THEORIES • “Transaction represents a life situation in

which perceiver & thing perceived are

A. GENERAL SYSTEM THEORY encountered and in which person enters the
• Systems theory may be considered as a situation as an active participant and each is
specialization of systems thinking and a changed in the process of these experiences”
generalization of systems science. MAJOR CONCEPTS
• First proposed by Ludwig von Bertalanffy • Interacting systems:
(1901-1972) as General Systems theory. • personal system
• General systems theory is a general science of • Interpersonal system
'wholeness'. • Social system
• Systems theory has been applied in • Concepts are given for each system
developing nursing theories and conducting CONCEPTS FOR PERSONAL SYSTEM
nursing research. • Perception
CHARACTERISTICS OF SYSTEMS • Self
• "Systems" refer specifically to self-regulating • Growth & development
systems. • Body image
• Systems are self-correcting through feedback. • Space
• Systems have a structure that is defined by its • Time
parts and processes. CONCEPTS FOR INTERPERSONAL SYSTEM
• Systems are generalizations of reality.
• Interaction
• Systems tend to function in the same way.
• Communication
• Every living organism is essentially an open
• Transaction
system. • Role
SYSTEMS THEORY AND NURSING • Stress
• Many nursing theorists have drawn from the
CONCEPTS FOR SOCIAL SYSTEM
works of von Bertalanffy on systems theory.
• Organization
• Neuman's Systems Theory
• Authority
• Rogers 's Theory of Unitary Huamn Beings
• Power
• Roy's Adaptation Model
• Status
• Imogene King's Theory of Goal Attainment.
• Decision making
• Orem Self-care Deficit Theory.
• Johnson's Behaviour Systems Model
C. CYBERNETIC THEORY
• Norbert Wiener, a mathematician, introduced
B. GOAL ATTAINMENT THEORY
the term cybernetics.
• Theorist : Imogene King - born in 1923.
• Other key people in this field are Warren
• Bachelor in science of nursing from St. Louis
McCulloch and Jay Forrester.
University in 1948
• Cybernetics refers to the science of
• Master of science in nursing from St. Louis
communication and control in the animal,
University in 1957
machine, and society.
• Doctorate from Teacher’s college, Columbia
• It is the interdisciplinary study of the structure
University.
of regulatory systems.
• Theory describes a dynamic, interpersonal
• The term cybernetics originated from Greek
relationship in which a person grows and
word ‘kubernetes’ means ‘steering’ and
develops to attain certain life goals.
‘governor’ in Latin.
• Factors which affects the attainment of goal
• Cybernetics is closely related to information
are: roles, stress, space & time
theory, systems theory and control theory.
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
• It operates on two levels:
• Nursing focus is the care of human being
• study of an observed system - 1st-
• Nursing goal is the health care of individuals &
order cybernetics.
groups
• study of the people studying a system
• Human beings: are open systems interacting
- 2nd-order cybernetics.
constantly with their environment.
• Cybernetics is defined as the study of systems
• Basic assumption of goal attainment theory is
and processes that interact with themselves
that nurse and client communicate
and produce themselves from themselves. (
information, set goal mutually and then act to
MAJOR CONCEPTS
attain those goals, is also the basic
• Cybernetics introduces the concept of
assumption of nursing process
circularity and circular causal systems.
• “Each human being perceives the world as a
• Systems are defined by boundaries.
total person in making transactions with
• Every system has a goal.
individuals and things in environment”
 • System acts, aims toward the goal.
• Environment affects aim.
• Information returns to system — ‘feedback’.
• System measures difference between state
and goal
• Detects ‘error’.
• System corrects action to aim toward goal.
• Cycle repeat.
SCOPE & APPLICATION CYBERNETICS
• Basis of modern communication systems.
• Application in cognitive science for modeling
of learning.
• Application in management science.
CONCLUSION
• Cybernetics is applicable in any discipline
relying on feedback processes including
health sciences, sociology and psychology,
which are based on communication process.
D. NOVICE TO EXPERT THEORY
• Dr Patricia Benner introduced the concept
that expert nurses develop skills and
understanding of patient care over time
through a sound educational base as well as a
multitude of experiences.
• She proposed that one could gain knowledge
and skills ("knowing how") without ever
learning the theory ("knowing that").
• She further explains that the development of
knowledge in applied disciplines such as
medicine and nursing is composed of the
extension of practical knowledge (know how)
through research and the characterization
and understanding of the "know how" of
clinical experience.
• She coneptualizes in her writing about nursing
skills as experience is a prerequisite for
becoming an expert.
LEVELS OF NURSING EXPERIENCE
She described 5 levels of nursing experience as;
1. Novice
2. Advanced beginner
3. Competent
4. Proficient
5. Expert
NOVICE
• Beginner with no experience
• Taught general rules to help perform tasks
• Rules are: context-free, independent of
specific cases, and applied universally
• Rule-governed behavior is limited and
inflexible
• Ex. “Tell me what I need to do and I’ll do it.”
ADVANCED BEGINNER
• Demonstrates acceptable performance
• Has gained prior experience in actual
situations to recognize recurring meaningful
components
•Principles, based on experiences, begin to be
formulated to guide actions
COMPETENT
• Typically a nurse with 2-3 years experience on
the job in the same area or in similar day-to-
day situations
• More aware of long-term goals
• Gains perspective from planning own actions
based on conscious, abstract, and analytical
thinking and helps to achieve greater
efficiency and organization
PROFICIENT
• Perceives and understands situations as
whole parts
• More holistic understanding improves
decision-making
• Learns from experiences what to expect in
certain situations and how to modify plans
EXPERT
• No longer relies on principles, rules, or
guidelines to connect situations and
determine actions
• Much more background of experience
• Has intuitive grasp of clinical situations
• Performance is now fluid, flexible, and highly-
proficient
Different levels of skills reflect changes in 3
aspects of skilled performance:
1. Movement from relying on abstract principles
to using past concrete experiences to guide
actions
2. Change in learner’s perception of situations as
whole parts rather than in separate pieces
3. Passage from a detached observer to an
involved performer, no longer outside the
situation but now actively engaged in
participation
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE THEORY
• These levels reflect movement from reliance
on past abstract principles to the use of past
concrete experience as paradigms and change
in perception of situation as a complete whole
in which certain parts are relevant
• Each step builds on the previous one as
abstract principles are refined and expanded
by experience and the learner gains clinical
expertise.
• This theory changed the profession's
understanding of what it means to be an
expert, placing this designation not on the
nurse with the most highly paid or most
prestigious position, but on the nurse who
provided "the most exquisite nursing care.
• It recognized that nursing was poorly served
by the paradigm that called for all of nursing
theory to be developed by researchers and
scholars, but rather introduced the
revolutionary notion that the practice itself
could and should inform theory.
CONCLUSION 1. Memory system is an active organized
• Nursing practice guided by the human processor of information and
becoming theory live the processes of the 2. Prior knowledge plays an important
Parse practice methodology illuminating role in learning.
meaning, synchronizing rhythms, and CONSTRUCTIVISM
mobilizing transcendence • Jean Piaget, John Dewey
• Research guided by the human becoming • " learners construct knowledge for
theory sheds light on the meaning of universal themselves from an interaction between their
humanly lived experiences such as hope, experiences and their ideas"
taking life day-by-day, grieving, suffering, and • Constructivism explains learning as a process
time passing in which the learner actively constructs or
builds new ideas or concepts based upon
E DIKW THEORY current and past knowledge or experience.
• Constructivism focuses on preparing the
--------
learner to problem solve in ambiguous
situations.
F. COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY CONCLUSION
• Learning theories refers to theoretical • Learning theories gives a general explanation
frameworks which try to explain how people for how people learn.
and animals learn, thereby helping us • These theories are applied in educational
understand the inherently complex process of psychology, curriculum development,
learning. instructional methodology.
• Learning refers to “a persisting change in
human performance or performance
potential brought about as a result of the
learner’s interaction with the environment”
• There are three main categories of learning
theories:
• Behaviorism -focuses only on the
objectively observable aspects of
learning.
• Cognitive theories - look beyond
behavior to explain brain-based
learning.
• Constructivism - learning as a process
in which the learner actively
constructs or builds new ideas or
concepts.
BEHAVIORISM
• First explained by B. F. Skinner
• Ivan Pavlov - Classical Conditioning Theory
• Refers to observable and measurable
behavior
• Three basic assumptions of behaviourism are:
1. Learning is manifested by a change in
behavior.
2. The environment shapes behavior.
3. The principles of contiguity and
reinforcement.
• Behaviourism includes:
1. Classical Conditioning - Pavlov
2. Operant Conditioning - Skinner

COGNITIVE THEORIES
• Cognitive theories consider the thought
process behind the behavior.
• It states changes in behavior as indicators to
what is happening inside the learner's mind.
• Cognitive theories make two basic
assumptions: