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Geophysical appraisal of the Abu Madi gas reservoir, Nile Delta Basin, Egypt:
Implications for the tectonic effect on the lateral distribution of petrophysical
parameters

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DOI: 10.1016/j.ptlrs.2022.03.002

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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Petroleum Research
journal homepage: http://www.keaipublishing.com/en/journals/
petroleum-research/

Geophysical appraisal of the Abu Madi gas reservoir, Nile Delta Basin,
Egypt: Implications for the tectonic effect on the lateral distribution of
petrophysical parameters
Mohammad Abdelfattah Sarhan
Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Damietta University, New Damietta City, 34517, Egypt

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The tectonic deformation has a significant influence on the hydrocarbon reservoirs properties. The effect
Received 19 December 2021 of this process focuses on the lateral distribution of the petrophysical parameters characterizing the
Received in revised form hydrocarbon reservoirs. The main objective of the current study is to perform a petrophysical exami-
27 February 2022
nation of the Abu Madi gas reservoir which is the greatest gas-bearing reservoir at Nile Delta Basin in
Accepted 6 March 2022
order to examine how far the Messinian tectonics affected the lateral variations of these petrophysical
Available online xxx
parameters. This petrophysical evaluation was performed based on the wireline log data acquired for five
wells, namely, Abu Madi-2, Abu Madi-7, El Qara-3, Nidoco-7, and Nidoco-9 drilled within the Abu Madi
Keywords:
Abu madi formation
Paleo-Valley. The petrophysical assessment for the most promising zone intervals within the Abu Madi
Messinian reservoir sandstones in the inspected wells show that the total porosity varies between 17% and 22%, the effective
Nile delta basin porosity ranges from 7% to 19%, the shale volume fluctuates between 16% and 30%, hydrocarbon satu-
Petrophysical parameters ration varies from 37% to 76%, and the bulk volume of water varies between 0.02 and 0.09. These sig-
Well logging nificant variations in the petrophysical properties of the Abu Madi reservoir are attributed to the tectonic
influence during the deposition of the Abu Madi Formation as a part of the Late Miocene syn-rift
megasequence in the Nile Delta Basin. This conclusion confirms that the petrophysical properties of
sandstone reservoirs are function of tectonic and structural deformation.
© 2022 Chinese Petroleum Society. Publishing services provided by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi
Communication Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction
The Nile Delta Basin (NDB) has a long history of hydrocarbon
exploration in both onshore and offshore sectors. Several trillion
cubic feet of gas was discovered during the last 50 years from
different stratigraphic levels, ranging from the Oligocene to the
PlioceneePleistocene (e.g. Abu El-Ella, 1990; Pigott and Abdel-
Fattah, 2014; Abdel-Fattah and Tawfik, 2015; Sarhan and Safa,
2017, 2019; Nabawy et al., 2018; Abdel Aal et al., 2000; Abdel-
Fattah, 2014; Sarhan, 2021a, b and c; Sarhan et al., 2022; Abdel-
Fattah et al., 2022).
The Messinian Abu Madi sandstones have been the primary gas
provenance in both the onshore and offshore portions of the NDB
for numerous petroleum companies since 1963 (Abu El-Ella, 1990).
Exploration activities in the NDB started in 1963 when the first
concession was given to the International Egyptian Oil Company,
E-mail address: msarhan@du.edu.eg.
which drilled the first well (Mit Ghamr-1) in 1966. The same
company achieved the first commercial result in 1967 upon the
discovery of natural gas from the Abu Madi field at the onshore part
of the Nile Delta. This field produced gas from the Messinian Abu
Madi Formation. In 1969, Philips Company started the first deep
drilling in the offshore part of the Nile Delta in the Abu Qir Bay in
the northwestern offshore part of the Nile Delta by extracting
natural gas from the Abu Madi sandstones. The second offshore gas
was discovered in 1978 by a French oil company named Elf Aqui-
taine in the northern part of Alexandria City and produced natural
gas from the Abu Madi Formation (Abu El-Ella, 1990).
The Abu Madi Formation was deposited throughout the Messi-
nian (EI-Heiny and Morsi, 1992; EGPC, 1994) and is basically
composed of sandstone and shale intercalations (Rizzini et al.,
1976). The Abu Madi Paleo-Valley refers to the proto-Nile distrib-
utaries at northern NDB, which incised a wide fluvial system in the
preexisting continental shelf and slope of the Mediterranean Sea as
a result of the significant decrease in the global sea level during the
Messinian (Barber, 1981; Sestini, 1989; Harms and Wary, 1990).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ptlrs.2022.03.002
2096-2495/© 2022 Chinese Petroleum Society. Publishing services provided by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communication Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the
CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Please cite this article as: M.A. Sarhan, Geophysical appraisal of the Abu Madi gas reservoir, Nile Delta Basin, Egypt: Implications for the tectonic
effect on the lateral distribution of petrophysical parameters, Petroleum Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ptlrs.2022.03.002
M.A. Sarhan
Accordingly, the Abu Madi sandstones were deposited as an
incised-valley fill representing a lowstand systems tract and were
followed by estuarine facies as a transgressive systems tract (Salem
et al., 2005).
Information on the lateral variations in the petrophysical pa-
rameters of hydrocarbon reservoirs is important in assessing fluid
flow through such reservoirs (Torabi et al., 2013). Accordingly, the
present work aimed to assess the Abu Madi sandstones through
hydrocarbon reservoir analysis using available electric log data for
five drilled wells to examine the lateral variations of petrophysical
properties throughout the study area within the Abu Madi Paleo-
Valley (Fig. 1).
2. Geologic setting
The NDB comprises an area of about 250,000 km2 in the eastern
Mediterranean region. It represents a passive margin basin initiated
due to thermal subsidence after the tectonic extension that sepa-
rated the African plate from the Eurasian plate throughout the Late
TriassiceEarly Cretaceous (May, 1991; Dolson et al., 2001).
The NDB has a fan comprising thick sedimentary succession
from the Late Tertiary to the Quaternary. During the JurassiceEarly
Cretaceous, a major faulted and overall flexed zone formed across
northern Egypt, which was termed the Hinge Zone (Said, 1962;
Sestini, 1989). This zone strongly controlled the overall strati-
graphic and tectonic evolution of the north-central basins of Egypt
(Said, 1981; Harms and Wary, 1990; Arisi Rota et al., 1994). It bisects
Fig. 1. (A) Regional map representing the location of the Abu Madi Paleo-Valley in the
northern Nile Delta Basin (simplified after Matresu et al., 2013). (B) Locations of the
investigated wells and seismic profiles within the Abu Madi Paleo-Valley.
2
Petroleum Research xxx (xxxx) xxx
northern Egypt on an E-W trend (Mosconi et al., 1996), as presented
in Fig. 1A. This hinge line characterizes the southern boundary of
the rifted continental margin to the north of Egypt (Bertello et al.,
1996). Numerous normal faults were developed along this line,
with strong faulting downward toward the north. This resulted in a
significantly thick sedimentary section (5000e7000 m) encoun-
tered to the north of this line, whereas only 500e1500 m of the
section was recorded to the south (Harms and Wary, 1990; EGPC,
1994; Sarhan and Hemdan, 1994). Active subsidence in the NDB
occurred in the Late Miocene during the uplift of Sinai and the
Eastern Desert and the beginning of the Suez rift and the
AqabaeJordan shear (Kamel et al., 1998).
A compression belt evolved in the NDB through the Plio-
Pleistocene, which was accompanied by a sinistral wrench move-
ment. This led to the formation of the Pelusium fault trending
NEeSW (Fig. 1A), which crosses the northwest offshore parts of
Sinai, limits the southern part of the Nile Delta, and extends to the
western part of the African Plate (EGPC, 1994; Zaghloul et al., 200l).
The Pliocene section in the NDB (Fig. 2) comprises, from top to
base, the Mit Ghamr and El Wastani Formations (Late Pliocene) and
Kafr El-Sheikh Formation (EarlyeMiddle Pliocene). The Miocene
succession includes the Rosetta, Abu Madi, and Qawasim Forma-
tions characterizing the Late Miocene age (Messinian), Sidi Salim
Formation (Middle Miocene), and Qantara Formation of the Early
Miocene (EGPC, 1994; EI-Heiny and Enani, 1996; Vandre et al.,
2007). The evaporites of the Rosetta Formation are widely distrib-
uted across the Nile Delta but are absent in the fluvial to shallow
marine Abu Madi depositional system (Abdel Aal et al., 2000), as
presented in Fig. 2.
During the Messinian, the Mediterranean was isolated from the
ocean and desiccated due to extreme evaporation. This led to the
Fig. 2. Generalized lithostratigraphy of the Nile Delta Basin (after EGPC, 1994).
M.A. Sarhan
Fig. 3. Petrophysical data of the examined wells throughout the Abu Madi Paleo-Valley
reservoir: (A) Abu Madi-2, (B) Abu Madi-7, (C) El Qara-3, (D) Nidoco-7, and (E) Nidoco-
9. Notably, the intervals outlined by red rectangles display the most promising
hydrocarbon-bearing interval in each well.
deposition of thick evaporate deposits (Rosetta Formation) and a
major unconformity surface. Subsequently, north-trending streams
(The Eonile of Said, 1990) developed at the latitude of Cairo (Harms
and Wary, 1990). The Eonile shaped a deep canyon incision when
the drainage transformed from the northwest direction (Qattara
depression) in the Early Miocene to the north in the Late Miocene
3
Petroleum Research xxx (xxxx) xxx
(Messinian) due to the eastward tilting of the land (Ross and
Uchupi, 1977). This deep canyon incised into the preexisting
CenozoiceMesozoic sequence and transported enormous amounts
of sediments into the Mediterranean Basin (El-Barkooky and Helal,
2002).
3. Data and techniques
The available data in the current study encompass conventional
well log data for five wells distributed within the Abu Madi Paleo-
Valley (three onshore and two offshore) at northern NDB (Fig. 1).
These wells are Abu Madi-2, Abu Madi-7, El Qara-3, Nidoco-7, and
Nidoco-9. The wireline log data for each well comprises a gamma
ray log (Track 1 in Fig. 3), a sonic log (Track 2 in Fig. 3), resistivity
logs (Track 3 in Fig. 3), and neutron porosity and density logs except
for the Nidoco-9 well (Track 4 in Fig. 3AeC). In addition, four
stacked seismic reflection profiles (Fig. 1B) compiled from onshore
and offshore surveys running through the Abu Madi Paleo-Valley
were interpreted to observe the structural effect on the deposi-
tion of the Abu Madi Formation within the Messinian timespan.
The well log data were examined to calculate the most impor-
tant petrophysical parameters that characterize the hydrocarbon
prospects using the Techlog software. These parameters include the
shale volume (VSh), total porosity (FT), effective porosity (Fe), water
saturation (Sw), hydrocarbon saturation (Sh), and bulk volume of
water (BVW).
3.1. Shale volume (Vsh)
The amount of shale in the inspected intervals has been deter-
mined on the basis of the gamma ray log as a linear response using
the equation of Asquith and Gibson (1982):
VSh ¼ (GR  GRmin)/(GRmax  GRmin) (1)
where VSh denotes the shale volume; GR, the gamma ray reading
value; GRmin, the lowest gamma ray value; and GRmax, the
maximum gamma ray value.
3.2. Total porosity (4T)
The total porosity indicates the total volume of a rock's primary
or secondary voids. 4T was calculated from the neutron density logs
using the following formula described by Asquith and Gibson
(1982):
FT ¼ (FN þ FD)/2 (2)
where FT is the total porosity, FN is the neutron porosity, and FD is
the density porosity.
The neutron porosity (FN) is the reading of the neutron log,
which measures the hydrogen concentration in a reservoir. In clean
(i.e., shale-free) reservoirs where pores are filled with oil or water,
the neutron log measures liquid-filled porosity (FN). On the con-
trary, the density porosity (FD) can be determined using the
following formula:
FD ¼ (rma  rb)/(rma  rfl) (3)
FD is the density-derived porosity, rma is the matrix density, and
rb is the formation bulk density (the log reading), which is a
function of the matrix density, porosity, and density of the fluid in
the pores (freshwater mud, saltwater mud, or hydrocarbons). rfl
represents the fluid density.
M.A. Sarhan Petroleum Research xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 1
The calculated prtrophysical parameters for the examined wells within Abu Madi Paleo-Valley reservoir in northern Nile Delta Basin (NDB).

Well Name Lat.- Long. XeY Depth to top of Pay Pay Average Average Average Average Average Average BVW
Coordinates Coordinates Abu Madi Fm.(m) Interval Thickness Total Effective Shale Water Hydrocarbon
(m) (m) Porosity (FT) Porosity Volume Saturation (Sw) Saturation (Sh)
(FE) (VShale)

Abu Madi-2 31.42N, X ¼ 648670 3030 3250e3314 64 0.18 0.15 0.16 0.24 0.76 0.03
31.35E Y ¼ 968520
Abu Madi-7 31.42N, X ¼ 642400 2996 3030e3051 21 0.22 0.07 0.30 0.30 0.70 0.02
31.287E Y ¼ 966050
El Qara-3 31.49N, X ¼ 641778 3132 3357e3371 14 0.17 0.12 0.22 0.42 0.58 0.05
31.28E Y ¼ 975561
Nidoco-7 31.58N, X ¼ 645474 3123 3530e3623 93 0.18 0.14 0.16 0.63 0.37 0.09
31.32E Y ¼ 985875
Nidoco-9 31.58N, X ¼ 640987 3200 3395e3428 33 0.20 0.19 0.21 0.27 0.73 0.05
31.27E Y ¼ 985882

Fig. 4. Constructed contour maps based on the data obtained from available wells demonstrating the subsurface geology and lateral distribution of different average petrophysical
parameters within the Abu Madi Paleo-Valley reservoir. (A) Depth map for the top of the Abu Madi Formation; (B) pay-thickness map for the promising zone interval in the Abu
Madi reservoir; (C) total porosity lateral distribution map; (D) effective porosity lateral distribution map; (E) shale volume lateral distribution map; (F) water saturation lateral
distribution map; (G) hydrocarbon saturation lateral distribution map; and (H) BVW lateral distribution map.

4
M.A. Sarhan Petroleum Research xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 4. (continued).

3.3. Effective porosity (4e)

82 32 91n
> !1 >
< V 2VSh 2 4m 12 =
The effective porosity measures only the interconnected voids Sw ¼ 4 Sh þ e 5 Rt (5)
within which fluids can be transmitted (Asquith and Gibson, 1982). >
: RSh Rw >
;
It has been determined using the following equation:

where Sw is the water saturation, VSh is the shale volume, 4e is the

4e¼4T * (1  VSh)
where 4e is the effective porosity, 4T is the total porosity, and VSh is
the shale volume.
3.4. Water saturation (Sw)
The Indonesian model of Poupon and Leveaux (1971) has been
applied in the present work for calculating the water saturation
values due to the presence of shale in the examined pay zones
(Table 1). This model comprises a correction for Archie's equation
(Archie, 1942) in the case of shale attendance as follows:
(4)
effective porosity, RSh is the shale resistivity equal to 5 U m2 /m, Rt is
the deep resistivity, Rw is the connate water resistivity equal to
0.03 U m2 /m, m is the cementation exponent equal to 2, n is the
saturation exponent equal to 2, and a is the tortuosity factor equal
to 1. The applied values for the constants m, n, and a have been
chosen because they are most commonly used (Asquith and Gibson,
1982) and because of the absence of core data in this study. How-
ever, the values of Rw and RSh represent the default values in the
Techlog software.
3.5. Bulk volume of water (BVW)
BVW is the product of water saturation and porosity. If the
5
M.A. Sarhan
calculated BVW values are low and constant in a specific zone, this
zone is predicted to produce water-free hydrocarbon. This can be
determined by applying the following equation described by
Buckles (1965):
BVW ¼ 4e * Sw (6)
4e denotes the effective porosity, and Sw, the water saturation.
Lateral distribution maps (isoparametric maps) for the calcu-
lated petrophysical parameters are then constructed to observe the
lateral variation of each parameter throughout the study area
within the Abu Madi Paleo-Valley reservoir.
4. Results
The visual examination of the well log data of the Messinian Abu
Madi Formation in the accessible wells revealed that several zones
display the following optimistic criteria:
(1) Low shale contents (i.e., clean sandstone) verified by the low
gamma ray values.
(2) High deep resistivity curves supporting hydrocarbon
attendance.
(3) Density curves located left to the neutron curve, confirming
the sandstone matrix.
(4) High porosity values of the neutron curve attesting to the
good quality of sandstone, affirming it to be a potential
reservoir.
These promising zones represent potential hydrocarbon reser-
voirs and are located at depths between 3250 and 3314 m, in
addition to 3030 and 3051 m in the Abu Madi-7 well. In the El Qara-
3 well, the prolific zone is located between 3357 and 3371 m. In the
Nidoco-7 and Nidoco-9 wells, zones exhibiting positive signs of
hydrocarbon presence occur at depths from 3530 to 3623 m and
3395e3428 m, respectively.
The average values for the most common petrophysical param-
eters for these promising zones have been calculated and presented
in Table (1). The highest total porosity (22%) was recorded in the Abu
Madi-7 well and the lowest value (17%) in the El Qara-3 well. The
maximum effective porosity (19%) was recorded in the Nidoco-9 well
and the lowest value (7%) in the Abu Madi-7 well. The highest shale
volume (30%) was documented in the Abu Madi-7 well and the least
value (16%) in the Abu Madi-2 and Nidoco-7 wells. The highest water
saturation (63%) and hence the minimum average hydrocarbon
saturation (37%) were recorded in the Nidoco-7 well. In contrast, the
least water saturation value (24%) and the maximum average hy-
drocarbon saturation (76%) were recorded in the Abu Madi-2 well.
The maximum BVW (9%) was documented in the Nidoco-7 well and
the minimum (2%) in the Abu Madi-7 well.
The depth contour map for the top of the Abu Madi Formation in
the study area demonstrates that the depths range between 2996 m
in the Abu Madi-7 well and 3200 m in the Nidoco-9 well. The depth
increases toward the northwestern part of the study area (Fig. 4A).
Furthermore, the pay-thickness map for the reservoir interval
within the Abu Madi reservoir demonstrates that the net pay sand
thickness increases eastward, especially in the location of the
Nidoco-7 well, where the maximum thickness reaches 93 m
(Fig. 4B).
The lateral distribution map of the average total porosity in-
dicates that the southwestern part attains the highest total porosity
values (0.22) in the Abu Madi-7 well (Fig. 4C). Meanwhile, the
6
Petroleum Research xxx (xxxx) xxx
lateral distribution map for the average effective porosity demon-
strates that the maximum value (0.19) is observed in the north-
western part of the study area in the Nidoco-9 well (Fig. 4D).
The shale volume map explains that the shale content increases
in the southwestern part of the area (0.30) in the Abu Madi-7 well
(Fig. 4E). The water saturation map in Fig. 4F exhibits increasing
values in the northeastern part of the examined area. The hydro-
carbon saturation map (Fig. 4G) explains that the hydrocarbon
occurrences gradually increase toward the study area's south-
eastern part in the Abu Madi-2 well (76%) and northwestern
portion in the Nidoco-9 well (73%). The BVW distribution map
(Fig. 4H) signifies the increase in BVW values in the northeastern
part of the examined area (0.09) where the Nidoco-7 well was
drilled.
5. Discussion
The obtained results indicate the great variations in the petro-
physical properties of the Abu Madi reservoir between the exam-
ined wells. This study attributes these obvious differences in
petrophysical properties to the deposition of the Abu Madi For-
mation as a part of the Upper Miocene syn-rift megasequence in
the NDB (Sarhan et al., 2014). Figs. 5e8 present interpreted seismic
profiles in different directions along the Abu Madi Paleo-Valley in
the study area. These seismic sections confirm the presence of
growth normal faults accompanying a syn-rift megasequence. The
distribution and geometry of these faults beneath the northern Nile
Delta Basin are attributed to the N-NW propagation of Red Sea-Gulf
of Suez rifting during the Messinian as shown in Fig. (9) (Sarhan
et al., 2014). In contrast, the post-rift megasequence in the north-
central part of the Nile Delta developed during the Plioce-
neeQuaternary (El-Fawal et al., 2016).
Basically, the petrophysical properties of siliciclastic reservoirs
exhibit significant changes due to tectonic deformation (Torabi
et al., 2013, 2021; Zhu et al., 2019; Ogilvie and Glover, 2001;
Torabi and Fossen, 2009; Alkhasli et al., 2022). Also, the structural
elements and tectonic setting (uplift and subsidence) in rift basins
significantly impact the facies distribution and stratal geometry by
controlling the sediment supply and the accommodation space
(Gawthorpe et al., 1994; Collier and Gawthorpe, 1995).
Since the Abu Madi Formation was deposited as part of the final
stage of the Late Miocene syn-rift megasequence in the NDB, its
deposition was intensely overprinted by tectonic influence rather
than relative sea-level changes (Sarhan, 2015). Consequently, the
facies and distribution of the Abu Madi Formation were affected by
the paleo-topography, which was controlled by faulting and
erosion during the Messinian (El Heiny et al., 1990). Therefore, the
considerable fluctuations in the petrophysical parameters of the
Abu Madi reservoir in the study area are linked to the tectonic effect
during the deposition of the Abu Madi Formation as part of the
Messinian syn-rift megasequence in the NDB.
Accordingly, the main finding presented by this paper is that, to
build an accurate and virtual reservoir model for appraising and
forecasting the reservoir properties at any hydrocarbon field; the
tectonic setting of the whole sedimentary basin must be
considered.
6. Conclusions
(1) The Abu Madi sandstones is the chief hydrocarbon reservoirs
in the Nile Delta Basin.
M.A. Sarhan Petroleum Research xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 5. EW onshore seismic profile Line No. MAN 478e81 (modified after Sarhan, 2021a) shows the toplapping of the base of the syn-rift megasequence to the lower reflectors of the
prerift megasequence. Abundant growth normal faults were noted within the syn-rift megasequence, including the Abu Madi Formation.

Fig. 6. NNWeSSE offshore seismic section (Line No. JG 64e11) displays the existence of growth normal faults within the syn-rift megasequence.

(2) The calculated petrophysical parameters for the gas intervals
within the Abu Madi Formation in the studied wells display;
total porosity (17%e22%), effective porosity (7%e19%), shale
volume (16%e30%), water saturation (24%e63%) and bulk
volume of water (0.02e0.09).
(3) The constructed isoparametric maps for these parameters
reflect significant variations in their lateral distribution
within the Abu Madi Paleo-Valley. This confirms that the
deposition of the Abu Madi Formation was accompanied by
an unstable tectonic setting during the Messinian time.
(4) This study approves that the presence of buried active
normal faults attributed to the NNW propagation of the Gulf
of Suez rift are the responsible for this tectonic instability.
(5) The activities of these buried faults (subsidence and uplift-
ing) control these lateral variations in the petrophysical pa-
rameters for the Abu Madi gas reservoir in northern Nile
Delta Basin.
(6) This work highlights the importance of the tectonics in the
evolution of petrophysical properties for the hydrocarbon
reservoirs.

7
M.A. Sarhan Petroleum Research xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 7. NEeSW offshore seismic profile (Line No. JG 61e49) exhibits that the buried normal faults affected the syn-rift megasequence.

Fig. 8. NWeSE offshore seismic section (Line No. JG 64e8) shows that some erosional channels and growth faults cut through the Sidi Salim Formation in the prerift megasequence.

8
M.A. Sarhan
Fig. 9. Regional map summarizing the active faults within the Abu Madi Paleo-Valley
reservoir during the Late Miocene (modified after Sarhan et al., 2014; Sarhan, 2021a).
Conflict of interest
Here, i confirm that there is no conflict of interest.
Ethical statements
Hereby, I assure that this paper has not been previously pub-
lished and the manuscript reflects my own research and analysis in
a truthful and complete manner.
Acknowledgment
I extremely appreciate the help of the Egyptian General Petro-
leum Corporation and PETROBEL company for providing the
required geophysical data in this study. Many thanks to the Egyp-
tian Knowledge Bank (EKB) for editing the English language of this
manuscript by Enago services. Many thanks to Dr. Richard Collier,
Senior Lecturer of Tectonic and Sedimentation, School of Earth and
Environment at Leeds University, UK for his help in seismic inter-
pretation process.
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