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STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

3
METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND
ENERGY PRINCIPLES

1. INTRODUCTION

Energy methods are based on linear elastic behaviour of material and conservation of energy
i.e. work done by external forces is equal to the energy stored in the structure under the load.
Strain Energy in various cases is given by following expressions;
𝑃2 𝐿
In Axial tension or compression, 𝑈 =
2𝐴𝐸
𝑀2 𝐿
In Bending, 𝑈 =
2𝐸𝐼
𝑇 2𝐿
In Torsion, 𝑈 =
2𝐺𝐽

2. DEFLECTION OF STATICALLY DETERMINATE TRUSSES

Two methods mainly used to calculate deflection in trusses are

(i) Castigliano’s Method

(ii) Unit load method

2.1. Castigliano’s Method

For getting the deflection in case of truss, there are two theorems. According to these

theorem deflection and slope can be determined as follows.

(i) Castigliano’s Ist theorem:

u
w=


Here,

w = load

∂u = change in strain energy

∂δ = variation in deflection.

(ii) Castigliano’s IInd theorem

It states, that the first partial derivative of total strain energy with respect to a load at

any point in the structure gives deflection at that point in the direction of load.

u u
= =
P M

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Application of Castigliano’s theorem:

(i) To find absolute deflection of a joint in a truss.

U = Strain energy in all members

P2l
U=
2AE
Where, P1, P2 … Pn = force in members due to applied load w.
and l1, l2 …. Ln = length of each member.
From Castigliano’s II theorem
P
2P l
 E =
u
= w =  Pkl
w 2AE AE
P1 P2
Where, k = k1, k2 = , = force in all members due to unit load applied at a point
w w
where we have to find deflection (δ).

If we want to find relative displacement of any two joints B and E, apply unit loads at B
and E in the direction BE. Find forces in all members due to this load then relative
displacement of two joints B and E is

Pkl
BE = 
AE
Where,
P = P1, P2 etc forces in all member due to applied loads unit loads
K = forces in all members due to unit loads applied at B and E.
If we want to find rotation of any member FG, apply unit couple at G and F (these two
forces form unit couple i.e. 1/a × a = 1). Find forces in all members due to these two
loads, then rotation of member is given as

Pkl
GF = 
AE

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Where, P1, P2 … Pn = force in all members.

k = forces in all member due to unit couple applied at G and F.
Example: Calculate the vertical deflection of joint C as shown in the figure

Solution:
Applying vertical load P at point C.

Step 1: Finding Reactions

From equilibrium conditions,
Σ𝐹𝑥 = 0
⇒ 𝐻𝐴 = 2 𝑘𝑁 (⟵)
Σ𝑀𝐴 = 0
⇒ 𝑅𝐵 × 8 = 2 × 3 + 𝑃 × 4
4𝑃 + 6
⇒ 𝑅𝐵 =
8
And,
Σ𝐹𝑦 = 0
4𝑃 + 6 4𝑃 − 6
⇒ 𝑅𝐴 = 𝑃 − =
8 8
Step 2: Analysis of forces
From the figure
Sin θ = 3/5 and cos θ = 4/5
Considering Equilibrium of Joint A

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Σ𝐹𝑦 = 0

𝐹𝐴𝐶 sin 𝜃 + 𝑅𝐴 = 0

3 4𝑃 − 6
⇒ 𝐹 =−
5 𝐴𝐶 8
5(2𝑃 − 3)
⇒ 𝐹𝐴𝐶 = −
12

And,

Σ𝐹𝑥 = 0

𝐹𝐴𝐶 cos 𝜃 + 𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 2

4
⇒ 𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 2 − 𝐹𝐴𝐶
5
2𝑃 − 3 2𝑃 + 3
⇒ 𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 2 + =
3 3

Considering equilibrium of joint B

Σ𝐹𝑥 = 0
⇒ 𝐹𝐵𝐶 cos 𝜃 + 𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 0
4 2𝑃 + 3
⇒ 𝐹 =−
5 𝐵𝐶 3
5(2𝑃 + 3)
⇒ 𝐹𝐵𝐶 = −
12
Step 3: Calculation of deflection

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𝝏𝑭𝒊 𝝏𝑭𝒊
Member Fi li 𝑭𝒊 × 𝒍𝒊
𝝏𝒑 𝝏𝒑

AB 2𝑃 + 3 16(2𝑃 + 3)
3 2/3 8 9

BC 5(2𝑃 + 3) 125(2𝑃 + 3)
− -5/6 5
12 72

CA 5(2𝑃 − 3) 125(2𝑃 − 3)
− -5/6 5
12 72

1 𝜕𝐹𝑖 16
∆𝐶 (𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙) = ∑ 𝐹𝑖 × 𝑙𝑖 | =
𝐴𝐸 𝜕𝑝 𝑃=0
3𝐴𝐸
2.2. Unit Load Method
This method is based on method of virtual work. From virtual work principle external work
done on a body is equal to internal work done by the body.
If a unit virtual load produces internal stresses u i in the member and the real displacement
of the ith member is dli then the internal virtual work done is equal to Σ𝑢𝑖 𝑑𝑙𝑖 . If the virtual
load at any point is 1and the displacement at that point due to external forces is Δ then,
1 × Δ = Σ𝑢𝑖 𝑑𝑙𝑖
(i) Due to external loading:
Deflection of truss due to external loading is given by
𝑃𝑢𝐿
Δ=∑
𝐴𝐸
Where,
P = Force in the member due to external loading
u = Force in the member due to unit load applied in the direction at the point where
deflection is to be calculated after removal of external loading
L = Length of the member
AE = Axial rigidity of the member
Example: Calculate the vertical displacement of joint C using unit load method.

Step 1: Calculation of forces due to external loading

From equilibrium conditions,
Σ𝐹𝑥 = 0

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⇒ 𝐻𝐴 = 2 𝑘𝑁 (⟵)
Σ𝑀𝐴 = 0
⇒ 𝑅𝐵 × 8 = 2 × 3
3
⇒ 𝑅𝐵 = 𝑘𝑁 (↑)
4
And,
Σ𝐹𝑦 = 0
3 3
⇒ 𝑅𝐴 = − 𝑘𝑁 = 𝑘𝑁 (↓)
4 4
Calculation of forces in the members due to external loading:
From the figure
Sin θ = 3/5 and cos θ = 4/5
Considering Equilibrium of Joint A

Σ𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝐹𝐴𝐶 sin 𝜃 − 𝑅𝐴 = 0
3 3
⇒ 𝐹 =
5 𝐴𝐶 4
5
⇒ 𝐹𝐴𝐶 = kN
4

And,
Σ𝐹𝑥 = 0
𝐹𝐴𝐶 cos 𝜃 + 𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 2
4
⇒ 𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 2 − 𝐹𝐴𝐶
5
⇒ 𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 2 − 1 = 1 𝑘𝑁
Considering equilibrium of joint B

Σ𝐹𝑥 = 0
⇒ 𝐹𝐵𝐶 cos 𝜃 + 𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 0
4
⇒ 𝐹 = −1
5 𝐵𝐶
5
⇒ 𝐹𝐵𝐶 = − 𝑘𝑁
4

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Step 2: Calculation of forces due to unit load at C

Since the loading is symmetric,
1
𝑅𝐴′ = 𝑅𝐵′ = 𝑘𝑁
2
And,
HA = 0
Calculation of forces in the members:
Considering Equilibrium of Joint A

Σ𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝑢𝐴𝐶 sin 𝜃 + 𝑅𝐴 = 0
3 1
⇒ 𝑢𝐴𝐶 = −
5 2
5
⇒ 𝑢𝐴𝐶 = − 𝑘𝑁
6
And,
Σ𝐹𝑥 = 0
𝑢𝐴𝐶 cos 𝜃 + 𝑢𝐴𝐵 = 0
4
⇒ 𝑢𝐴𝐵 = − 𝑢𝐴𝐶
5
2
⇒ 𝑢𝐴𝐵 = 𝑘𝑁
3
Considering equilibrium of joint B

Σ𝐹𝑥 = 0
⇒ 𝑢𝐵𝐶 cos 𝜃 + 𝑢𝐴𝐵 = 0
4 2
⇒ 𝑢𝐵𝐶 = −
5 3
5
⇒ 𝑢𝐵𝐶 = − kN
6

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Step 3: Calculation of vertical deflection at C

Member Pi ui li 𝑷𝒊 𝒖𝒊 𝑳𝒊

AB 16
1 2/3 8
3
BC 5 125
− -5/6 5
4 24
CA 5 125
-5/6 5 −
4 24

So,
𝑃𝑢𝐿 16
∆𝐶 = ∑ =
𝐴𝐸 3𝐴𝐸
(ii) Temperature Change Case:
Due to temperature change,
𝑑𝑙𝑖 = 𝑙𝑖 𝛼𝑖 ∆𝑇𝑖
So,
∆= Σ𝑢𝑖 𝑙𝑖 𝛼𝑖 ∆𝑇𝑖
Where,
Δ = Deflection of truss due to temperature change
ui = Forces in the member due to unit load at the point where deflection is to be computed.
li = length of the member
αi = Coefficient of linear expansion
Ti = Temperature increment
(iii) Fabrication Error (Lack of Fit Case): If the member is shorter or longer in length,
it will induce stresses in truss. In this case, the joint deflection is calculated as
∆= Σ𝑢𝑖 𝑑𝐿𝑖
Where,
Δ = Deflection of truss due to fabrication error
ui = Forces in the member due to unit load at the point where deflection is to be computed.
dli = Fabrication error
Example: Calculate the vertical deflection of joint C if

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(a) The temperature of whole assembly increases by 35˚C.

(b) If the member AB is too short by 5 mm.
The coefficient of linear expansion of all members is 2×10 -5 /˚C
Solution:
(a) Increase in length of each member due to temperature increment
𝛿𝐴𝐵 = 8 × 2 × 10−5 × 35 = 0.0056 m
𝛿𝐵𝐶 = 𝛿𝐴𝐶 = 5 × 2 × 10−5 × 35 = 0.0035 m
Calculation of forces due to unit load at C
Since the loading is symmetric,
1
𝑅𝐴′ = 𝑅𝐵′ = 𝑘𝑁
2
And,
HA = 0
Calculation of forces in the members:
Considering Equilibrium of Joint A

Σ𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝑢𝐴𝐶 sin 𝜃 + 𝑅𝐴 = 0
3 1
⇒ 𝑢 =−
5 𝐴𝐶 2
5
⇒ 𝑢𝐴𝐶 = − 𝑘𝑁
6
And,
Σ𝐹𝑥 = 0
𝑢𝐴𝐶 cos 𝜃 + 𝑢𝐴𝐵 = 0
4
⇒ 𝑢𝐴𝐵 = − 𝑢𝐴𝐶
5
2
⇒ 𝑢𝐴𝐵 = 𝑘𝑁
3
Considering equilibrium of joint B

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Σ𝐹𝑥 = 0
⇒ 𝑢𝐵𝐶 cos 𝜃 + 𝑢𝐴𝐵 = 0
4 2
⇒ 𝑢𝐵𝐶 = −
5 3
5
⇒ 𝑢𝐵𝐶 = − kN
6

𝒖𝒊 𝜹𝑳𝒊
Member ui δli

AB 2/3 0.0056 0.0037

BC -5/6 0.0035 -0.0029

CA
-5/6 0.0035 -0.0029

Deflection of Joint C,
∆𝐶 = Σ𝑢𝑖 𝛿𝐿𝑖 = −0.0021 𝑚 = −2.1 𝑚𝑚 = 2.1 𝑚𝑚(↑)
(b) Lack of Fit Case
Deflection of joint C due to shortening of member AB
2
∆𝐶 = Σ𝑢𝑖 𝛿𝐿𝑖 = × (−5) = −3.33 𝑚𝑚 = 3.33 𝑚𝑚 (↑)
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3. DEFLECTION OF BEAMS

3.1. Castigliano’s Method

As per Castigliano’s theory
𝜕𝑈
∆=
𝜕𝑃
And,
𝜕𝑈
𝜃=
𝜕𝑀
This relation can also be used in finding deflection in the beams as explained in the
following example.
Example: Find rotation and deflection at free end in the beam shown in the figure below:

(a) Rotation at the free end:

Bending Moment at a distance x from the free end 𝑀𝑋 = −𝑀
So, the strain energy stored in the beam

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𝐿⁄
2 𝑀 2 𝑑𝑥 𝐿
𝑀2 𝑑𝑥
𝑈=∫ +∫
0 2𝐸𝐼 𝐿⁄ 4𝐸𝐼
2

So, rotation at the free end,

𝐿⁄ 𝐿
𝜕𝑈 2 𝑀𝑑𝑥 𝑀𝑑𝑥 3𝑀𝐿
𝜃𝐵 = =∫ +∫ =
𝜕𝑀 0 𝐸𝐼 𝐿⁄ 2𝐸𝐼 4𝐸𝐼
2

(b) Deflection at free end:

Applying vertical load P at the free end

Bending Moment at a distance x from free end 𝑀𝑋 = −𝑀 − 𝑃𝑥

So, Strain energy stored in the beam
𝐿⁄
2 (−𝑀 − 𝑃𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥 𝐿 (−𝑀
− 𝑃𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥
𝑈=∫ +∫
0 2𝐸𝐼 𝐿⁄ 4𝐸𝐼
2

So, Deflection at free end,

𝐿⁄ 𝐿 (𝑀
𝜕𝑈 2 (𝑀 + 𝑃𝑥)𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 𝑃𝑥)𝑥𝑑𝑥
∆𝐵 = | =∫ +∫ |
𝜕𝑃 𝑃=0 0 𝐸𝐼 𝐿⁄ 2𝐸𝐼
2 𝑃=0
𝐿⁄
2 𝑀𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝐿
𝑀𝑥𝑑𝑥 5𝑀𝐿2
⇒ ∆𝐵 = ∫ +∫ =
0 𝐸𝐼 𝐿⁄ 2𝐸𝐼 16𝐸𝐼
2

3.2. Unit Load Method

Deflection at a point as per unit load method is given by
𝑀𝑥 𝑚𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∆= ∫
𝐸𝐼
Where,
Mx is the bending moment due to external loading.
mx is the bending moment due to virtual unit load.
EI is the flexural rigidity of the beam.
The application of unit load method is explained using the example given below.
Example: The horizontal deflection of joint C due to loading given below is

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Apply unit load in the horizontal direction as shown in the figure below

Member Mx mx M x mx
AB -PL -x PL.x
BC -Px 0 0

Horizontal Deflection at C
𝐿
𝑃𝐿𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑃𝐿3
∆𝐶 = ∫ =
0 𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼
3.3. Maxwell Law of Reciprocal Theorem
This law states that in a linearly elastic structure, the deflection at any point A due to
loading at some point B will be equal to deflection at B due to loading at A.
Betti’s Theorem: This is a generalised case of Maxwell reciprocal theorem. As per this
theorem the virtual work done by P system of forces in going through the deformation of
Q system of forces is equal to virtual work done by Q system of forces in going through
the deformation of P systems of forces.

Virtual work done by P system of forces due to the displacements caused by Q system of
forces = 𝑃1 𝛿1𝑄 + 𝑃2 𝛿2𝑄
Similarly,
Virtual work done by Q system of forces due to the displacements caused by P system of
forces = 𝑄1 ∆1𝑃 + 𝑄2 ∆2𝑃
As per Maxwell-Betti’s Theorem
𝑃1 𝛿1𝑄 + 𝑃2 𝛿2𝑄 = 𝑄1 ∆1𝑃 + 𝑄2 ∆2𝑃

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Example: The rotation at the free end of cantilever due to application of unit load at the
same point is 0.00032 radian. What will be the vertical deflection of the free end due to
moment of 5 kN m applied at the same point?
Solution:

As per Maxwell Reciprocal theorem

𝑃∆= 𝑀𝜃
⇒ ∆= 5 × 0.00032 = 0.0016 𝑚 = 1.6 𝑚𝑚

4. FTHEOREM OF LEAST WORK

This is a special case of Castigliano’s theorem. This theorem states that for any statically
indeterminant structure, the redundant should be such that strain energy of the system is
minimum.
Thus,
𝜕𝑈
=0
𝜕𝑅
Where,
U = Strain energy stored in the system
R = Redundant force
Example: Find the fixed end moment due to loading shown below

The above beam is statically indeterminate to 1 degree. Let the redundant force be M.

Now,
Using Equilibrium conditions,
Σ𝑀𝐵 = 0
𝑤𝐿2
⇒ 𝑅𝐴 × 𝐿 + 𝑀 − =0
2

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𝑤𝐿 𝑀
⇒ 𝑅𝐴 = −
2 𝐿
And,
Σ𝐹𝑦 = 0
⇒ 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 = 𝑤𝐿
𝑤𝐿 𝑀 𝑤𝐿 𝑀
⇒ 𝑅𝐵 = 𝑤𝐿 − + = +
2 𝐿 2 𝐿
Now,
Bending Moment at a distance x from B
𝑤𝑥 2 𝑤𝐿 𝑀 𝑤𝑥 2
𝑀𝑋 = 𝑅𝐵 𝑥 − =( + )𝑥 −
2 2 𝐿 2
So,
Strain Energy stored in the body,
2
𝑤𝐿 𝑀 𝑤𝑥 2
𝐿 2 𝐿 {( + )𝑥 − } 𝑑𝑥
𝑀 𝑑𝑥 2 𝐿 2
𝑈=∫ =∫
0 2𝐸𝐼 0 2𝐸𝐼
As per theory of Least work,
𝜕𝑈
=0
𝜕𝑀
𝑤𝐿 𝑀 𝑤𝑥 2 𝑥
𝐿 {( + )𝑥 − }
𝜕𝑈 2 𝐿 2 𝐿
=∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝑀 0 𝐸𝐼
𝑤𝐿 𝑀 𝐿3 𝑤𝐿4 𝑤𝐿2
⇒( + ) − ⇒𝑀=−
2 𝐿 3𝐿 8𝐿 8

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