4.9 Energy Pricing in India Price of energy does not reflect true cost to society. The basic assumption underlying efficien- cy of market place does not hold in our economy, since energy prices are undervalued and ener- RY Wastages are not taken seriously. Pricing practices in India like many other developing coun- fries are influenced by polineal, social and economic compulsions at the state and central level More often than not, this has been the foundation for energy sector policies in India. The Indian energy sector offers many examples of cross subsidies e.g., diesel, LPG and kerosene being subsidised by petrol, petroleum products for industrial usage and industrial, and commercial consumers of electricity subsidising the agricultural and domestic consumers. Coal Grade wise basic price of coal at the pithead excluding statutory levies for run-of-mine (ROM) coal are fixed by Coal India Ltd from time to time. The pithead price of coal in India compares favourably with price of imported coal. In spite of this, industries still import coal due its high- er calorific value and low ash content. oil As part of the energy sector reforms, the government has attempted to bring prices for many of the petroleum products (naphtha, fumace oil, LSHS, LDO and bitumen) in line with interma- tional prices. The most important achievement has been the linking of diesel prices to intema- tional prices and a reduction in subsidy. However, LPG and kerosene, consumed mainly by domestic sectors, continue to be heavily subsidised. Subsidies and cross-subsidies have result- ed in serious distortions in prices, as they do not reflect economic costs in many cases. Natural Gas The government has been the sole authority for fixing the price of natural gas in the country. It has also been taking decisions on the allocation of gas to various competing consumers. The gas prices varies from Rs 5 to Rs.15 per cubic metre. Electricity Electricity tariffs in India are structured in a relatively simple manner. While high tension con- sumers are charged based on both demand (kVA) and energy (kWh), the low-tension (LT) con- sumer pays only for the energy consumed (kWh) as per tariff system in most of the electricity boards. The price per kWh varies significantly across States as well as customer segments with- in a State. Tariffs in India have been modified to consider the time of usage and voltage level of supply. In addition to the base tariffs, some State Electricity Boards have additional recov- ery from customers in form of fuel surcharges, electricity duties and taxes. For example, for an industrial consumer the demand charges may vary from Rs. 150 to Rs. 300 per kVA, whereas. the energy charges may vary anywhere between Rs. 2 to Rs. § per kWh. As for the tariff adjust- ment mechanism, even when some States have regulatory commissions for tariff review, the decisions to effect changes are still political and there is no automatic adjustment mechanism, which can ensure recovery of costs for the electricity boards.1. Resexngy Soeeaatier 1.10 Energy Sector Reforms Since the mitiation of econonic reforms in India in 1991. there has been ¢ growing scoeptance of the need for deepening these reforms in several sectors of the economy, which were ¢sseR~ Bally in the hands of the government for several decades. It is bow been realized that if sub- stance has tw be provided to macroeconomic policy reform, then it must be based ca reforms that concern the of several crincal sectors of the economy, amoug whach the infra- Mructure sectors m general and the energy sector in particular, are paremount. Coat The government has recognized the need for new coal policy initiatives and for rationalization of the legal and regulatory framework that would govern the future development of this indus- "y One of the key reforms is that the government has allowed importing of coal to meet our requirements, Private sector has been allowed to extract coal for capuve use only. Further reforms are contemplated for which the Coal Mines Nationalization Act needs to be amended for which the Bill :s awating approval of the Parliament The ulumate objective of some of the ongoing measures and others under consideration §s to sec that a competitive enviroament 1s created for the functioning of various entities in this industry This would not only bring about gains in efficiency but also effect cost reduction, winch would consequently ensure supply of coal on a larger scale at lower prices. Competition would also have the desirable effect of bringing in new technology, for which there is an urgent and overdue need since the coal industry bas suffered a prolonged penod of stagnation in tech- nological innovation. Oil and Natural Gas Since 1993, private investors have been allowed to import and market Inquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and kerosene freely; private investment is also been allowed in lubncants, which are not subject to price controls Prices for naphtha and some other fuels have been liberalized. In 1997 the government introduced the New Exploration Licensing Policy (NELP) in an effort to pro- Mote investment in the exploration and production of domestic oil and gas. In addition, the refining sector has been opened to private and foreign investors in order to reduce imports of refined products and to encourage investment in downstream Pipelines. Attractive terms are being offered to investors for the construction of liquefied natural gas (LNG) import facilities. Electricity Following the enactment of the Electricity Regulatory Commission Legislation, the Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) was set up, with the main objective of regulating the Central power generation utilities. State level regulatory bodies have also been set up to set tariffs and promote competition. Private investments in power generation were also allowed. The State SEBs were asked to switch over to separate Generation, Transmission and Distribution corporations. There are plans to link all SEB grids and form a unified national power grid. Electricity Act, 2003 The government has enacted Electricity Act, 2003 which seeks to bring about a qualitative transformation of the electricity sector. The Act seeks to create liberal framework of develop- nT ate Boreau of Energy Efficiency1. Rimongy Seeman tment for the power sector by distancing Government from regulation. 1 replaces the three exist: img lemslances, namely. Indian Electncity Act, 1910, the Electneity (Supply) Act, 148 and the Elecmicny Regulatory Cammsaaas Act 1988, The obyectives of the Act are “to consti ‘die the | Jstng to peneranon, tansmission, distribunon, trading and use of clevtricity and gencrally for takme measures conducive to development of electneity industry, promoting Sompeunos there. protecag interest of consumers and supply af electneity to all areas, ratios nalizsnoc of elecmiomy tariff, ensuring transparent policies reganding subsidies, promotion of sfc: and eovrcamemnally benign policies, constitution of Central Electricity Authority, R y Commissons and establishment of Appellate Tribunal and for matters connected! therewith or incidental thereta.” ‘The salient features of the Electricity Act, 2003 are: 4) Tee Cearal Government to prepare a National Electricity Policy in consultation with State Governments. (Section 3) 3) Tarast to complete the rural electnfication and provide for management of rural distribution by Panchayats, Cooperative Societies, non-Government organisations, franchisees ete (Sections 4:5 & 6) a) Provimon for licence free generation and distribution in the rural areas. (Section 14) iv} Generanon being delicensed and captive generation being freely permitted. Hydro projects would, however, need clearance from the Central Electricity Authonty. (Sections 7, § & 9) ¥) Transmission Utility at the Central as well as State level, to be a Government company - with Spoanalay for planned and coordinated development of transmission network. (Sections 38 39) vi) Provision for private licensees in transmission and entry in distribution through an indepen- dent network, (Section 14) vii) Open access in transmission from the outset. (Sections 38-40) viii) Open access in distribution to be introduced in phases with surcharge for current level of cross subsidy to be gradually phased out along with cross subsidies and obligation to supply. SERCs to frame regulations within one year regarding phasing of open access, (Section 42) ix) Distribution licensees would be free to undertake generation and generating companies would be free to take up distribution businesses. (Sections 7, 12) x) The State Electricity Regulatory Commission is a mandatory requirement. (Section 82) xi) Provision for payment of subsidy through budget. (Section 65) xii) Trading, a distinct activity is being recognised with the safeguard of the Regulatory Commissions being authorised to fix ceilings on trading margins, if necessary. (Sections 12, 79 & 86) xiii) Provision for reorganisation or continuance of SEBs. (Sections 131 & 172) xiv) Metering of all electricity supplied made mandatory. (Section 55) xv) An Appellate Tribunal to hear appeals against the decision of the CERC and SERCs. (Section 111) xvi) Provisions relating to thefi of electricity made more stringent. (Section 135-150) xvii) Provisions safeguarding consumer interests. (Sections 57-59, 166) Ombudsman scheme (Section 42) for consumers grievance redressal. Bureau of Energy Efficiency 121 nergy Seana? 1.11 Energy and Environment The usage of energy resources in industry leads to cavironmental damages by polluting the atmosphere Few of examples of ai pollu- tion are sulphur dioxide (SO-), nitrous oxide (NOy) end carton monoxide (CO) emissions from boilers and furnaces, chloro-fhuro car- thoos (CFC) emissions from refrigerants Use, ste. In chemical and fertilizers industries, toxic gases are released. Cement plants and power plants spew out particulate matter. Typical inputs, outputs, and emissions for @ typical industrial process are shown in Figure 10. Figure 1.10 Inputs & Outputs of Process Air Pollution A variety of air pollutants have known or suspected harmful effects on human health and the eavironment. These air pollutants are basically the products of combustion from fossil fuel use. Air pollutants from these sources may not only ereate problems near to these sources but also can cause problems far away. Air pollutants can travel long distances, chemically react in the atmosphere to produce secondary pollutants such as acid rain or ozone Evolutionary Trends in Pollution Problems ijor historic air pollution In both developed and rapidly industrialising countries, the u problem has typically been high levels of smoke and SO; arising from the combustion of sul~ ng fossil fuels such as coal for domestic and industrial purposes. ¢/ acid aerosol and fog phur-contai ‘Smogs resulting from the combined effects of black smoke, sulp! have been seen i Furopean cities until few decades ayo and still occur in many cities in devel- oping world. In developed countries, this problem has significantly reduced over recent decades the increasing use of cleaner fuels such as natural gas, 408.8 result of changing fuel-use pattern and the implementation of effective smoke and emission control policies. ean air is now posed by In both developed and developing countries, the major threat to cl traffic emissions. Petrol- and diesel-engined motor vehicles emit a wide variety of pollutants, principally carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and particulates, which have an increasing impact on urban air quality. In addition, photochemical reactions resulting from the action of sunlight on NO} and VOCs from vehicles leads to the formation of ozone, a secondary long-range pollutant, which impacts in rural areas often far from the original emission site, Acid rain is another long-range pollutant influenced by vehicle NOx emissions. Industrial and domestic pollutant sources, together with their impact on air quality, tend to be steady-state or improving over time, However, traffic pollution problems are worsening world-wide. The problem may be particularly severe in developing countties with dramatically increasing vehicle population, infrastructural limitations, poor engine/emission control tech- nologies and limited provision for maintenance or vehicle regulation, Bureau of Energy Esiciency Nene pate ACES TEE TCT NTHnergy Seman ~The principle pollutants proxtate by industrial, domestic uvunds, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, carbon monstide, ony higihwet-ehephenod 1 J-tutadiene, toxic organic micropoltutants lead and heavy eacate MEE Revef introetuction to the principal pollutants are as follows: Sulphur dioxide is a corrosive acid gas, which combines with water vapour ia the atmosphere fo produce acid rain. Both wet thon bave been unpheated in the damage and destn natrerenn © pr. fa in the degradation of souls, building materials and watercourses SO, ws Sotphar in ambvent air (s alwo associated with asthma and chronic bronchitis. The procrpal source of this gas 1s power stations and industries burning fos. sil fuels, which contain sulphur 7 Nitrogen exides are formed during high temperature combustion processes from the oxidation of nitrogen in the air of fuel The principal source of nitragen oxides - nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dhoxnte (NO}), collectively known as NOx - is road tratfic NO and NO; concentrations: are greatest in urban areas where traffic 1s heaviest, Other important SOUICES are Power stations and industnal processes Nitrogen oxides are released into the atmosphere mainly in the for Diovide ‘of NO, which is then readily oxidised to NOs by eid oa teed Elevated levels of NO, occur in urban environments under stable meteorological conditions, when the air mass is unable to disperse. Nitrogen dioxide has a Variety of environmental and health impacts. I imitates the respira- tory system and may worsen asthma and increase susceptibility to infections. In the presence of sunlight, st reacts with hydrocarbons to produce photochemical pollutants such as ozone Nitrogen oxides combine with water vapour to form nthe acid. This nitric acid is in turn removed from the atmosphere by direct deposition to the ground, or transfer to aqueous droplets (e.g cloud or rainwater), thereby contributing to acid deposition. Acidification from SO; and NO, ‘Acidification of water bodies and soils, and the consequent impact on agriculture, forestry and fisheries are the result of the re~leposition of acidifying compounds resulting principally from the oxidation of primary SO) and NO» emissions from fossil fuel combustion, Deposition may be by either wet or dry processes, and acid deposition stxlies often nced to examine both of these acidification routes. Airborne particulate matter varies widely in its physical and chem- ical composition, source and particle size. PMio particles (the fraction of particulates in air of very small size (<10 jim) are of major current con- cern, as they are small enough to penetrate deep into the lungs and so potentially pose significant health risks. In addition, they may carry sut= face-absorbed carcinogenic compounds into the lungs. Larger particles, parvieulates meanwhile, are not readily inhaled, and are removed relatively efficiemt- ly from the air by settling. (PM10) Armajor source of fine primary particles are combustion processes, in particular diesel com- Bureau of Energy Efficiency 4 nlool bustion, whete transport of Hot exhaust vapour into # Coole’ poous nucleation of "carbon™ particles before emission. Secondary TT formed when low volatility products are generated in the aumorh TT Vr articula tion of sulphur dioxide to sulphuric acid, The atmosphene MEUM T. 1. or about strongly related to particle size, but may be as long as 10 days for P™ : diameter. idly over rece” Concem about the potential health impacts of PMio has incrossed et particle frac- years. Increasingly, attention has been turning towards roontorns Or sie fractions of total tion PM; « capable of penetrating deepest into the lungs. particle numbers. Carbon monoxide (CO) is a toxic gas, which is emitted into the ses, and from oxidation of % atmosphere as a result of combustion proc hydrocarbons and other organic compounds. In urban areas, CO 18 Drow & duced almost entirely (90%) from road traffic emissions, CO at leve 8 found in ambient air may reduce the oxy! g capacity of the Carbon blood. It survives in the atmosphere for a period of approximately | Wg onoxide) month and finally gets oxidised to carbon dioxide (CO). Groundelevel ozone (On). unlike other primary pollutants mentioned above, te not emitted directly ino the atmosphere, but is a secondary pol- Tutant produced by reaction between nitrogen dioxide (NO2), hydrocar bons and sunlight. Ozone can irritate the eyes and air passages Causing difficulties and may increase susceptibility to infection. It 1s a 1, capable of attacking surfaces, fabrics and mub- vegetation and trees. on of breathin; highly reactive chemi ber materials. Ozone is also toxic to some crop: Whereas nitrogen dioxide (NO2) participates in the formati (Os) and nitrogen dioxide (NOs). Ozone ozone, nitrogen oxide (NO) destroys ozone to form oxyg high in urban areas (where high levels of NO are emit- and hydrocarbons are transported out ‘one for are not For this reason, ozone leve ted from vehicles) as in rural areas. As the nitrogen oxid of urban areas, the ozone-destroying NO is oxidised to NO;, which participates in 02 s mation. Hydrocarbons ‘There are two main groups of hydrocarbons of concem: volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). VOCs are released in vehicle exhaust gases either as unburned fuels or as combustion products, and are also emitted by the evaporation of solvents and motor fuels. Benzene and 1,3-butadiene are of particular concer, as they are known carcinogens. Other VOCS are important because of the role they a play in the photochemical formation of ozone in the atmosphere. Benzene is an aromatic VOC, which is a minor constituent of petrol (about 2% by volume). The main sources of benzene in the atmosphere are the distribution and combustion of petrol, Of these, combustion by Benzene petrol vehicles is the single biggest source (70% of total emissions) tureau of Energy Efficiency 151 Rmegy Seman whilst the refining, distribution and evaporation of petrol from vehicles aceounts for apypronti snevdye for TOM el wl coiedons, Banaue i omited in wdc exheost Oot cody vunburnt fuel but also as a product of the decomposition of other aromatic compounds. Renzene ts 2 known human carcinoged. 13-butadiene, like benzene, is 2 VOC emitted into the atmosphere Principally from fuel combustion of petrol and diesel vehicles. Unlike ben- zene, however, itis not a constituent of the fuel bat is produced by the com nt bustion of olefins 1,3-butadiene 1s also an important chemical mn certain Sal industrial processes, particularly the manufacture of synthetic rubber. It is handled in bulk at a small number of industrial locations. Other than in the vicinity of such locations, the dominant source of 1,3-butadiene in the attnosphere are the motor vehicles. 1,3 Butadiene is also a known, potent, human carcinogen TOMPs (Toxic Organic Micropollutants) are produced by the incomplete combustion of fuels. They comprise o complex range of chemicals some of which, although they are emitted in very small quantities, are highly toxic or and carcinogenic Compounds in this category include: PAMs (PolyAromatic Hydrocarbons) PCBs (PolyChlonnated Biphenyls) Dioxins Furans Heavy Metals and Lead Particulate metals in air result from activities such as fossil fuel eom- ion (including vehicles), metal processing industries and waste inciner- ion standards for metals other than lead. busi 1 nervous system, particularly ation, There are currently no emissi Lead is a cumulative poison to the central detrimental to the mental development of children ‘Lead is the most widely used non-ferrous metal and has a large number of indusial applications. Its single largest industrial use worldwide i in the manulacture of radiation shielding, tank lining and piping. batteries and it 1 also used in paints, glazes, alloys, ‘As tetractiyl lead, it has been used for many years as an additive in petrol; withthe increas. ing use of unleaded petrol, however, emissions and concentrations in ar have reduced steadily in rocent years. ‘Climatic Change Human activities, particularly the combustion of fossil fuels, have made the blanket of green- ‘ozone etc.) around the earth thicker, The house gases (water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, ¢ complex web of systems that allow life resulting increase in global temperature is altering th to thrive on earth such as rainfall, wind patterns, ocean currents and distribution of plant and animal species. Greenhouse Effect and the Carbon Cycle Life on earth is made possible by cnergy from the sun, which arrives mainly in the form of vis-u Kemeny KB yo ram aa PoSueyoxa st uogres yoru Aq wioishs paourzeg ast203d &) 2]9K2 wogres ogy Bumasdn Les uoqdsoune ap om sjany a mt pasos voqse> amp Bunsespai st sm, “paress9 atom spony pws eee Yory 1 ayes ot Temp zaIsey yore st yey o7ed e Te SEZ pemIEU PUT [10 ‘je0s Burumg ase H "492439 asnoqusasd poourqua, atp jo 12004 99 405 ajqrsuodsa: st aprxoxp wogze) “UUIP pur candnisip ag {fs sa8ueys winurruTaT uo sed op Ut ony Komp se oneTUCD ‘ons Uoosuom se yons ‘swoned someon uo puadsp o1dood Jo suortu ‘ype possans pur papmos Aqystq Aprasye ue uy ‘suoseas jo uonemp pur suzzued puts “uoneiid:sasd ‘2x02 pao sz gone ~SIeUI]D UF saueyD Aq porueduiogoe oq [um amiEsoduIm s\yres UI asean at [feu © 1) “Ammguaa 1s |Z a~p Buump spaasy peusnpur-asd wor aounp 40 22tey ase2sIuT [Tle SprLOp Boge Jo sjana] Suaydsoune arp rem uIEUsd IsOW]E StI ‘Sores TMD Te MOLT 07 SNUTIBOD suONS -stwi Sase osnoyusesd Jy “ores Somueye we re Suruaddey si sase3 asnoquse@ un ose qoydsoune oq © B aaey rey sase8 spew weur fesaAs Aq pur ‘2sn pur] Ur saBuEy> pur sr 2pixo snonty pur aueqiew jeuontppe Xq ‘se jesmeU pur [10 ‘Jeoo Jo vonsngu -xoIp woe Jo suorsstuia aze iayonp sahe] asnoyusads arp Sunyew 2 c AND’ URUMFY “9A1] 01 PjO2 001 9q [nom tree “sascd asnioyusaLs utp souuem saasap o¢ yes a daay pur asnoyusasd & Jo Joos ssepa jayurig e se ioe Aowp ing ‘arsqdsoune ap amieiodwuay s,qurea at aseai9ur pur vor Bpypmmp Y “seseS asnoy waau® amp Aq pacer “aonerpes paressu jo WO} UI Mt SIDOYFAN YoTHN “2epMS pare assydsoumie sano q azeds owt 20g pasounos st sons wayyy 2snoqusasy PEL ITT 288d sean RTE |1, Energy Sensei the air, the ocearts and land vegetation taking place over millions of years). Currently, carbon ~ dioxide levels in the atmosplicric are rising by over 10 percent every 20 years. Carrent Evidence of Climatic Change Cyclones, storm, hurricanes are occurring more frequently and floods and draughts are more intense than before. This increase in extreme weather events cannot be explained away as ran- dom events. This trend toward more powerful storms and hotter, longer dry periods is predicted by com- puter médels. Warmer temperatures meaf greater evaporation, and a warmer atmosphere is able to bold more moisture and hence there is more water alofi that can fall as precipitation. Similarly, dry regions are prone to lose still more moisture if the weather is hotter and hence this leads to more severe droughts and desertification. Future Effects Even the minimum predicted shifts in climate for the 21st century are likely to be significant and disruptive. Predictions of future climatic changes are wide-ranging. The global tempera- ture may climb from 1.4 to 5.8 degrees C; the sea level may rise from 9 to 88 cm. Thus, increas- s in sea level this century are expected to range from significant to catastrophic. This uncer tainty reflects the complexity, interrelatedness, and sensitivity of the natural systems that make up the climate. Severe Storms and Flooding The minimum warming forecast for the next 100 years is more than twice the 0.6 degree C increase that has occurred since 1900 and that earlier increase is already having marked conse- quences. Extreme weather events, as predicted by computer models, are striking more often and -an be expected to intensify and become still more frequent. A future of more severe storms and loods along the world’s increasingly crowded coastlines is likely. ‘ood Shortages though regional and local effects may differ widely, a general reduction is expected in poten- al crop yields in most tropical and sub-tropical regions. Mid-continental areas such as the aited States’ "grain belt” and vast areas of Asia are likely to become dry. Sub-Saharan Africa here dryland agriculture relies solely on rain, the yields would decrease dramatically even th minimum increase in temperature. Such changes could cause disruptions in food supply in vorld is already afflicted with food shortages and famines. vindling Freshwater supply t-water intrusion from rising sea levels will reduce the quality and quantity of freshwater plies. This is a major concern, since billions of people on earth already lack access to fresh- er. Higher ocean levels already are contaminating underground water sources in many parts he world, $ of Biodiversity tofthe world's endangered species (some 25 per cent of mammals and 12 per cent of birds) become extinct over the next few decades as warmer conditions alter the forests, wetlands, se ed 1 of Energy Eficiency i1. Energy Scenario rating clse~ i : them from migr wheectelands they depend on, and human development blocks where. : Increased Diseases borne” dis- ngerous "vector-borne’ Higher temperatures are expected to expand the range of some - ng of them children, Sases, such as malaria, which already kills 1 million people annually, A World Under Stress deforestation, and denuded Ongoing environmentally damaging activities such as overgrazing, tasty to changes in cli- agricultural Soils means that nature will be ‘more vulnerable than prev io mate, . ble to climate Similarly. the world's vast human population, much of it poor, i Taunt big cites of the deg Milions live in dangerous places eee ae Aoodplains orn sums round the Bi i pest, the developing world, Often there is nowhere else for population to Laas be much less room for rant his ancestors migrated in response to changes in habitat. There for migration in future, ; ies of North Global warming almost certainly will be unfair. The industrialized bait recline Gaal America and Western Europe, and other countries such as Japan, are ee red for the high stam fat Of Past and current greenhouse-gas emissions. These emissions are in Standards of living enjoyed by the people in those countries, 1 world, They have Yet those to suffer most from climate change will be in the ee ace i> cuibeaka aa fewer resources for coping with storms, with floods, with droughts, wit seas Sega With disruptions to food and water supplies They are eager for er nR ere Selves, but may find that this already difficult process has become more ete ee mate change. The poorer nations of the world have done almost nothing to caus gi ing yet is most exposed to its effects, Acid Rain : Acid rain is caused by release of SOx and NOx from combustion of fossil fuels, which then mix mu of Energy Efficiency|. Energy Scenario with water vapour in aimospheré to form sulphuric and hitric acids respectively (Refer Figure 1.12). The effects of acid rain are as follows: +. Acidification of lakes, streams, and soils + Direct and indirect effects (release of metals, For example: Aluminum which washes away plant nutrients) + Killing of wildlife (trees, crops, aquatic plants, and animals) + Decay of building materials and paints, statues, and sculptures + Health problems (respiratory, burning- skin and eyes) 1.12 Energy Security ‘The basic aim of energy security for a nation is to reduce its dependency on the imported ener- gy sources for its economic growth. India will continue to experience an energy supply shortfall throughout the forecast period, This gap has widened since 1985, when the country became a net importer of coal. India has been unable to raise its oil production substantially in the 1990s. Rising oil demand of close to 10 percent per year has led to sizable oil import bills. In addition, the government subsidises refined oil product prices, thus compounding the overall monetary loss to the government. Imports of oil and coal have been increasing at rates of 7% and 16% per annum respective- ly during the period 1991-99. The dependence on energy imports is projected to increase in the foture, Estimates indicate that oil imports will meet 75% of total oil consumption requirements and coal imports will meet 22% of total coal consumption requirements in 2006. The imports of gas and LNG (liquefied natural gas) are likely to increase in the coming years. This energy import dependence implies vulnerability to external price shocks and supply fluctuations, which. threaten the energy security of the country. Increasing dependence on oil imports means reliance on imports from the Middle East, a region susceptible to disturbances and consequent disruptions of oil supplies. This calls for diversification of sources of oil imports. The need to deal with oil price fluctuations also neces- sitates measures to be taken to reduce the oil dependence of the economy, possibly through fis- measures to reduce demand, and by developing alternatives to oil, such as natural gas and -enewable energy. Some of the strategies that can be used to meet future challenges to their energy security are + Building stockpiles «Diversification of energy supply sources * Increased capacity of fuel switching * Demand restraint, + Development of renewable energy sources. ' Energy efficiency ' Sustainable development Although all these options are feasible, their implementation will take time. Also, for coun- be slow because of resource constraints, ¢ like India, reliance on stockpiles would tend to ssides, the market is not sophisticated enough or the monit predict the supply situation in time to take necessary acti other cause for worry and aceds to be augmented, if India has to increase Seger egg Ease meaae oring agencies experienced enough ‘on. Insufficient storage capacity is its energy stock: