Unit- I

Introduction to Psychology
S-O-R Model
Similarities and differences with other social
sciences
Perspective in Psychology

Unit-1Introduction to Psychology 1
S-R and S-O-R Model (Basic Principle of Behavior )
Stimulus-Response (S-R) or Stimulus Organism Response (S-O-R) theory in
psychology is the universal law to govern the behavior of the organism. In the S-O-
R description, a response (R) is observed in the relation to a stimulus (S) and then
the interferences are made according to the internal process in the organism (O).
Most of our behavior is a reflection of certain stimuli influencing our inner feelings.
If we want to study someone’s behavior, we need to understand how different
stimuli can affect their mental state. In 1974, Albert Mehrabian and James A. Russel
further developed the SOR model by studying consumer behavior.
Basically, the S-O-R theory states that the stimulus triggers a response based on
an internal evaluation of the organism. This internal evaluation can be conscious
or unconscious.
In each of the scenarios, the internal story becomes the basis of unconscious /
relatively automatic evaluations that triggers an emotion which then leads to the
response. In general, this response can be internal like increasing of the heart-
beat, sweating or external like shrieking and shouting.
Unit-1Introduction to Psychology 2
 S-R Model
Stimulus-Response (S-R) or Stimulus Organism Response (S-O-R) theory in
psychology is the universal law to govern the behavior of the
organism(individual/people).
In the S-R description, Stimulus (S) and Response (R). This approach assumes
that an organism's or person's reaction will depend on the type of the
stimulus.
For example: When the bell rings in the college, you leave the classroom.
Stimulus(S) Response(R)

Ringing the bell Leaving the Classroom

Unit-1Introduction to Psychology 3
Stimulus Organism Response Model (S-O-R)
The Stimulus Organism Response Model (SOR Model) Was A Criticism Of The
Stimulus Response (SR) Theory.
The Latter Suggests That Feelings And Behaviors Are Caused By The External
Environment. The SR Model, However, Doesn’t take Into Account The ‘Organism’ Or
Person Responding To The Stimulus. It Was Observed That A Response Could Be
Shaped By A Person’s Feelings And Emotions And Therefore, The SR Theory Was
Incomplete.
The SOR Model In Psychology Suggests That The ‘O’ Or The Organism Has An
Active And Mediating Function. The Stimulus Organism Response Formula Became
A Medium To Understand The Complexity Of Human Behavior.
In Short, The Stimulus Organism Response Theory States That There’s A Stimulus
That Triggers A Response Based On The Internal Feelings Or Behavior Of An
Organism (Person). This Internal Processing Of The Stimulus Can Be Conscious Or
Unconscious. It Further Triggers An Emotion That Leads To A Response. The
Resulting Response Can Be Internal, Like An Increased Heart Rate, Or External, Like
Crying. Unit-1Introduction to Psychology 4
 Stimulus (S) Organism(O) Response(R)

Presence of Start to work

boss Fear better
The Importance Of The SOR Model
To A Great Extent, The SOR Theory In Psychology Helps Us Understand The
Reasons Behind A Person’s Behavior.
It Is Therefore Very Relevant When It Comes To Addressing Human Behavior-
Related Issues. Most Of Our Behavior Is A Reflection Of Certain Stimuli
Influencing Our Inner Feelings. If We Want To Study Someone’s Behavior, We
Need To Understand How Different Stimuli Can Affect Their Mental State.
Unit-1Introduction to Psychology 5
Similarities and differences with other social sciences
 Every subject is relevant only when studied along with the other subject. This
means all subjects are more or less related to each other. The same is the case with
Psychology. Studying psychology alone is of less use.
 As human is social being and has different aspects of life-related to each other. In
the same way, the study of those aspects is also related to one another. For
instance– for understanding a person’s aggression, sometimes we study the
geographical conditions in which a person lives. It means here we study psychology
and geography together. There is a strong relationship between psychology and
other sciences.
 Here we discuss how is psychology related to other subjects? You will also see the
difference between psychology and other sciences.
 In a broad sense, Social Science studies the interests of humankind. It examines
various aspects of society. In the field of Social Science, all of the subjects interact
with each other and constantly exchange ideas. Social scientists aim to study the
relationship between the individual and society, human behavior, social institutions,
and organizations.
Unit-1Introduction to Psychology 6
 Contd..
Social Science subjects can be categorized under various branches.
However, it should be noted that every branch of Social Science has multiple
specific sub-branches within them.
The relationship Between psychology And Other Sciences like;
• Philosophy
• Anthropology
• Political science
• Sociology
• Biology
• Economics

Unit-1Introduction to Psychology 7
 Psychology and Philosophy
Philosophy is a subject that studies the fundamental questions about
ethics reason, existence, values, morals and mind. The base of this subject
is philosophical. It examines every aspect on the basis of ethics and
morality.
Many believe that philosophy is the mother of psychology. They had
relationships from the days of Plato and Aristotle. At that time the
meaning of psychology was the “study of the soul” and the concept of soul
was very much related to philosophy also.

Unit-1Introduction to Psychology 8
Similarities:
Philosophy uses psychological processes to get knowledge about many different
questions.
The main link between both subjects is Man. Both studies are about different
aspects of the life of a mankind.
Both the subjects deal with the concept of the soul.
Psychology is the science of the mind, but many questions related to the mind gets
answers in a philosophical context. For example- what is the mind? What is the
nature of the mind? These kinds of questions get answers in philosophy.
Differences:
The main difference is that Psychology is a scientific subject but philosophy is a
philosophical subject.
Psychology uses scientific methods whereas philosophy works as morals, intuition,
guess etc.
Philosophy works on “what ought to be” but psychology studies “what is”
The field of psychology is limited as it studies individuals but philosophy studies
the whole world.
• This is how psychology works withUnit-1Introduction
philosophy. to Psychology 9
 Psychology and Anthropology
Anthropology is a subject that studies the origin and development of human
civilization. Anthropology and psychology are closely related to each other.
Psychology studies man's behavior in relation to the environment.
Anthropology is also a comparative and analytic study of human behavior and
experiences.
Both try to understand man in the context of social behavior. Whereas on one
side psychological knowledge helps an anthropologist in understanding the
root causes of human behavior in different cultures, on the other side
anthropological studies help the psychologist in calculating the influence of
cultural environment of human behavior.
In the modern times, the various anthropological studies have concentrated
important help in the field of psychology. By studying different original
cultures, anthropologists have shown how human behavior differs in different
cultural environments. Every culture has its special method of social control,
which has an important influence on the personality of its members.
Unit-1Introduction to Psychology 10
Similarities:
Both the subjects share a common subject matter that is “Man” but with
different viewpoints.
Anthropologist studies about the physical factors of man and psychology give
insight regarding reasons for those physical factors.
There is a mixture branch named psychological anthropology that shows a
proper relation between these two subjects.
Differences:
Psychologists have the main focus on the individual but anthropologists study
mankind as a whole.
Anthropology studies the behavior of a person on a large basis but psychology
study about behavior in a simple societal setup.

Unit-1Introduction to Psychology 11
 PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY
An individual’s identity is determined by how they identify themselves and
their social identity. Identity is a crucial aspect of an individual’s life as it
creates a sense of being aware of oneself as well as establishing
belongingness and status in society. The two common factors influencing
identity are psychological factors and social factors.
Sociology acknowledges the individual’s choices and behavior as a role in
society which is determined by the individual’s ability to make decisions
which are influenced by psychology.
Psychology and sociology may be different fields, wherein psychology
focuses on studying humans as individuals, while sociology examines
humans as collective members of their culture and society. While the two
fields focus on different notions of understanding human behavior, there are
overlaps within the two fields in areas such as social psychology which looks
at behavior individual in culture and society.
Unit-1Introduction to Psychology 12
Similarities:
Sociology is the study of human beings in society and psychology is also the
study of human behavior in the social setup.
Inputs that psychologists give can improve the understanding of the
sociologist because one can study society only when h/she is aware of the
basic element of society that is Man. Psychology gives every important
knowledge about an individual that helps sociologists to understand a group of
individuals in society.
Sociology studies human relationships and the base for this is how a person is
behaving in a particular relationship that we can find out by knowing the
psychology of a man.
In fact, the interaction between the two has given rise to a new branch of
study which is known as “Social Psychology” that studies the reciprocal
interaction between the man and his group with the focus on individual
behavior.
Unit-1Introduction to Psychology 13
Similarities:
In order to study these similarities ,the field of social psychology looks at an
individual and influence of the society on the individual.
 Sociology acknowledges the individual’s choices and behavior as a role in
society which is determined by the individual’s ability to make decisions which
are influenced by psychology.
Social psychology is the scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings,
beliefs, intentions and goals are constructed within a social context by the
actual or imagined interactions with others.
Social psychology looks at attributes such as prejudice, attitudes, aggression,
which are psychological concepts that play a role in determining the grouping
and social acceptance of an individual.

Unit-1Introduction to Psychology 14
Differences:
Sociology studies society and social institutions whereas psychology is the study
of individuals with relation to the environment.
The main study element of psychology is an individual but the main element of
sociology is a group.
Psychology uses experimental methods whereas sociology is based on historical
methods.
The most noticeable difference is in the area of study. While psychology looks at the
behavior of an individual concerning culture and society, sociology looks at
collective individuals who belong to a culture or society.
Sociology looks at influences of an individual only from external factors class, family,
gender, while psychology looks at external factors such as family, culture, class as
well as internal factors such as genetics, personality as influences of individual
behavior.
Despite the influence of society on an individual, the psychological functioning of an
individual is determined by the individual’s functioning as a result of physiology and
environmental factors. While sociology creates social norms and expected
behaviors, variation in an individual’s behavior, concerning these norms are viewed
as abnormal behavior in the individual, hence prompting psychological
intervention. Unit-1Introduction to Psychology 15
 PSYCHOLOGY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
Political science is the subject that deals with the power, politics, rules,
regulations and rights of every person and country. This subject is very
much related to psychology because the main study element in both of the
subjects is the same i.e. man. Political science tells about how a country
works. So let us see some relationships and differences between both
subjects.
Similarities:
Both study about the man. Political science deals with the power which
man wants and psychology deals with the behavior that a person shows to
get into power.
In a democratic country, people choose their representative by examining
his/her behavior which is a topic of psychology.
Both subjects are scientific in nature that use quantitative methods for
their experiments.
Unit-1Introduction to Psychology 16
Differences:
The scope of both the subjects is different.
Political science is a practical subject but the basic blocks of psychology
are not that practical in nature because there is an essence of
philosophy in psychology.

Unit-1Introduction to Psychology 17
 PSYCHOLOGY AND ECONOMICS
In economics, we study the economic activities of men and society, how men earn
their income and how they spend it. Economic activities are a large part of human
behavior, and psychological factors have always been considered in economics as
having played a major influence on human economic behavior.
Economics is the study of the relationship of humans with both ends and scarce
means. It involves the behavior of a person that is involved in materialistic
exchanges that involve some article of value. Here is the relationship between both
the subjects.
Similarities:
The concept of motivation, perception, values, attitudes are the concepts of
psychology but they influence entrepreneurship and material exchanges. So these
concepts are the areas of common interest of both psychologists and economists.
In fact, the interaction between both is so strong that it has produced a hybrid
discipline in the form of Behavioral Economics that studies the impacts of
psychological attributes on the economic decisions of an individual.
Unit-1Introduction to Psychology 18
Differences:
Economics deals with materialistic things whereas psychology’s approach
is different. It discusses non-materialistic things.
The methods of experiments are also different. Economics uses
quantitative methods but psychology uses both quantitative as well
qualitative methods.
Economics is the study of economic system of the society. Where
psychology study human mind and behavior.

Unit-1Introduction to Psychology 19
 PSYCHOLOGY AND BIOLOGY
Biology is a natural science that is concerned with the study of life and
living organisms. Biology recognizes Cells as the basic unit of life. Gene is a
basic unit of heredity. In psychology and biology, we study
neurotransmitters like GABA.
There are many biological factors that are responsible for mental and
psychological disorders. A new branch of study – Physiological psychology
deals with the relationship between the brain and other biological activities
and behavior. One more branch of study is known as – Neuropsychology
which studies the impact of the nervous system and brain on human
behavior.

Unit-1Introduction to Psychology 20
The biological sciences study the structure of the body, the body organs and
their functioning. Psychology studies behavior. The behavior of an individual
has a very close relationship with the body. The sensations, perceptions, and
all forms of behavior begin at the physiological level and then result in
muscular actions or glandular secretions.
The brain has a very important role to play in coordinating and organizing
the functions of the different organs of the body. The complete nervous
system has a big role to play in behavior. There is, thus, a very close
relationship between psychology and neurology, neuro physiology, neuro
chemistry and other sciences which deal with the nervous system, and more
so the brain.
Genetics is another branch of biology which studies the nature of
inheritance of different qualities. It has an important role to play in
determining behavior.
Unit-1Introduction to Psychology 21
Perspective in Psychology
 A Perspective is an approach that involves certain assumptions
regarding human behavior.
 Each perspective has different view regarding what influences
behavior, what aspect of behavior should be worthy to study and
what research methods are appropriate to study behaviors.
 Each perspective has somewhat different viewpoint regarding the
subject matter of psychology.
 Many perspective in modern psychology provide researchers and
students a way to approach different problems and find new ways
to explain and predict human behavior as well as develop new
treatment approaches for problem behaviors.
Unit-1Introduction to Psychology 22
 Major Perspectives in Psychology
Perspectives
Biological/Neuroscience Perspective
Cognitive Perspective
Behavioral Perspective
Psychodynamic Perspective
Humanistic Perspective
Socio-Cultural Perspective
Focus Area Key Figures/Founders
This approach studies behavior from
the perspective of the biological
functions of the brain, the nervous Karl S. Lashley (1890-1958)
system, and other body systems.
This approach focuses on how people George Miller (1920), Jerome Bruner
think, understand, and know about the (1915), Ulrich Neisser (1928)
world.
This approach suggests that
observable, measurable behavior John B. Watson (1878-1958)
should be the focus of study. B.F. Skinner(1904-1990)
This approach is based on the view
that behavior is motivated by
unconscious inner forces over which Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
the individual has little control.
This approach suggests that all
individuals naturally strive to grow, Carl Rogers (1902-1987), Abraham
develop, and be in control of their lives Maslow
and behavior. (1908-1970)
This approach focuses on social and
Unit-1Introduction to Psychology 23
cultural factors that can influence Janet Hyde (1990), David Matsumoto
 Perspective in Psychology
Biological /Neuroscience Perspective:
 This perspective is also known a neuroscience perspective.
 This perspective believes that behavior and mental processes are the
function of nervous system, hormones and neurotransmitters.
 It considers how people and nonhumans function biologically, such
as: how individual’s nerve cells are connected,
• how the inheritance of certain characteristics from parents and other
ancestors influences behavior,
• how the functioning of the body affects hopes and fears, and which
behaviors are instinctive, among other things.

Unit-1Introduction to Psychology 24
Biological /Neuroscience Perspective:
• This perspective includes the study of heredity and evolution, which
considers how heredity may influence behavior; and behavioral
neuroscience, which examines how the brain and the nervous system
affect behavior.

Unit-1Introduction to Psychology 25
Cognitive Perspective:
Cognitive perspective focuses on how people think, understand, and know
about the world.
It refers to the processing of information that we receive through senses.
It focuses on understanding how humans internalize and represent the outside
world, as well as how our worldviews influence our action and behavior.
Cognitive psychology focuses on higher mental processes including reasoning,
memory, and problem solving, among others.
They believe that cognition causes behavior, and that differences in behavior
are caused by differences in how we process information.
Eg- You are going to shopping mall. There you see your friend passing across.
You wanted to talk to her, but she did not look towards you.in this case you
might have at least two responses based on your cognition. 1- If you think she
might missed to look at you or 2-she might be busy to talk to you. Here either
you call her or you won’t receive her call thinking she was ignoring you seeing
at shopping mall.
(This suggest cognition plays a vital role to guiding behavior and analyze the
situation.)
Unit-1Introduction to Psychology 26
Behavioral Perspective
The first significant American psychologist to propose a behavioral approach was John B.
Watson. Watson, who worked in the 1920s, was convinced that studying and changing the
environment in which individuals operate might provide a complete understanding of
behavior.
In fact, Watson believed that by manipulating a person's surroundings, it is possible to
extract any desired form of behavior.
E.g.: This philosophy is clear from his own words: “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-
formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one
at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer,
artist, merchant-chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents,
penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors” (Watson, 1924).
The behavioral perspective was also supported by B. F. Skinner, a pioneer in the field. The
behavioral approach explains most of our knowledge of how people learn new habits.
This viewpoint holds that our actions are a result of the consequences that come with
them. If the consequences are rewarding we are more inclined to repeat the behavior; if
they are punishing/ negative, we are less likely to repeat it.
According to this perspective learning plays vital role in controlling and influencing
behavior. Unit-1Introduction to Psychology 27
Psychodynamic Perspective
Psychodynamic , also known as Psychoanalytic perspective propounded with the
work of Sigmund Freud.
Psychodynamic proponents say that our actions are driven by inner forces and
conflicts over which we have little knowledge or control.
This perspective rely on that the content of unconscious, personality structure,
and early psychosexual experience determine human behavior and personality.
He believed that our mind can be divide into three level:
Conscious, Semi-Conscious,& Unconscious.
Conscious mind is present part of thinking.
Semi-Conscious mind consists of contents that are not present part of thinking
but can be remembered easily.
Unconscious mind, we are not aware of this unconscious mind but these
unconscious forces guide our behavior. Freud believed all the unpleasant,
personally threating information are passed to unconscious mind. Like-hatred,
sexual and aggressive impulses, socially unacceptable desires and shameful
experiences.
Freud believed that human personality is composed of three competing forces
called Id, Ego, Superego. Unit-1Introduction to Psychology 28
Humanistic Perspective
Humanistic approach implies that all people naturally want to grow,
develop, and have control over their lives and behaviors. Humanistic
psychologists believe that we all have the ability to seek and achieve
happiness.
The humanistic perspective emphasizes free will, or the freedom to
make decisions about one's own behavior and life on one's own
terms. The concept of free will contrasts with determinist view, which
sees behavior as caused or determined by things beyond a person’s
control.
This approach emphasized human beings are positive beings and
have huge capacity for personal growth, it also focuses on uniqueness
of individual.
To properly understand a person's behavior, this perspective states
that we should research the behavior from the subjective point of
view of the individual underUnit-1Introduction
study. to Psychology 29
Socio-Cultural Perspective
This perspective emphasizes the social and cultural elements that
might impact behavior, implying that behavior is the outcome of
sociocultural forces.
It explains how our personality, beliefs, attitude, skill and values are
shaped by our culture, ethnicity, gender, religion, and other important
socio-cultural factors.
Culture shapes our behavior, e.g.- language, moral beliefs, ethical
values, traditions, superstitions, prejudices, eating behaviors etc. all
describes the culture in which we belong to.
This perspective focuses on the cultural differences in behavior and
thoughts.

Unit-1Introduction to Psychology 30
Evolutionary Perspective
This perspective emphasized on the role of evolution in shaping behavior.
This perspective believes that our mind was developed in stone age to meet
challenges of that time and gradually evolved over time.
This perspective focuses on three components:
Variation, inheritance, and selection
Variation is the differences within and among species in different aspects. like-
color, shape, size, intelligence, personality and so on.
E.G. Black and white people issues.
Inheritance refers to the transfer of characteristics from parents to their children
(generation to generation).
Selection refers to the facts that nature always selects those who are best in
adaptation. Those who are unable to adapt will gradually decrease.
It emphasized on the role of the physical structure and behavior perform in the
adaptation process of an organism to the environment.

Unit-1Introduction to Psychology 31