RESEARCH LECTURE TOPRANK July 2, 2022

Research
● Systematic (step by step process) and disciplined (rules) investigation
● Use of scientific method

Nursing Research
● Purpose: To develop evidence on issues of the nursing profession
○ EX. Nursing practice, education, administration)
● Goal: Improve QOL (quality of life) of patients

Clinical Nursing Research

● Purposes: To guide bedside practice

Basic Concepts
Sources of Evidence
1) Tradition
● beliefs are truths
● based on customs
● not always correct
2) Authority
● expert in field
● not always correct
3) Clinical Experience
● based on nurse’s observations
● may be biased
4) Trial and error
● risky, may cause injury
5) Intuition: hunch, instinct
6) Logical Reasoning
● a) Inductive reasoning: Specific to general
● b) Deductive reasoning: General to specific
7) Disciplined Research
- rigorous, systematic, evidence-based

Basic vs. Applied Research

1) Basic: Increase knowledge (gusto ko lang malaman)
2) Applied: Find solutions to problems, higher level than basic (gusto malaman + solusyon)

Variable: Nagbabago (CI-DE)

1) Independent variable (IV): Presumed cause, Usually interventions are here
2) Dependent variable (DV): Presumed effect, aka outcome variable
 3) Confounding variables (CV): Contaminating factors (Extraneous/Extra/Panggulo)
● Example yung mga kabit sa isang relationship

Relationships: Connection between two or more phenomena

a) Causal Relationship (Stronger)
● Cause-and-effect (100% sure)
b) Associative Relationship
● Change in X tends to change Y (just a probability): possible but not 100 sure of the result

Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

Empirical: observed, not hunch Understanding human experience

(Observable by 5 senses)

Systematic: logical, planned (Research Flexible, evolving procedures

proposal)

Quantitative data: numbers, statistics Qualitative data: narrative, subjective

↑validity, reliability ↓biases Naturalistic setting (punta ka sa kanilang

Controlled (controlled environment to environment)
eliminate bias)

Deductive reasoning (general to specific) Inductive reasoning (specific to general)

Ethics in Research
● Codes of Ethics: Protection of research subjects
● Priority: Safety

Ethical Principles (from Belmont Report)

1) Beneficence: Do good (medications)
2) Non-maleficence: Do no harm (asepsis) - Interventions to prevent harm
3) Justice: Equal risks and benefits
4) Autonomy: Voluntary decision
● Informed Consent
○ ✔accept or X decline participation voluntarily
○ protects right to self-determination
● Informed Consent (VICS)
○ Voluntary
○ Informed: fully understood
○ Competence: 18 y/o and above (legal age), coherent
○ Signature: (1) Participant, (2) witnesses
5) Veracity: Complete information about the study (TRUTH)
6) Confidentiality: Data not revealed
 ○ Anonymity: identity cannot be linked to data

Chapter 1: Introduction
● Research Problem
○ “What is wrong?”
○ Curiosity and interests
● Statement of Purpose
○ “What do you want to happen?”
○ Goals (general) and Objectives (specific)
● Research Question
○ Question to be answered in addressing the research problem
○ Basic form (PIRD):
■ In (1. Population), is (2. Independent variable [IV]), (3. Relationship) with (4. Dependent
variable [DV])?”
■ Ex. Among older adults (population), is high sugar intake (IV) associated with (relationship)
diabetes mellitus (DV)?
● Hypothesis
○ Predicted relationship between two or more variables
○ Formulated at Conceptual phase
○ Hypothesis testing: thru statistical analysis

Nasa Handout Pero Di Ni-Lecture

Directional vs Nondirectional

Research/Alternative vs Null hypothesis

Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature

Characteristics (CUP B)
● Comprehensive. Up-to-date: at most 5 years ago. Paraphrased: X copy, paste. Balanced: no bias

Types of Sources
1) Primary source: Original study. Reports of original researchers (best)
2) Secondary source: Reports by someone other than the original researcher. Reports based on an original
study
 Chapter 3: Methodology
Types of Research Designs (Blueprint)
Quantitative Designs
I.) True Experimental (or Randomized Controlled Trial or Clinical Trial): Strongest design because of 3
elements (CRM)
a.) Control Group (Basis/comparison group/no treatment group)
■ Control group (for comparison)
■ No intervention/alternative intervention/ placebo
■ Placebo: false intervention, no value
b.) Randomization (Most important)
● Random assignment to experimental and control groups
● Experimental Group and Control Group are EQUIVALENT. Cancels confounding variables.
🡻 Bias
● Ex. Pag sa 10-120 yung mga matatangkad hahatiin sa sa dalawang group
c.) Manipulation
■ Intervention or treatment of experimental group

II.) Quasi-Experimental (almost)

○ (-) randomization = ↑BIAS
○ Experimental and Control groups are NON-EQUIVALENT.
○ Experimental > Quasi-experimental

III) Non-Experimental
○ No manipulation (No treatment)
○ Researchers: by-standers (Observe lang)
○ When independent variables cannot be manipulated
1) Descriptive: Observe, describe, and document variables
● Ex. Amount of alcohol intake of filipino young adults
2) Correlational
● Relationship between at least two variables
● Correlation ≠ causation
● Descriptive correlational: describes relationships among variables.
● Ex. The relationship between alcohol intake and happiness levels
3) Prospective/ Cohort (mga 10 years follow)
● Follow to the future
● Sample 🡪 IV (Exposed/Not exposed) 🡪 DV (affected/not affected)
● Time dimension: Longitudinal Data collection: multiple points
● Explains trends over time
4) Retrospective/ Case-control
● Look back in the past
● IV (Exposed/Not Exposed) 🡨 DV (Case/Control) 🡨 Sample
● Time dimension: Cross-sectional - single data collection Data collection: one point in time
● Cannot explain trends over time
🔺NOTE: Prospective > Retrospective: Prospective design can be controlled/monitored!
Qualitative Designs
● Identify themes and categories
● flexible and elastic; evolves throughout study
● Triangulation: use of multiple sources; strengthens evidence.
● Ethnography
○ Cultural patterns, lifeways, and experiences
○ 2 Perspectives
■ Etic: outsider’s view (researcher)
■ Emic: insiders’ view (participant)
● Phenomenology: Lived experience, discovering meaning
● Grounded theory: Understanding social processes
○ e.g. the process of practicing spirituality for health promotion of Filipinos
● Case Studies: In-depth study of a single entity (Case presentation)
● Participatory Action Research (PAR)
○ Collaboration: researchers x participants
○ Tasks: (1) conduct research, (2) empower people
○ Type: Action research; Design: Qualitative

Sampling
● Selecting a portion of the population = sample
● Population (N), sample (n)
● Goal: Representativeness
● Whole population: Census
Sample Size
● Quantitative
○ Slovin’s formula: 𝑁 = 𝑁 / 1 + 𝑁𝑒2
○ e=margin of error
○ Ex. 800/1 + 800 (0.05) square (pag percent move dec places 2 left) = 267
● Qualitative
○ Data saturation: data repetitive

Types of Sampling
● Non-probability Sampling: Non-random
○ Not all have the chance to be selected
○ Low representativeness
1) Convenience: Most conveniently available people, Biased, weakest, but most common
2) Snowball: Referrals
3) Quota: Strata; non-random selection, Specific characteristics (Ex. Age, School, Gender)
4) Purposive/judgmental: Hand-picking samples, Inclusion and exclusion criteria
● Probability Sampling: Random
○ All have a chance to be selected.
 ○ High representativeness
○ Probability sampling > Non-probability sampling
1) Simple Random Sampling: Sampling frame: list of population (draw lots/fishbowl)
2) Systematic Random Sampling: Sampling interval (k). Nth. K= N pop/ n sample
3) Stratified Random Sampling: Strata; random
4) Cluster/ Multistage: Successive random sampling, Geographic locations (province - city - barangay -
participants)

Not Included in the Lecture

Data Collection Methods
1) Observation
● Rating scales, checklists
● Participant observation: observe people in natural environment
● Problem: Hawthorne effect
○ Knowledge of being observed 🡪 Change in behavior 🡪 Inaccurate results
2) Self-reports
● Responses to questions, most common
● Quantitative: questionnaire
● Qualitative
a) Semi-Structured interview – list of topics/questions
b) Unstructured interview – no previous knowledge
c) Focus group discussions (FGD) – 5 to 10 people
3) Biophysiologic measures
● Assessment of clinical variables
a) In vivo: within humans. e.g., Blood pressure, Temp, PR, RR, O2 saturation
b) In vitro: extracted from humans. e.g., ABGs, CBC, urine

Chapter 4: Data Analysis & Interpretation

Descriptive Statistics: To synthesize and describe data
● Measures of Central Tendency
○ Mean: average
○ Median: number that divides distribution in half
○ Mode: most frequent number

Inferential Statistics: To make interpretations about the variables. Used for Hypo Testing (kung tma assumption)
1) Pearson's R: Correlation
● Pearson’s r value:
○ (+) positive correlation: direct
○ (-) negative correlation: inverse
2) Chi-squared (X2) test
● Differences of the proportion (%) and frequencies
3) T-test
● Differences of means of 2 groups.
 ● Independent vs. Dependent t-test
a) Independent/Student: Group 1 and Group 2 are
different groups (magkahiwalay)
b) Dependent/Paired: Same group (magkasama) -
Pre/post test
4) Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
● Differences of means of 3 or more groups.

POST TEST: NURSING RESEARCH

Prepared By: Prof Raymund Kernell Maniago
M.N.B

1. Research refers to a systematic and disciplined inquiry that seeks to answer questions and solve problems using a
structured series of steps. The goal of clinical nursing research is to:
a) Understand challenges and create improvements in nursing education.
b) Develop and expand the body of scientific knowledge.
c) Update best practice in nursing and improve quality of life.
d) Prove that sound evidence is an excellent basis for clinical nursing practice.

2. Quantitative research is different from qualitative research in all the following ways except:
a. Quantitative research is based on numerical and narrative data, while qualitative research is based on objective
and statistical inputs.
b. Qualitative research is best conducted in a location which the subjects consider as their habitat.
c. Increasing validity and decreasing bias is essential for quantitative research.
d. In qualitative research, the design and procedures are seen as flexible and allow for change.

3. Which of the following statements demonstrate an associative relationship? - No relationship hanap

a. An increase in the serum sodium level of a client caused the increase in blood volume and pressure.
b. A black cat that passed by the road caused bad luck to a motorist and suffered from a vehicular accident.
c. Sedentary lifestyle of Ms. Patricia is more likely to increase her chances of developing diabetes mellitus.
d. A fire alarm that set off in the building has resulted in rapid evacuation of the tenants.

4. A participant in your study is asking if you can provide him the treatment dosage that is 5 times higher than
prescribed. Upon reading the BON Resolution No. 220, the best response is to:
a. Follow the wishes of the participant in order to protect the right to self-determination.
b. Decline the request since this may deplete the funds of the research project.
c. Explain that the priority of the study is to protect the safety of the participants at all times.
d. Report the statement of the participant to your co-researchers to discuss possible actions to take.

5. On the other hand, if the subject is already 18 years old or above, which document is used to protect their
autonomy?
a. Verbal assent
b. Assent form
c. Informed consent form
d. No assent needed

6. An ICU nurse taking up her master’s degree came up with the research title “Effects of Hospital Visitation on
Anxiety among Intensive Care Unit Patients in Cebu” for her thesis. Which is the independent variable
a. Intensive Care Unit Patients
b. Anxiety
c. Cebu
d. Hospital Visitation

7. In the same research title mentioned above, which is the dependent variable?
a. Intensive Care Unit Patients
b. Hospital Visitation
c. Anxiety
d. Effects

8. A nursing student wanted to study whether health education affects the knowledge on self-care practices among
patients with diabetes mellitus. Which of the following would be his independent variable?
a. Self-care practices
b. Diabetes Mellitus
c. Knowledge
d. Health education

9. In the above study, which of the following is the dependent variable?

Self-care practices
b. Diabetes Mellitus
c. Knowledge
d. Health education

10. Which is the dependent variable in the following: “The Role of Feedback in Enhancing Students’ Academic
Performance in Colleges”?
a. Academic Performance
b. Colleges
c. Feedback
d. Students

11. In the above study, which is the independent variable?

a. Academic Performance
b. Colleges
c. Feedback
d. Students

12. A nurse seeks to determine the barriers to contraceptive use among postpartum adolescents. She identified the
following inclusion criteria in recruiting her subjects: (1) aged 14 – 17 years old; and (2) had been pregnant. The
exclusion criteria were: (1) acutely ill or in a medical emergency; and (2) mental or physical disabilities. What kind of
sampling design did the nurse employ?
a. Convenience
b. Purposive
c. Stratified Random
d. Cluster

13. Which of the following sampling designs would least likely result in selection threat to validity?
a. Snowball
b. Quota
c. Simple Random
d. Purposive

14. Given the research title “The relationship between clinical performance and years of experience of staff nurses in
Manila,” which is the independent variable?
a. Clinical performance
b. Staff nurses
c. Manila
d. Years of experience

15. The following are the elements of an experimental design. Which of the following is most capable of
strengthening the claim of the experiment?
a. Control group
b. Randomization
c. Manipulation
d. Integration

16. Nurse Kim seeks to understand the correlation of hair dye and skin cancer. She gathered 2 groups of women who
do and do not have skin cancer and asked which among them regularly dyed their hair in the past. She utilized which
design?
a. Cohort
b. Prospective
c. Longitudinal
d. Retrospective

17. Why do quasi-experimental designs yield conclusions that are weaker than those from experimental designs?
a. In quasi-experimental designs, there are possible confounding variables.
b. Experimental designs are more practical and acceptable.
c. Quasi-experimental designs offer more flexibility in performing research.
d. Experimental designs involve manipulation.

18. In participatory action research (PAR), researchers and participants collaborate in conducting research and
empowering people. Which of the following is the type of PAR?
a. Qualitative
b. Quantitative
c. Action research
d. Survey
19. Which of the following is a type of probability sampling method?
a. Simple random sampling
b. Purposive sampling
c. Quota sampling
d. Snowball sampling

20. Nurse Minnie interpreted the Pearson’s r value in her study as low positive correlation. Which of the following
values might she have computed?
a. + 0.45
b. – 1.0
c. + 0.21
d. + 0.82

21. A study would like to determine the correlation of health teaching duration to the improvement in skills of
diabetic patients. The results showed that the 5-day duration yielded 70% skills improvement, and 10-day duration
yielded 80% skills improvement. Which statistical test will she use to analyze the data?
a. t-test
b. Chi-squared test
c. Pearson’s r
d. ANOVA

22. A researcher gathered a sample of 150 subjects and divided them into 3 groups receiving different treatments. He
subjected them to a test and compared the mean scores. Which statistical test is suitable?
a. t-test
b. Chi-squared test
c. Pearson’s r
d. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

23. Which of the following demonstrates convenience sampling?

a. Asking for student nurses to volunteer as subjects
b. Selecting the subjects through lottery method
c. Recruiting participants through social media networks
d. Using random numbers to number the population

24. Which of the following demonstrates systematic sampling?

a. Selecting every 15th person in the population
b. Conducting 4 successive randomizations
c. Defining the exclusion criteria
d. Asking for referrals

25. Which of the following statements is true regarding sampling?

a. Non-probability sampling is better than probability sampling.
b. Probability sampling has high representativeness.
c. Non-probability sampling gives a chance for all to be selected.
d. Probability sampling involves non-random methods.
26. Which statement best describes qualitative research?
a. Studies are conducted in natural settings.
b. Data is collected from a large number of subjects.
c. Data collected tends to be numeric.
d. The research design is systematic and objective.

27. What does a critique of a research study always include?

a. Determining its strengths and weaknesses
b. Researching similar studies
c. Using critical listening skills
d. Explaining your own personal opinions

28. For which of the following research questions would qualitative methods be most appropriate?
a. Which pain medications decrease the need for sleep medication in elderly patients?
b. What is the meaning of health for migrant farm-worker women?
c. Under what conditions does a decubitus ulcer heal most quickly?
d. How does frequency of medication administration impact the degree of pain experienced following knee
replacement surgery?

29. Given the following distribution, which is the median score? 7 4 2 9 1 3 3 2 7.

a. 4
b. 3
c. 2
d. 7

30. The following are components of a research question, except:

a. Independent variable
b. Population
c. Comparison
d. Relationship