IN INDIA ACROSS DIFFERENT SOCIAL GROUPS
Education in India is primarily managed by state-run public education system, which fall
under the command of the government at three levels: Central, state and local. Under
various articles of the Indian Constitution and the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory
Education Act, 2009, free and compulsory education is provided as a fundamental
right to children aged 6 to 14. The approximate ratio of public schools to private schools in
India is 7:5. Major policy initiatives in Indian education are numerous. Up until 1976,
education policies and implementation were determined legally by each of India's
constitutional states. The 42nd amendment to the constitution in 1976 made education a
'concurrent subject'. From this point on the central and state governments shared formal
responsibility for funding and administration of education.
In a country as large as India, now with 28 states and eight union territories, this means
that the potential for variations between states in the policies, plans, programs and
initiatives for elementary education is vast. Periodically, national policy frameworks are
created to guide states in their creation of state-level programs and policies. State
governments and local government bodies manage the majority of primary and upper
primary schools and the number of government-managed elementary schools is growing.
Simultaneously the number and proportion managed by private bodies is growing.
In 2005-6 83.13% of schools offering elementary education (Grades 1-8) were managed by
government and 16.86% of schools were under private management (excluding children in
unrecognised schools, schools established under the Education Guarantee Scheme and in
alternative learning centers). Of those schools managed privately, one third are 'aided' and
two thirds are 'unaided'. Enrolment in Grades 1-8 is shared between government and
privately managed schools in the ratio 73:27. However in rural areas this ratio is higher
(80:20) and in urban areas much lower (36:66).

➢ Literacy rate in India as per Census 2011: 74%.

➢ Literacy rate: Male: 82.1%; Female: 65.5%
➢ Kerala tops the rankings, followed by Delhi, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
➢ Bihar is the lowest among states, followed by Arunachal Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Jharkhand etc., however, they are improving their position.
➢ Bihar has a literacy rate of 63.8%, and that of women is 53.3%.
➢ The gender gap in terms of literacy began to narrow first in 1991 and the pace has
accelerated, however still lags far behind the global female literacy rate of 7%
(UNESCO 2015).
➢ There are large state variations in the gender gap.
➢ However, during 2001 – 2011, the male literacy rate increased by 6 percentage
points but female literacy increased by nearly 12 percentage points. Achievement in
female literacy in Bihar is noteworthy: from 33% in 2001 to 53% in 2011.
➢ Be that as it may, India is still lagging behind the world literacy rate of
86.3%(UNESCO 2015). A major group of states lies in the average rank i.e. just above
the national level of 64.8 percent.
Educational Opportunities for SC/ST and OBC
The University Grants Commission (UGC) has all along given emphasis in enhancing
participation of Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), Minorities, Other Backward
Classes (OBCs), Persons with Disabilities (as defined in the PWD Act, 1995) and Women in
higher education.
Some of the notable schemes of the UGC for nurturing social equity for various beneficiary
categories in vogue are Indira Gandhi Post Graduate Scholarships for Single Girl Child,
Residential Coaching Academies for Minorities, Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowships for SCs &
STs, and Maulana Azad National Fellowships for Minorities, Post-Doctoral Fellowships for
SCs, STs, and Women etc.
Recommendations for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
Educational incentives like free uniforms, footwear may be supplied to SC children
especially girls to offset economic cost of education and cash incentive may be provided to
SC, ST children to offset other hidden costs of education.
Funds may be earmarked for remedial teaching of SC/ST and other disadvantaged children
at district level.
Out-of-school children in urban areas should also be provided with better facilities under
SSA.
Use of primers in tribal languages should be extended to all the schools in tribal areas.
More Adult Literacy Centres may be opened in areas predominantly inhabited by SC, ST.
Recommendations for OBCs, Minorities and Other Disadvantaged Groups
The street children, children of convicts, sex workers should have a special focus under SSA.
Funds may be earmarked for remedial teaching of SC/ST and other disadvantaged children
at district level.
More Minority concentration districts should be identified so that more children from
minority groups get facilities under SSA.
Recognized Madarasas should be brought under SSA and facilities extended to them.
Recommendations for Girls/Women
A reservation of not less than 33% should be made for girls in all technical and other
higher educational institutions, in their respective categories.
Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) Centres should be established in all
habitations irrespective of the number of inhabitants and this should be gradually elevated
by inclusion of other components like nutrition, health etc.
The Local Self Government Institutes and Panchayati Raj Functionaries should involve
more Voluntary Women Teachers and also Women Self Help Groups in all the camps under
the adult literacy programmes.
The existing Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya Scheme should be extended up to class XII.
All schools should have basic facilities like drinking water, toilets and common rooms for
girls.
All the universities/institutions should establish Women Study Centres.
Day Care Centres should be made available in all the institutions especially in institutions
where girls/women are studying /employed.
The existing institutions of higher learning exclusively for boys should admit girls/women.
UNIT 2: Medium of Instruction and Education for All
• CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
The Constitution of India is the supreme law of India. The document lays down the
framework that demarcates fundamental political code, structure, procedures, powers, and
duties of government institutions and sets out fundamental rights, directive principles, and
the duties of citizens. It is the longest written national constitution in the world.
It imparts constitutional supremacy (not parliamentary supremacy, since it was created by
a constituent assembly rather than Parliament) and was adopted by its people with a
declaration in its preamble. Parliament cannot override the constitution.
It was adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India on 26 November 1949 and became
effective on 26 January 1950. The constitution replaced the Government of India Act
1935 as the country's fundamental governing document, and the Dominion of India became
the Republic of India. To ensure constitutional autochthony, its framers repealed prior acts
of the British parliament in Article 395. India celebrates its constitution on 26 January
as Republic Day.
The constitution declares India a sovereign, socialist, secular, and democratic republic,
assures its citizens justice, equality and liberty, and endeavours to promote fraternity. The
original 1950 constitution is preserved in a helium-filled case at the Parliament
House in New Delhi. The words "secular" and "socialist" were added to the preamble by
42nd amendment act in 1976, during the Emergency.

PREAMBLE

WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into
a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its
citizens:
JUSTICE, social, economic and political; LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and
worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity;
and to promote among them all FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and
the unity and integrity of the Nation;
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do HEREBY
ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION
SOVEREIGN
Sovereign means the independent authority of a State. It means, that it has the power to
legislate on any subject; and that it is not subject to the control of any other State / external
power.
SOCIALIST
The term socialist used here refers to democratic socialism, i.e. achievement of socialist
goals through democratic, evolutionary and non-violent means. Essentially, it means that
(since wealth is generated socially) wealth should be shared equally by society
through distributive justice, not concentrated in the hands of few, and that the government
should regulate the ownership of land and industry to reduce socio-economic inequalities.
SECULAR
Secular means that the relationship between the government and religious groups are
determined according to constitution and law. It separates the power of the state and
religion. There is no difference of
religion i.e. Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Christianity and Islam are equally
respected and moreover, there is no state religion. All the citizens of India are allowed to
profess, practice and propagate.
DEMOCRATIC
The people of India elect their governments by a system of universal adult franchise,
popularly known as "one person one vote". This representative form of government is
suitable for governing the country because of its huge and diverse population. Every citizen
of India 18 years of age or older and not otherwise debarred by law is entitled to vote.
REPUBLIC
In a republican form of government, the head of state is elected and not a hereditary
monarch. Thus, this word denotes a government where no one holds public power as a
proprietary right. As opposed to a monarchy, in which the head of state is appointed on a
hereditary basis for life or until abdication, a democratic republic is an entity in which the
head of state is elected, directly or indirectly, for a fixed tenure.
JUSTICE
Justice stands for rule of law, absence of arbitrariness and a system of equal rights, freedom
and opportunities for all in a society.
India seeks social, economic and political justice to ensure equality to its citizens.
LIBERTY
The idea of Liberty refers to the freedom on the activities of Indian nationals. This
establishes that there are no unreasonable restrictions on Indian citizens in term of what
they think, their manner of expressions and the way they wish to follow up their thoughts
in action. However, liberty does not mean freedom to do anything, and it must be exercised
within the constitutional limits.
EQUALITY
The term 'equality' means the absence of special privilege to any section of society, and the
provision of adequate opportunity of all the individuals without any discrimination.
FRATERNITY
This refers to a feeling of brotherhood and sisterhood and a sense of belonging with the
country among its people.
 • THE FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
The fundamental rights definition says that these are the basic human rights of all citizens,
defined in Part III of the Constitution. These are applicable irrespective of race, place of
birth, religion, caste, creed, or gender. They are enforceable by the courts, subject to specific
restrictions. Following are some of the important rights of the citizens of India in accordance
with the Constitution.
1. Articles 14-18: Right to Equality
These articles talk about equal rights for all the citizens of the country irrespective of their
caste, class, creed, gender, place of birth, or race. It says that there shall be equal
opportunities with regard to employment and other aspects.
2. Articles 19-22: Right to Freedom
This is one of the most vital rights in the country whose foundation is based on Democracy.
The constitution of India says that the citizens of the country have freedom in various
regards. The freedom rights in the Indian Constitution include freedoms of -:
Expression, Speech, Assembly without arms, Association, Practicing any profession,
Residing in any part of the Country.
3. Articles 23-24: Right against Exploitation
These articles talk about the exploitation of humans and their rights. It prohibits any
activities that encourage child labor, human trafficking, and other forms of forced labor.
This article also prevents the state from imposing any compulsory service for public
purposes. Also, while making such compulsions, the state shall not discriminate against
anyone on the basis of caste, creed, gender, etc.
4. Articles 25-28: Right to Freedom of Religion
India, being a secular country, consists of people from varied religions and faiths and
therefore, it becomes of utmost importance that we and the constitution of Indian support
freedom of religion. Under these articles, the state can be prevented from making the laws
that
• Might be associated with a specific religious practice.
• Opening Hindu religious institutions of a public character.
5. Articles 29-30: Cultural and Educational Rights
These are the articles that work towards protecting the rights of cultural, religious, and
linguistic minorities by aiding them to preserve their heritage and culture. The state is
supposed to have no official religion.
These articles grant all the citizens of the country the right to worship any religion of their
choice. Under these articles, the state does not hold the right to discriminate against any
educational institution on the basis of it being a minority-run institution.
6. Articles 30-35: Right to Constitutional Remedies
These articles bind all the previously mentioned as this right makes sure that all the other
fundamental rights are not being violated in any case. If any citizen of the country feels that
their rights are being violated, they have the right to approach the court and demand
justice.
 • THE FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES
These are defined as the moral obligations of all citizens to help promote a spirit
of patriotism and to uphold the unity of India and concern the individuals and the nation.
Included in Part IVA of the Constitution, like the Directive Principles, they are not enforceable
by the law. In return for every right, the society expects the citizens to do certain things
which are collectively known as duties.
The following ten duties have been listed in the Constitution of India:

• To abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National
Flag and the National Anthem.
• To cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for
freedom.
• To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity, and integrity of India.
• To defend the country and render national service for the nation’s security when
called upon to do so.
• To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the
people of India transcending religious, linguistic, social and regional or sectional
diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women.
• To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture.
• To protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers,
wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures.
• To develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform.
• To safeguard public property and to abjure violence.
• To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity, so
that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavor and achievement.
• Who is a parent or guardian, to provide opportunities for education to his child, or
as the case may be, ward between the age of six to fourteen years.
• According to the 86th constitutional amendment in 2002, it is the duty of the
people of India to adapt to make India a safer place to live, to be clean and make
the surrounding clean and not to hurt anybody physically and mentally.
 • DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY
The Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) has been taken from the Irish
constitution and enumerated in Part IV of the Indian Constitution.
The concept behind the DPSP is to create a ‘Welfare State’. In other words, the motive
behind the inclusion of DPSP is not establishing political democracy rather, it’s about
establishing social and economic democracy in the state. These are some basic principles or
instructions or guidelines for the government while formulating laws/policies of the country
and in executing them.
According to Dr B R Ambedkar, these principles are ‘novel features’ of the
Constitution. DPSP acts as a guideline for the state and should be taken into consideration
while coming up with some new policy or any law. But no one can compel the State to
consider and follow all that which is mentioned in DPSP, as DPSP is not justiciable.

List of Directive Principles of State Policy

Article What it says
36 Defines the “state”.
37 Part IV of the Indian Constitution shall not be enforceable in any court of law.
38 Social, Political and Economic Justice.
39 Principles of Policy.
39A Free Legal aid.
40 Organization of Panchayats.
41 Welfare Government.
42 Securing just and humane work and maternity relief.
43 Fair wages and a decent standard of life.
43-A Workers’ participation in management.
43-B Promotion of Cooperatives.
44 Uniform Civil Code.
45 Infant and Child Care.
46 Protection of SCs, STs and other weaker sections from exploitation.
47 Nutrition, Standard of living and public health.
48 Scientific agriculture and animal husbandry.
48-A Environment and Wildlife Protection.
Protection of monuments and places and objects which have national
49
importance.
50 Judiciary should be separate from the Executive.
51 The state shall promote international peace and security.
• FEATURES/IMPORTANCE AND USEFULNESS OF DPSP FOR SOCIETY

➢ The State should strive to promote the welfare of the people.

➢ Maintain social order through social, economic and political justice.
➢ The State should strive towards removing economic inequality.
➢ Removal of inequality in status and opportunities.
➢ To secure adequate means of livelihood for the citizens.
➢ Equal work opportunity for both men and women.
➢ Prevent concentration of wealth in specific pockets through uniform distribution
of the material resources amongst all the strata of the society.
➢ Prevention of child abuse and exploitation of workers.
➢ Protection of children against moral and material abandonment.
➢ Free legal advice for equal opportunities to avail of justice by the economically
weaker section.
➢ Organisation of Village Panchayats which will work as an autonomous body
working towards giving justice.
➢ Assistance to the needy including the unemployed, sick, disabled and old people.
➢ Ensure proper working conditions and a living wage.
➢ Promotion of cottage industries in rural areas.
➢ The state should endeavour towards a uniform civil code for all the citizens of
India.
➢ Free and compulsory education for children below the age of 14years.
➢ Economic and educational upliftment of the SC and ST and other weaker sections
of the society.
➢ Prohibition of alcoholic drinks, recreational drugs, and cow slaughter.
➢ Preservation of the environment by safeguarding the forests and the wild life.
➢ Protection of monuments, places and objects of historic and artistic interest and
national importance against destruction and damage.
➢ Promotion and maintenance of international peace and security, just and
honourable relations between nations, respect for international law and treaty
obligations, as well as settlement of international disputes by arbitration.
 ➢ EDUCATION FOR ALL

Education For All (EFA) is a global movement led by UNESCO (United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization), aiming to meet the learning needs of all children,
youth and adults by 2015. Education for All, is also a USA based 501 (c)(3) organization that
strives to provide FREE education to disadvantaged underprivileged rural children,
completely in line with UNESCO initiative.
After independence the provision of UEE has been accorded the highest priority in the
programme of educational development and the nation has been making all efforts to
realise the target of UEE through universal enrolment, universal attendance and universal
retention. The central and state governments and various international bodies are
attempting to enroll all children in the age group 6-14 and inadequately literate from
amongst the adults. It is however unfortunate that even after 55 years of independence,
the constitutional obligation has not been realised and the target of Universalisation of
Elementary Education (UEE) remains unattained so far. UEE or UPE has been adopted as a
national goal and Education For All (EFA) has been regarded as the international goal for
promoting national well being, individual excellence and successful democratisation.

Meaning, Nature and Scope of EFA

Efforts towards UEE led to the formulation of the project ’Education For All’. The target of
Education For All was to be achieved by 2000 AD. Education For All envisions quality
schools, which can not only hold students for completion of courses provided, but also
enable them to achieve Minimum Levels of Learning. During 1990, steps were taken for
fixing the targets of MLLs.

Besides expanding and supporting Elementary Education, all efforts need to be made for
promoting meaningful and effective Adult Education. The year 1990 was declared as the
International Literacy Year by the UNO. Adult Education Programme are being
implemented for the last five decades. National Institute of Adult Education (NIAE) was set
up and it fixed the target of educating 10 million adults in the age group 15-35. Some other
programmes like, ‘Each one teach one’ and ‘Total Literacy Campaign’ have gained
momentum throughout the country. With a view to supplementing efforts of the formal
education system and adult education programmes, Non Formal Education (NFE) has been
implemented for providing education to children and school drop-outs who are not able to
attend formal schools due to many difficulties.

‘Education For All’ is an outcome of the combined meeting of the Tenth Regional
Consultation Meeting of APEID and Regional Experts Meeting on Universalisation and
Renewal of Primary Education and Eradication of illiteracy in Asia and Pacific countries held
in Bangkok from20th to 27thMay, 1986. The programme, ‘Asia Pacific Programme of
Education For All (APPEAL)’ focussed on three major areas: (i) Eradication of illiteracy (EOI),
(ii) Universalisation of Primary Education (UPE) and (iii) Continuing Education (CE). This
programme aimed at covering (a) all illiterates in adult population and (b) enrolment and
retention of all primary school age children especially the disadvantaged and girls who have
remained out of the reach of all efforts to enroll them in schools.
Goals and objectives of EFA in India

i. Expansion of early childhood care and development activities including family and
communities, especially for poor, disadvantaged and children.

ii. Universal Elementary Education (UEE) , viewed as a composite programme of access to

elementary education for all children up to 14 years of age; universal participation till they
complete the elementary stage through formal or non-formal education programme; and
universal achievement of at least the minimum levels of learning.

iii. Drastic reduction in illiteracy, particularly in the age of 15-35 age group, bringing the
literacy level in this age group at least to 80 percent in each gender and for every identified
disadvantaged group, ensuring that the levels of three R’s are relevant to the living and
working conditions of the people.

iv. Provision of opportunities to maintain, use and upgrade their education, and provision
for the facilities for developments of skills, to all persons who are functionally literate and
those who have received primary education through the formal and non-formal channels.

v. Creation of necessary structure and setting in motion processes which would empower
and make education an instrument of women’s equality.

vi. Improving the content and process of education, people’s culture and their living and
working conditions, thereby enhancing their ability to learn and cope with problems of
livelihood and environment.

The Scheme of Operation Blackboard

The scheme of Operation Blackboard (OB) was launched in 1987 to improve facilities in
schools. The scheme had three components, namely (i) an additional teacher to single
teacher primary schools; (ii) providing at least two classrooms in each primary school; and
(iii) providing teaching-learning equipment to all primary schools. The OB Scheme seeks to
bring both the 11 quantitative and qualitative improvements in primary education. During
the Ninth Plan, third teacher was provided to more than 22 thousand schools and this
scheme covered around 78 thousand upper primary schools and to these schools new
teaching-learning materials were supplied.

National Programme for Nutritional Support (Mid-day Meal)

The National Programme for Nutritional Support to Primary Education (launched in 1995)
provides food grains/cooked meals to children in primary classes. The programme assures
100 grams of food grains per day for children attending schools for at least 80 per cent of
the total school days in a month. Annual Report: MHRD, 1999-2000 states that 9.90 million
children were covered under the scheme and allocated 2.71 million metric tones of food
grains in that year. Along with teachers, the local community is also given responsibility in
the distribution of food grains.
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)

The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is a historic stride towards achieving the long cherished goal of
Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE) through a time bound integrated approach,
in partnership with States. SSA, which promises to change the face of the elementary
education sector of the country, aims to provide useful and quality Elementary Education to
all children in the 6-14 age groups by 2010.

The SSA is an effort to recognize the need for improving the performance of the school
system and to provide community owned quality elementary education in the mission
mode. It also envisages bridging of gender and social gaps.

Objectives of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan:

 All children in school, Education Grantee Centre, Alternative School, or ‘Back to School’
camp by 2003;
 All children complete five years of primary schooling by 2007;
 All children compete eight years of schooling by 2010;
 Focus on elementary education of satisfactory quality with emphasis on education for
life;
 Bridge all gender and social category gaps at primary stage by 2007 and at Elementary
education level by 2010;
 Universal retention by 2010.

Components of SSA:

The components of SSA includes appointment of teachers, teacher training, qualitative

improvement of elementary education, provision of teaching learning materials,
establishment of Block and Cluster Resource Centers for academic support, construction of
Classrooms and school buildings, establishment of education guarantee centers, integrated
education of the disabled and distance education.
 ➢ CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS REGARDING EDUCATION IN INDIA

1. Free and compulsory education

Provision of early childhood care and education to children below the age of six years:
a) Article 45: The state shall endeavour to provide early childhood care and education for all
children until they complete the age of six years.

2. Right to Education
a) Article 21A- The state shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the
age 6 to 14 years in such manner as state may, by law determine (86th amendments, Act
2002).
b) 93rd Amendment (Primary Education a Fundamental Right)- Now by 93rd amendment of
the constitution the primary education has made a 'Fundamental Right'. It has become a
legal right.
3. Education for women
a) Article 15- This article is regarding no discrimination against any citizen on grounds of
sex, religion, race, place of birth .Article 15 (3) of the constitution empower the state to
make any special provision for women and this include their education also. Article 15(1)
provides that, the state shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds of sex, religion,
race, place of birth .
4. Promotion of Education and Economic Interest of SC, ST and Other Weaker Sections
a) Article 46 - It lays down, "The state shall promote with special care the educational and
economic interests of the weaker sections of the people and in particular, of the schedule
castes and the Scheduled Tribes, and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms
of exploitation". It is one of the directive principles of state policy.
5. Fundamental duties to provide opportunity for education
Article 51A Clause 'K' It shall be the duty of every citizen of India who is parent or guardian
to provide opportunities for education to his child or as the case may be, wards between
the age of six and fourteen years.
6. Provision for Religious Education
a) Article 25- Right to Propagate Religion Article 25(1) of the constitution guarantees all the
citizens a right of freedom of conscience and the right to profess, practice and propagate
religion.
b) Article 28 Freedom as to attendance at religious instruction Article 28 relate to 'Freedom
as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in certain educational
institutions'. This article has three clauses. Article 28(1): states, No religious instruction shall
be provided in any educational institution wholly maintained out of state funds."
7. Promotion of Hindi
Article 351 is related to promotion of Hindi. The constitution also provides for the
development and propagation of national languages, Hindi. According to article 351, it is
the special responsibility of the centre to develop the national language i.e. Hindi so that it
may serve as a medium of expression for all the elements of the composite culture of India.
For this there is a directorate of Hindi in the Central Ministry of Home Affairs.
8. Protection of interests of minorities
Article 29 relates the protection of interest of minorities it lay down
(a) "Any section of the citizen residing in the territory of India or any part thereof having a
distinct language, script or culture of its own shall have the right to conserve the same.
(b) "No citizen shall be denied admission into any educational institution maintained by the
state or receiving aid out of state funds on grounds only of religion, race, caste, language or
any of them".
9. Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions
Article 30-It relates to 'Right of minorities to establish and administer educational
institutions.
(a) "All minorities whether based on religion or language shall have right to establish and
administer educational institutions of their choice".
(b) "The states shall not discriminate against any educational institution in respect of grant
in-aid, on the ground that it is under the management of a minority whether based on
religion or language".
10. Instruction in mother-tongue at the primary stage
Article 350-A relates to facilities for instruction in mother-tongue at the primary stage. It lay
down as, "It shall be the endeavour of every state and of every local authority with the
state to provide adequate facilities for instruction in the mother tongue at the primary
stage of education to children belonging to linguistic minority groups; and the president
may issue such directions to any state as he considers necessary or proper for receiving the
provision of such facilities.
Article 350-B: provides for the appointment of a special officer for linguistic minorities with
the object of investigating into the matter relating to safeguards provided for linguistic
minorities under the constitution.
11. Education in the Union Territories
Article 239 of the constitution states," Save as otherwise provided by Parliament by how,
every Union Territory shall be administered by the President acting to such extent as he
thinks fit, through an administrator to be appointed by him with such designation as he
may specify." This means that every union territory has its own education department and
the responsibility of education in union territory has been under union or centre
government.
 ➢ UNIVERSALISATION OF PRIMARY EDUCATION
Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE) in India means making education up to class
I-VIII available to all children in the age group 6-14. This constitutional directive has been
interpreted as making primary education of five-year duration available to all children
between the age group 6-11 years and three years of upper primary education for children
aged 11-14 years.

By universalisation of retention we mean that once a child joins a primary school(s), she/he
should remain there till the completion of primary schooling. If the child leaves the school
in between, the idea of universalisation stands defeated. Mere enrolment of children is not
enough. They should attend the school regularly and complete their primary/ elementary
schooling.

Strategies For Achieving Universalisation Of Primary Education

In order to achieve Universalisation of Elementary Education by the 2000 AD, following
key strategies had been worked out in consultation with states and union territories:
➢ Overcoming the problem of school dropouts and laying emphasis on retention and
achievement rather than on mere enrolment;
➢ Strengthening the alternatives to schooling, particularly, non-formal education
system for working children, girls and children from other disadvantaged or
marginalised sections of society;
➢ Shifting focuses from educationally backward states to educationally backward
districts;
➢ Adopting disaggregated approach with a focus on preparation of district-specific and
population-specific educational plans;
➢ Providing universal access to schooling facilities particularly to girls, disaggregated
groups, and out of school children;
➢ Introducing Minimum Levels of Learning for enhancement of learner achievement;
Microplanning would provide the framework of universal access and universal
participation while MLLs would be the strategy for universal achievement;
➢ Improving school effectiveness, teacher competence, training ad motivation;
➢ Decentralisation of planning and management through Panchayat Raj institutions,
Village Education Committees and laying stress on participative process;
➢ Convergence of different schemes of elementary education and related services such
as early childhood care and education and school health and nutrition programmes;
 • MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION
A medium of instruction (plural: media of instruction, or mediums of instruction) is
a language used in teaching. It may or may not be the official language of the country or
territory. If the first language of students is different from the official language, it may be
used as the medium of instruction for part or all of schooling. Bilingual
education or multilingual education may involve the use of more than one language of
instruction.
UNESCO considers that "providing education in a child's mother tongue is indeed a critical
issue".In post secondary, university and special educational program settings, content may
often be taught in a language that is not spoken in the students' homes. This is referred to
as content based learning or content and language integrated learning (CLIL). In situations
where the medium of instruction of academic disciplines is English in countries where the
first language is not English, the phenomenon is referred to as English medium instruction
or EMI.

• THREE-LANGUAGE FORMULA (KOTHARI COMMISION 1968)

▪ First language: It will be the mother tongue or regional language.

▪ Second language: In Hindi speaking states, it will be other modern Indian
languages or English. In non-Hindi speaking states, it will be Hindi or English.
▪ Third Language: In Hindi speaking states, it will be English or a modern Indian
language. In the non-Hindi speaking state, it will be English or a modern Indian
language.
Need for Three-Language Formula
▪ The Kothari Committee’s report observes that learning languages is an important
part of a child’s cognitive development.
▪ The primary aim is to promote multilingualism and national harmony.
▪ Bridging the language gap: At the secondary stage, State governments were to
adopt the three-language formula.
o It included the study of a modern Indian language, preferably one of
the southern languages, apart from Hindi and English in the Hindi-
speaking States.
o In the ‘non-Hindi speaking States’, Hindi should be studied along with
the regional language and English.
Issue in Implementation
▪ The states in the hindi belt (such as in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar) could not
promote learning of south Indian languages under a three language formula.
▪ The states like Tamil Nadu, Puducherry and Tripura were not ready to teach
Hindi in their school curriculum. Instead they demanded autonomy of this issue.
 • RECOMMENDATIONS REGARDING MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION AND TEACHING OF
LANGUAGES

Gandhiji
Gandhiji emphasized the mother tongue to be the medium of instruction. Mother tongue
would enable the children to express themselves effectively and clearly. If a student/child
learns through mother tongue then he can easily learn ethical and moral values and
importance of national heritage. According to him if English is to be taught as medium of
instruction then it hinders the development of understanding and clarity of thoughts/ideas.

Lord Macaulay’s Minute:

Introduction of English as a Medium of Instruction: Christian missionaries made attempts to
revive an out of date system of education and advocated the teaching of Christian religion
and Western Literature through English medium. The scale in favour of English language
and Western literature was main economic factor – Indians wanted a system of education
which could help them to earn their livelihood. Progressive Indian elements also favoured
the spread of Western learning and English education.
Wood’s Dispatch on Education, 1854:
The medium of instruction was optional both Vernacular and English. The first was
encouraged at the school level, the latter at the university.
UNIT 3: Commissions and Committees on Education (Pre- Independence)
• LORD MACAULAY’S MINUTE
Lord Macaulay came to India in June 10, 1834, as the law member of the Governor
General’s Executive council and was appointed as the President of the committee of Public
Instruction. He was entrusted to settle down the dispute between orientalists and Anglicists
in 1835. He submitted his famous minutes in February, 1835 to the council which was
approved by Lord Bentinck and a resolution was passed in March 1835.
The following points were emphasized which are given below:
1. That the great object of the British Government ought to be the promotion of European
literature and Science amongst the natives of India that “all funds appropriated for the
purpose of education would be best employed on English education alone”.
2. “All the existing professors and students at all the institutions under the superintendence
of the committee shall continue to receive the stipends but no stipend shall be given to any
students that may hereafter enter at any of these institutions”.
3. “The Government Funds were not to be spent on the printing of oriental works”.
4. “All the funds at the disposal of the Government would be henceforth be spent in
imparting to the Indians a knowledge of English literature and Science”.

The arguments of the Anglicists in favour of English find their best exposition in the minutes
of Macaulay. He was in line with the Anglicists and so in his minutes he advocated, with all
force at his command, the cause of English language as the medium of instruction in India.
He made certain arguments on the section 43 of Charter Act.

According to him the meaning of the term ‘Literature’ meant the English literature and
“learned natives of India” meant those Indians who had acquired knowledge of western
science and knowledge.
Secondly, Indian scholar was also defined by Macaulay as the one who learnt Lock’s
philosophy and Milton’s poetry.
Thirdly, stoppage of grant to oriental schools means if government felt that its old
educational policy had failed, it could change its policy and stop the grant.
The fourth argument of Macaulay was that the knowledge of English would enable the
Indians to have commercial intercourse with the distant countries, as “English is likely to
become the language of commerce throughout the seas of the East”. The fifth argument
was that the learning of English by the Indians would be beneficial from the stand point of
administration.
Criticism of Macaulay’s Minute:
(i) Macaulay’s claim about English as only the medium of instruction cannot be justified.
(ii) Other Indian languages were neglected.
(iii) His downward filtration theory proved to be more a failure for Indians.
 • LORD WILLIAM BENTINCK RESOLUTION OF 1835
Lord William Bentinck, Governor General of India from 1833-35, a hard core utilitarian,
almost wholly endorsed Macualy's minute. During his tenure , The Charter Act 1833 was
passed in England, according to which "No native of India , should be disabled from holding
any place, employment on the basis of religion, place of birth, descent or color”.
Lord William Bentinck accepted Macaulay’s minute or opinions towards the language of
education for India. On 7th March 1835, the minute of Lord Macaulay was passed as a
resolution by the Governor General. The orders or resolutions of Bentinck were:

1. Great object of the British Government ought to be the promotion of European literature
and science among the natives of India; and that all the funds appropriated for the purpose
of education would be best employed on English education alone.

2. His Lordship in Council directs that all the existing professors and students at all the
institutions under the superintendence of the Committee shall continue to receive their
stipends.

3. It has come to the knowledge of the Governor-General in Council that a large sum has
been expended by the committee on the printing of Oriental works; his Lordship in Council
directs that no portion of the funds shall hereafter be so employed.

4. His lordship in council directs that all the funds which these reforms will leave at the
disposal of the Committee be henceforth employed in imparting to the native population a
knowledge of English literature and science through the medium of the English language

As a result of the resolution; there were established Zilla schools in the Principal towns of
the presidencies where literature and science were taught through the medium of English
language. The policy of Lord William Bentinck in the field of higher education made obstacle
to invest any expenditure on vernacular teaching, as a result of this policy, in Government
vernacular schools, the use of vernacular language as a medium of instruction was
prohibited.
 • WOOD’S DESPATCH ON EDUCATION, 1854

The ‘Wood’s Education Dispatch’ an important educational document was released on 19

July, 1854 after Sir Charles Wood, then president of the East Indian company’s Board of
Control and described as the ‘Magna Carta’ of English education in India. The Dispatch
contained the first comprehensive plan for the spread of education in India and
systematized the educational hierarchy from the primary, high school, college and
university. The medium of instruction was optional both Vernacular and English. The first
was encouraged at the school level, the latter at the university.
The main recommendations of Wood’s Despatch are as follows:

i. Acceptance of Responsibility:
It was accepted in the Despatch that the responsibility of educating Indians was that of
British Government.
ii. Establishment of D.P.I. office:
The Despatch recommended that the existing Board of Control for Education be abolished
and the office of the Director of Public Instructions should be established in the states.
iii. Establishment of universities:
The despatch recommended for the establishment of universities in the presidency towns,
viz. Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. The London University, which was then a purely
examining goody, was to be taken as their models.
iv. Medium of instruction:
The medium of instruction of education in India would be English. The Despatch accepted
the views of Lord Macaulay.
v. Grant-in-aid system:
The despatch proposed the system of grant- in-aid for the Indian educational institutions in
order to encourage the private enterprise for expansion of education among Indians.
In order to be eligible for grant-in-aid, a school was to fulfill certain conditions such as:
(a) The school must impart a good secular education.
(b) It must agree to inspection by government officers.
(c) It must realize a tuition fee, however, small, from the pupils.
vi. Training of teachers:
In order to secure properly qualified teachers for schools, the Despatch suggested the
training of teachers in normal schools. To induce men of better caliber to come to school-
service the Despatch recommended ‘sufficient salary’ for school teachers.
vii. Women and Muslim education:
As Indians were two orthodox, the British Government did not show any interest in
education of females. It insisted on a policy of strict neutrality in religion.
viii. Vocational education:
The Despatch put importance on vocational instruction, and to that end suggested the need
of establishing vocational colleges and schools of industry.
ix. Mass education:
The Despatch admitted that mass education had totally been neglected and so far the
Government devoted its attention exclusively towards providing means of education for the
higher classes.
 • THE INDIAN EDUCATION COMMISSION 1882 OR THE HUNTER COMMISSION

A Commission under the chairmanship of William Hunter, a member of the executive

council of the Governor-General of India, was appointed in 1882. It was the first
commission which gave wide and comprehensive recommendations on education in Indian
context. It had twenty members comprising of Indian educationists like Saiyad Mahmood,
Anand Mohan Bose etc.
The aims of the commission:
1.To assess the position of primary education and to give suggestions for its reforms.
2.To evaluate the work of the missionaries in the field of education.
3.To find out if the government institutions should be allowed to continue.
4.To assess the utility of the grant-in-aid system. To find out the attitude of the government
towards the private Indian enterprises in the field of education. To find out if they received
encouragement from the government.
5.The main purpose of the commission was to study the problem of primary education and
to suggest the measures for its reforms. But the commission also chose to look into the
affairs relating to secondary and higher education.
The main recommendations of the Commission :
• The primary education should be given priority. The Government should hand over
the management of primary education to District and Municipal Boards which were
to be provided one-third of its expenditure as grant in aid by the government.
• The curriculum should be framed according to local needs and its practical aspects
properly emphasised.
• The Mother tongue should be the medium of instruction at the primary stage. The
commission was silent about the secondary stage. Hence, indirectly, it supported the
cause of English.
• The Commission recommended the establishment of a model Government high
school in each District.Two types of high schools should be established, the one
preparing students for vocational education and the other for providing literary
education leading up to the entrance examination of the university.
• For primary teachers training, the number of normal schools should be increased or,
established.
• Due encouragement should be given to local co-operation and private efforts. It
suggested for the creation of a fund for the development of education in the country
and the government was made responsible for providing grant-in-aid.
• Emphasis was laid on the Indianisation of education. The result was that the number
of institutions at various levels of education increased enormously.
• Government institutions were banned for imparting religious education. Private
institutions had freedom to manage their affairs in their own way. This lead to a
policy of religious neutrality on the part of the government.
• In the field of women education, emphasis was laid on the differentiation of
curriculum, award of scholarships and facilities in appointments.
• Education for Muslims was given due to encouragement and attention was paid
towards granting proper facilities to them.
 • CALCUTTA UNIVERSITY COMMISSION, 1917

In 1917, the Calcutta University Commission was appointed by the Government of India
under the Chairmanship of Mr. Michel Sadler, the Vice-Chancellor of the University of
Leeds. So it was popularly known as the Sadler Commission. This Commission was
appointed for the purpose of making recommendations to reform Calcutta University.
Although it dealt with the Calcutta University only, the problems it had studied were more
or less common to the other Indian Universities. So the report of the Commission is a
document of in provincial importance and it had far reaching consequences upon the
development of University in India as a whole.

Some of its important recommendations were as follows:

• Separation of Intermediate classes from Universities and the stage of admission to
the University was to be after Intermediate and not Matriculation, curriculum
spreading over three years prescribed for the first degree.
• Establishment of Intermediate colleges with the teaching facilities in Arts, Science,
Medicine, Engineering, Education, Agriculture etc. These colleges might be attached
to the High Schools run independently.
• Formation of Secondary and Intermediate Board of Education in each province,
consisting of representatives of the Government, Universities, High Schools and
Intermediate Colleges for the control and management of Secondary and
Intermediate Education.
• Introduction of Honours courses as distinct from pass courses to meet the
requirements of able students;
• Formation of Selection Committee including the external expert to select Professors,
Readers and Lecturers;
• Establishment of Inter-University Board for coordinating the work of all Universities;
• Appointment of a Director of Physical Education to look to the physical welfare of
students.
• Expansion of vocational and professional education including Teachers Training;
• Encouragement to the Muslim students and protection of their interest;
• Creation of different faculties;
• Formation of Academic Council and Board of Studies for setting academic matters
relating to courses of studies, examination, research etc.;
• Inclusion of ‘Education’ as a subject for B.A. pass and Intermediate examinations.

By the Government of India most of the recommendations of the commission were

accepted which helped in the development of university education in India. In India during
the period 1916-1921, seven new universities were established namely Aligarh, Lucknow,
Banaras, Mysore, Patna, Dacca and Osmania.
 • HARTOG COMMITTEE, 1929
Education was transferred to the provinces and the central government discontinued its
grant for the purpose of education by the act 1919. The provincial government could do
nothing much concerning education, because of private initiative yet the members of
schools and colleges continued multiplying. It led to detoriation of educational standards.
Therefore a committee was appointed in 1929 headed by Sir Philip Hartog by the Indian
statutory commission to report on the progress of education achieved by them.
In 1929, the Hartog Committee submitted its report. This Committee was appointed to
survey the growth of education in British India. It “devoted far more attention to mass
education than Secondary and University Education”. The committee was not satisfied with
the scanty growth of literacy in the country and highlighted the problem of ‘Wastage’ and
‘Stagnation’ at the primary level.
It mentioned that the great waste of money and efforts which resulted because of the
pupils leaving their schools before completing the particular stage of education. Its
conclusion was that “out of every 100 pupils (boys and girls) who were in class I in 1922-23,
only 18 were reading in class IV in 1925-26. Thus resulted in a relapse into illiteracy. So, it
suggested the following important measures for the improvement of primary education.

• Primary education needed more attention though it was not necessary to make it
compulsory.
• Only deserving students should be allowed to go in for high school and intermediate
education and the average students after VIII class should be diverted to vocational
courses.
• Adoption of the policy of consolidation in place of multiplication of schools;
• Fixation of the duration of primary course to four years;
• Improvement in the quality, training, status, pay, service condition of teachers;
• Relating the curricula and methods of teaching to the conditions of villages in which
children live and read;
• Adjustment of school hours and holidays to seasonal and local requirements;
• Increasing the number of Government inspection staff
• The introduction of diversified course in middle schools meeting the requirements of
majority of students.
• Improvement of University Education, Women Education, Education of Minorities
and Backward classes etc.

The Committee gave a permanent shape to the educational policy of that period and
attempted for consolidating and stabilizing education. The report was hailed as the torch
bearer of Government efforts. It attempted to prove that a policy of expansion had proved
ineffective and wasteful and that a policy of consolidation alone was suited to Indian
conditions. However, the suggestions of the Committee could not be implemented
effectively and the educational progress could not be maintained due to worldwide
economic depression of 1930-31. Most of the recommendations remained mere pious
hopes.
 • ZAKIR HUSSAIN COMMITTEE/WARDHA SCHEME/BASIC EDUCATION, 1937
The Wardha scheme of Education, popularly known as ‘Basic education’ occupies a unique
place in the field of elementary education in India. This scheme was the first attempt to
develop an indigenous scheme of education in British India by Mahatma Gandhi, the father
of our nation. As a nationalist leader he fully realised that the British system of education
could not serve the socio-economic need of the country.
An All India Education Conference was held in Wardha on 22nd and 23rd October, 1937.
The eminent educationists, congress leaders and workers along with the Education
Ministers of the seven states had attended the conference. Gandhiji himself presided over
it. It appointed a committee to prepare a detailed syllabus in the spirit of the resolutions
under the president ship of Dr Zakir Hussain. It had prepared in less than two months, by
December 1937, the committee had submitted its report.
The main findings of this committee were as follows:
(i) To introduce a basic handicraft in the syllabus
(ii) Devising ways for coming into contact with the life of the community around the school
through service and thereby actually building up the school community.
(iii) Introducing of teaching through Hindi from standard II to standard VII
(iv) To remove the teaching of English from earlier years in school and beginning it only
from standard VIII onwards.
(v) The first 7 years of schooling to be organized as an individual, integral part of a free and
compulsory nationwide educational system.

The scheme of basic education was accepted both by the union as well as state government
as the pattern of national education at the elementary stage after independence and was
decided to establish, gradually a Universal system of basic education throughout the
country.
The main features of the scheme are as follows:

• The entire education is to be imparted through some industry or vocation with

a basic craft as the center of instruction. The idea is not to teach some
handicraft along with liberal education, but education integrated with a
handicraft is to be imparted through samavaaya (Samavay) integration method.
• Education is to be self-supporting to the extent of covering teachers’ salaries
and aims at making pupils self-supporting after the completion of their course;
• Every individual should learn to earn his living through manual work in life.
Hence, education through manual labour is insisted. It is also considered non -
violent, since an individual does not snatch away the living of others.
• Learning is closely coordinated with home, community and the child’s life
activities, as well as, village crafts and occupations. This philosophy had a
strong impact on formulation of the educational policies, particularly at the
elementary stage and for free primary education to find place in the
constitution of free India.
 • SARGENT REPORT, 1944
The Central Advisory Board of Education drew up a Scheme. As Sir John Sargent was the
educational advisor of the Government of India at that time in 1944, it is known as the
Sargent plan. The report had maintained that in a period of not less than 40 years, the
standard of Indian education will be made equivalent to that of England. It had
made certain policy decisions, the implications of which may have far reaching
consequences. They may be outlined below—

• Pre-primary education for children between 3 to 6 years of age.

• Universal, compulsory and free primary or basic education for all children between
the ages 6—11 (junior basic) and 11—14 (senior basic).
• High school education for six years for selected children between the years
11—17.
• After the higher secondary examination for selected students a university course of 3
years.
• Technical, commercial, agricultural and art education for full time and part time
students, girls schools are to teach domestic science.
• The liquidation of adult illiteracy and the development of public library system in
about 20 years.
• Full provision for the proper training of teachers.
• Educational provision be made for the physically and mentally handicapped children.
• The organisation of compulsory physical education.
• Provision be made for social and recreational activities.
• The creation of employment bureaus.
• The creation of department of Education in the centre and in the states.
• The use of mother tongue is to be used as the medium of instruction in all
high schools
UNIT 4: Commissions and Committees on Education (Post- Independence)
• UNIVERSITY EDUCATION COMMISSION 1948
The first Commission to be appointed was the University Education Commission in 1948,
under the chairmanship of Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, to report on Indian University Education
and suggest improvements and extensions that would be desirable to suit the present and
future requirements of the country.
The setting up of the University Education Commission popularly known as the
Radhakrishnan Commission in 1948 was a major landmark for enunciating the goals and
objectives of higher education in Independent India. The then Minister of Education,
Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad inaugurated this Commission on December 6, 1948 and gave it
the necessary directions.
The committee also aimed to establish universities that provide knowledge and wisdom for
the development of the overall student personality. This report suggested rebuilding the
education system in accordance with the Indian Constitution.

The Commission made, the following recommendations, some of them are pertinent even
today:

• The aim of education must be to awaken and promote the innate ability of a person
and to train him/her for development of self and democratic attitudes. Thus, the
purpose of education is to acquaint an individual with his/her cultural heritage and to
impart professional and vocational training.
• The Commission emphasized the role of post-graduate education, training and
research for the advancement of knowledge.
• It stressed the university’s role in studying agriculture in an agrarian economy like
India and suggested that special attention should be paid to the development of
higher education in rural areas. It also emphasized that the scientific and technical
base of the education system should be strengthened.
• Realizing the importance of the medium of instruction, the Commission
recommended that English as a medium of instruction in higher education should be
replaced as early as possible by an Indian language.
• A university degree should not be required for government administrative services.
Special State examination for recruitment to various State services should be
organized.
• Realizing the deficiencies of the examination system and the magnitude of the
wastage, the Commission recommended a thorough study of the scientific methods
of educational testing and appraisal.
 • SECONDARY EDUCATION COMMISSION, 1952 /MUDALIAR COMMISSION

In 1951 Central Advisory Board of Education advised the central government to appoint
secondary education commission. The government appointed secondary education
commission on 23rd sept, 1952. Under chairmanship of Dr. Lakshamanswami Mudaliar, the
then Vice Chancellor of Madras University. On the name of its chairman this commission is
termed as Mudaliar Commission.

Objectives Of Mudaliar Commission

o To study condition of contemporary secondary education and to suggest measures

for its reorganization.
o To study aims, curriculum & teaching standard of secondary education of every
province in India.
o To study pay-scales & service conditions of secondary school teachers.
o To study condition of secondary schools in every province.
o To study examination system of secondary level.
o To study problems of secondary education in every province & suggest their
remedies.

Recommendation Of Mudaliar Commission

1. Organization of curriculum
(a) At middle school stage
Commission proposed the following objectives for middle school stage keeping in mind the
political emotional and social needs of the country
• Knowledge of the physical environment
• Development of democratic values
• Vocational development
• Development of intellectual and aesthetic values.
He suggested following broad outlines for middle school curriculum(i) Language – mother
tongue or original language, national language and international language.(ii) Subjects to be
taught at the middle stage – Social studies, General science, Mathematics, Art and music,
Physical education, Craft.
(b) At the higher secondary stage
At this stage, the curriculum is divided into two categories
(i) Core curriculum – It is common for all students. It includes the study of Language,
General Science, Social studies, Elementary mathematics, Craft.
(ii) Higher curriculum – In addition to the core curriculum, every student has to take three
subjects out of the following seven groups
Group I – Humanities group – history, geography, economics, psychology, maths, etc.
Group II – Science group – Physics, chemistry, maths, geography, health, and hygiene
Group II – Technical group – applied mathematics, applied science, elements of mechanical engineering,
electrical engineering.
Group IV – Commercial group – economics, bookkeeping, shorthand, typewriting, etc.
Group V – Agricultural group – genera; agriculture, horticulture, agriculture botany and chemistry
Group VI – Fine Arts group – Art, painting, music, dancing, etc
Group VII – Home Science Group – Home economics, nutrition and cookery, mothercraft and child care,
home nursing, etc.
2. Recommendations on textbooks
• A high power textbook committee should be constituted for selection and
reforms
• Frequent changes in textbooks prescribed for studies should be discouraged
• Single textbook should not be prescribed for every subject of study
• Books should not spread hatred, enmity against any community, religion or
social customs
3. Recommendations on teaching methods
• Teaching method should provide opportunities for students to develop clear
thinking and expression in both speech and writing
• Teaching methods should be activity-based
• Teaching should take care of the individual difference
• It should inculcate desirable values and attitudes
• There should be more focus on experimental and demonstration methods
4. Recommendations on improving exam systems
• number of external exams should be reduced
• Subjectivity (essay type questions) should be minimized by introducing
objective questions
• The nature of the test should be discouraging cramming and encourage
intelligent understanding. So test should concern with rational understanding
• School records should be maintained for every student indicating work done
by him
• There should be a provision for the compartmental exam, one for each subject
5. Vocationalisation of education
• Diversification of courses of educational programs to meet varying interests,
aptitudes, and talents
• Committee advised on provision of agricultural and technical education
6. Guidance in education
• There should be an appointment of guidance officer and career masters in
schools for education, personal and social guidance
7. Education of character
• Close relationships between teachers and students for better discipline
• NCC scout camps should be encouraged
• Both co-curricular and extra-curricular activities should be included in school
education
• First aid and junior red cross work should be initiated

Apart from this Mudaliar commission also advised about-

8. Physical welfare of students
9.Improvement in teachers status
10. Teachers training
11. Administration and finance
 • KOTHARI COMMISSION, 1964-66

After the appointment of Mudaliar Commission, to deal with all aspects and sectors of
education and to advise Government on the evolution of a National System of Education for
the country, the Education Commission was appointed under the chairmanship of D.S.
Kothari. Based on this Commission's report, the National Policy on Education 1968 was
formulated.

✓ Kothari Commission was an ad-hoc commission set up by the Government of India.

✓ It was formed under the Chairmanship Daulat Singh Kothari. He was the then
chairman of University Grants Commission (UGC).
✓ Kothari Commission was the sixth commission in India, post-independence but it was
the first commission mandated to comprehensively deal with the education sector of
India.
✓ The Kothari Commission had a Core group of 20 members. The commission took a
consultation from a panel of 20 overseas consultants, who were based out of the
USA, UK, Japan, France, Sweden. They were experts in the education domain.
✓ There were 19 Working Groups or Task Forces in the Kothari Commission.
✓ The Report was submitted by the Kothari Commission on 29th June 1966 to
M.C.Chagla, the then minister of education.

Important Recommendations of Kothari Commission

1. Provision of Free and Compulsory Education – Recommended providing free and

compulsory education for children aged 6 to 14 years.
2. Languages – The Commission recommended adopting a three-language formula at
state levels. It intended to promote a language of the Southern States in Hindi
speaking states. It intended to promote Hindi, English and a regional language in non-
Hindi speaking states.
3. The Kothari Commission recommended promoting regional languages, Sanskrit as
well as international languages, preferably English. Use of regional language as
medium of instruction at the university stage.
4. The Kothari Commission recommended providing favourable and adequate service
conditions for teachers and providing them with the necessary freedom to conduct
and publish those findings.
5. To promote social justice, the Kothari Commission focused on girls education,
education of backward classes, education of tribal people, physically and mentally
handicapped children.
6. As Science and Maths are an integral part of the growth of any nation, the Kothari
Commission recommended making Maths and Science an integral part of education.
7. The Commission recommended reforms to improve education at University level by
paying special attention to postgraduate level research, training, providing adequate
libraries, laboratories and funds.
8. The Commission also recommended 10+2+3 Pattern of education and The Common
School System.
 • NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCATION (1986)
The Government of India reviewed the prevailing education system in 1985 and the policy
was articulated in the document “Challenge of Education: A Policy Perspective”. Former
Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi introduced the National Policy on Education in May 1986. The
new education policy was intended to prepare India for the 21st century. The policy
emphasized the need for change in the following words
“Education in India stands at crossroads today, neither normal linear expansion nor the
existing pace and nature of improvement can meet the needs of the situation.”
✓ Access, Enrolment and Retention of all children up to the age of 14 years in the
schools.
✓ Quality improvement of education by improving the school environment, child
cantered and activity-cantered teaching methodology, continuous evaluation
throughout the year, removal of all kinds of physical punishment, continuing the
practice of not failing the students in any class at elementary level and arranging the
essential facilities in primary schools.
✓ Arranging non-formal education for children, who left the schools, in between, or are
residing at places not having schools.
✓ Setting up of Navodaya Vidyalayas was another landmark in the history of education
✓ primary schools be opened in remote areas including ashram or residential schools in
tribal regions.
✓ The policy emphasized on inclusion of motor handicapped children in normal schools
and arrangement of special schools at district headquarters.
✓ NPE 1986 proposed a national system of education based on the accepted structure
of 10+2+3.
✓ It suggested that +2 stage be accepted as part of school education throughout the
country.
✓ The Policy had some important features like common school curriculum, minimum
levels of learning, value education, role of media and education technology, work
experience, emphasis on teaching of Mathematics and Science, Sports and Physical
Education and education for international understanding.
✓ Equal educational opportunities especially for women and reserved communities.
✓ From expanding scholarships to recruiting more teachers from the reserved
categories and incentives for poor families to send their children to school regularly
✓ It also extended the open university system with the inauguration of Indira Gandhi
National Open University in 1985
✓ emphasized adult education
✓ reorientation of the system to promote gender equality,
✓ employment of teachers from oppressed groups, and disabled persons
✓ Development of new schools and universities
The NPE and POA elaborately discussed about the concept of language development and
emphasised the adoption of regional languages as the medium of instruction at the
university stage. Mother tongue should be the medium of instruction at the school stage.
Recommendations relating to language practice were as follows:
o three language formula, improvements in the linguistic competencies of
students at different stages of education;
o Provision of facilities for the study of English and other foreign languages; and
development of Hindi language as a link language etc.

Regarding teachers and teacher education, the policy suggested that

✓ District Institutes of Education and Training (DIET) need to be established with
the capability to organise pre-service and in-service courses for elementary
school teachers and for non-formal and adult education
✓ Selected Secondary Teacher Education Institutes should be upgraded to
compliment the work of the State Councils of Educational Research and
Training (SCERT).
✓ The National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) should be provided the
necessary resources and capability to accredit institutions of teacher-education
and to provide guidance regarding curricula and methods.
✓ Networking arrangements should be created between institutions of teacher
education and university departments of education.
✓ The NPE, 1986 also advocated developing consciousness about environment

• Revised Programme of Action (1992)

P.V. Narasimha Rao modified the NPE in 1992 with special emphasis being placed on higher
education. A proposal for 20 new universities was set forward while modernisation of
curriculums and research allowance for M.Phil and Ph.D. students got a fillip.
The revised programme of action proposed education for equality. It recommended a more
comprehensive Operation Blackboard to enhance its coverage area up to upper primary
level, aim at a minimum of 50 percent female teachers in future appointments at
elementary level, informal education programme for the educationally deprived and
working boys and girls, and computer education to as many schools as possible. It was also
proposed that elementary schools should be open throughout the year.
 • NATIONAL KNOWLEDGE COMMISSION (2009)
To encounter the educational challenges in 21st century, the National Knowledge
Commission (NKC) was appointed. It is not exactly an education commission as its role was
to propose the framework for quality, access and equity in higher education. NKC is one of
the important recent initiatives for improvement on quality of education.
National Knowledge Commission (NKC) was constituted in June 2005 by the Prime Minister
Dr. Manmohan Singh, under the Chairmanship of Mr. Sam Pitroda, to prepare a blueprint
for reform of our knowledge related institutions and infrastructure which would enable
India to meet the challenges of the future. NKC has submitted recommendations on areas
such as Right to Education, libraries, language, translation, portals and knowledge
networks.
Some of its recommendations are:
1. The need for a central legislation affirming the Right to Education. The legislation should
also lay down minimum standards of quality in school education and for it to be effective,
the responsibility of the Government at different levels, must be recognised and made
justifiable.
2. The teaching of English as a language should be introduced, along with the first language
(either mother tongue or the regional language) of the child, starting from Class I. Further,
NKC has also focused on the need to reform the pedagogy of English language teaching,
and the use of all available media to supplement traditional teaching methods.
3. Changes in the school system which would encourage decentralisation, local autonomy
in management of schools, and flexibility in disbursal of funds.
4. To improve quality and generate accountability, improving school infrastructure and
revamping school inspection with a greater role for local stakeholders and greater
transparency in the system.
5. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to be made more accessible to
teachers, students and the administration.
6. The need for reforms in the curriculum and examination systems by moving away from
rote learning to a critical understanding of concepts and finally improvement in faculty.
NKC suggested that the primary responsibility for school education is on the State
Governments, and, therefore, States needed to be consulted for policy formulation. NKC
also recommends both pre-service and in-service teacher education programmes be
subject to the same regulatory, authority and with adequate monitoring of the training
provide by private organisations.
 • YASHPAL COMMITTEE, 2009
The Human Resource Development Ministry, In 1992, constituted an eight-member
committee under the chairmanship of Prof. Yashpal, called National Advisory Committee,
popularly called after the name of its chairman as Yashpal committee and it was constituted
for examining reforms to be brought about in higher education in India.
The committee chiefly studied the prevalent curricula and textbooks as constructed by the
NCERT (National Council of Educational Research and Training) and CBSE (Central Board of
Secondary Education). It also took into consideration the curricula and textbooks in force in
different states.
Following are the recommendations of the Yashpal Committee Report:
• In the Final Report submitted by the committee to the Ministry of Human Resource
Development (MHRD), it was recommended that the deemed university status
should be abandoned.
• It was also recommended that all the deserving deemed universities should be either
converted to full-fledged universities or would have to be scrapped.
• The report also said that a GRE like test needs to be evolved for the purpose of
university education.
• The committee recommended that bodies like the NCTE, AICTE, UGC and others must
be replaced by a Commission for Higher Education and Research (CHER) – a seven-
member body.
• The position of the chairperson of CHER was recommended to be parallel to that of
the election commissioners.
• It was recommended that the universities must take up all the academic
responsibilities, restricting the jurisdiction of the other regulators such as the Bar
Council of India, the Medical Council of India, etc. to administrative matters alone.
• The report said that IITs and IIMs should be encouraged to diversify and expand their
scope to work as full-fledged universities.
• The process of framing of the curriculum and writing of textbooks should be
decentralised and involve more teachers.
• Education committees should be constituted at the village, block and district levels.
• The jurisdiction of CBSE should be restricted to KVs and the Navodaya Vidyalayas
only, and all other schools should be affiliated with the respective state boards.
• Interview tests and interviews for nursery admissions should be done away with.
• The norms for giving private schools recognition need to be more stringent, to avoid
commercialisation.
• There should be no compulsion for school children to carry heavy books to school.
• Primary school children should not be given any homework. And even for the higher
classes, it should be non-textual.
• The teacher – pupil ratio should be reduced to at least 1:30.
• Greater use of electronic media.
• It also recommended many steps for improving teacher training.

Prepared by- SHASHI KUMAR Bachelor of Education (2021-23) (Central University of Jharkhand)