LESSON 1

What is Academic Writing

Academic writing includes papers and essays.
Academic writing is scholarly writing done for academic institutions.
Writers must use academic language when writing papers for an academic
institution, such as a high school or university.
Descriptive
Descriptive academic writing is straightforward writing in which writers
describe facts. For instance, a report about the effectiveness of a program or
the status of global warming are both pieces of descriptive academic writing.
Analytical
Analytical academic writing is writing that requires analyzing facts and
information. Analytical academic writing often includes some descriptive
writing, but after presenting the facts, writers need to analyze the
information to reveal insightful connections and theories.
Persuasive
Persuasive writing is a type of analytical academic writing in which a writer
tries to convince the reader that their point of view on a topic is the right
one. In a piece of persuasive writing, the writer states an argument and uses
multiple pieces of relevant evidence to support that argument.
Critical
Critical writing is a type that students at the undergraduate or post-graduate
level often use. Critical writing consists of in-depth analysis and features at
least two perspectives on a topic. For instance, detailed literature reviews
can be examples of critical writing because they analyze the insights and
limitations of previous research on a topic.

.Language Formalities and Tone Used in Academic Writing

Formal academic writing is writing that is direct, objective, and respectful. It
is the opposite of how one would speak or write in a casual manner to a
friend.
Instead of using colloquial expressions, slang, and incomplete sentences,
formal writing uses complete words and sentences, follows all grammar
rules, and uses a formal tone.
For example, the sentence "To whom it may concern," establishes a
respectful tone. This is different from, "Hey, what's up?" The latter would be
used among friends in an informal setting.
Concise
Writers should avoid using too many words in their writing. Getting straight
to the point ensures that all parts of an essay contribute to the development
of the main ideas. For example, imagine a writer is writing about the theme
of justice in literature and wants to mention Harper Lee's To Kill a
Mockingbird (1960) as evidence.
Not Concise: "The American author Harper Lee also wrote a book a long
time ago about justice called To Kill a Mockingbird. The book is about a little
girl named Scout who loves her brother Jem and is curious about her
neighbor Boo Radley. She also loves her father Atticus a lot, who is a lawyer
defending an innocent African American man against a felony charge in a
small town. The man is innocent, but because of systemic racism he is found
guilty, which shows the problems in the justice system."
This writing is not concise because the writer includes unnecessary
information such as how Lee wrote the book "a long time ago" and the
people Scout loves.
Concise: "At the height of the United States' civil rights movement, Harper
Lee wrote To Kill a Mockingbird, a book about an African American man who
is wrongfully convicted of a felony despite a clear lack of evidence."
This is a concise sentence. The writer only includes relevant information and
immediately shows how the topic relates to the paper's main topic.
Clear
Writing should be as direct and easy to understand as possible. To ensure
this, writers should use straightforward words to describe a concept, rather
than fluffy or passive language. They should also avoid esoteric vocabulary.
For example, imagine a writer wants to analyze Shakespeare's use of
metaphor in his poetry. The following examples show the difference
between unclear and clear writing on the topic:
Unclear: "Shakespeare's extravagant metaphors were filled with passion and
intertwined the concept of nature with the power of the human body.
This is an unclear sentence. The writer uses passive language when they say
"metaphors were filled" and uses confusing and vague adjectives, such as
"extravagant" and "intertwined." The point about the metaphors is not
immediately evident.
Clear: "Shakespeare uses metaphors to compare nature to the human
heart."
This is a clear sentence. The writer does not use confusing or vague
language.
Evidence-Based
Effective academic writing is based on evidence. Writers should avoid
making claims that they cannot support. They need to point to facts or
quotes from a text to prove that what they are saying is credible.
Academic writing also typically includes citations. All information from
outside sources should be cited according to the required style guide, such
as MLA or APA. Correctly citing information ensures that writing is credible
and original.
The language used in academic writing is also:
Impersonal
Academic writers should avoid using personal pronouns such as "I," "you,"
and "we." They should also refrain from discussing their own lives.
Objective
A critical part of evidence-based formal writing is using objective language.
Objective language does not use personal opinions. Writers should strive to
avoid opinionated language and base their claims on fact.
Imagine a writer is writing an essay about a book and says, "This is an
enjoyable book to read!" This is not the proper language for academic
writing, because it is a casual expression of an opinion. Specific
Writers should avoid vague, general language that fills space and doesn't
add substantial ideas. Words should have a precise meaning.For example,
writers often include vague words in their writing such as "very" or "thing."
Instead, writers should use more descriptive language that relates directly to
the topic.
Features to Avoid in Formal Academic Writing
Conjunctions Formal writing requires writing out words completely
and not using conjunctions and slang. For instance, instead of using words
like "didn't" or "she's" a writer using academic language should write "did
not" and "she is."
Idiomatic Expressions
Formal writing should also be original and direct. Idiomatic expressions are
informal figurative expressions that make for dynamic conversation but do
not belong in academic writing. For instance, the idiomatic expression:
"that's the best thing since sliced bread" is a sentence with a strong image,
but it can be confusing for readers and does not support an academic thesis.
Incomplete Sentences
In addition to using complete words, language in academic writing should
always use complete sentences. This means that writers should avoid
sentence fragments, and they need to connect ideas clearly.
Slang
Slang words are informal words or phrases people use in everyday social
contexts. For example, "lit" and "no cap" are slang expressions. A writer
should not include slang in formal writing because not all readers
understand slang.
Avoid negative features and ensure they use concise, clear, and evidence-
based language.
Language Used in Academic Writing - Key Takeaways
Academic writing is scholarly writing that writers use in work for academic
institutions.
The four main types of academic writing are descriptive, analytical,
persuasive, and critical.
Academic writing is formal, clear, concise, evidence-based, and follows all
grammar rules.
Academic language should be impersonal, objective, and specific.
Academic writing should not include conjunctions, idiomatic expressions,
incomplete sentences, or informal slang.
Frequently Asked Questions about Language Used in
Academic Writing
What are some examples of academic language in writing?
Academic language uses complete words such as "did not" instead of the contraction
"didn't." It also has a more formal tone. For instance, writing "To Whom It May
Concern" is more formal than "Hey what's up?"
What are the main language features of academic writing?
Language used in academic writing is concise, clear, and evidence-based. 
What are the components of academic language in writing?
Academic language uses a formal tone, concise words, and impersonal, objective
language. 
What should be avoided in academic writing?
Conjunctions, idiomatic expressions, incomplete sentences, and slang should be
avoided in academic writing. 
How many types of language are used in academic writing?
Some types of language used in academic writing are descriptive,
analytical, and persuasive.

The key difference between academic text and non academic text is that
academic text is intended for the scholarly and the research community in
society, whereas non academic text is intended for the general public in
society.
We can divide all texts into two categories: academic and non academic.
Academic texts are for academia, and they are objective, formal, and factual.
Non-academic texts, on the other hand, are casual, informal and personal,
and are for the general public.
Types of Academic Texts Case studies 
Essays Reports
Textbooks Research articles
Theses
What is a Non Academic Text
Non-academic texts are writings that are informal and dedicated to a
lay audience. They are emotional, personal and subjective without any
kind of research involving. Therefore, anyone can write a non-
academic text. Newspaper articles, e-mail messages, text messages,
journal writing, and letters are some examples of non-academic text.
Features of Non-Academic Texts
Less formal (may idioms, slangs, contractions)
Casual language
Use any point of view
Opinion-based
Free of rigid structures
On general topics
Examples of Non-academic Autobiographical writing
Texts Letters
Personal journal entries E-mails
Memoirs Text messages
Summary – Academic vs Non-Academic Text
Academic texts are critical, objective and specialized texts that are
written by professionals or experts in a particular field. They are aimed
at the academic community. Academic texts are formal, based on
facts and evidence and always contain citations. Non-academic texts,
on the other hand, are writings that are informal and dedicated to a lay
audience. They are usually on general topics and use casual or
colloquial language, and may contain the writer’s personal opinions.
This is the summary of the difference between academic text and non
academic text.
Reference:
1. Davis, Ben. “What Are the Examples of Non Academic Text?”
Mvorganizing.org, 1 May 2021.
2. Davis, Ben. “What Is the Meaning of Academic Text?”
Mvorganizing.org, 1 May 2021.
What are the 10 features of academic text?
The 10 features of academic writing are: complexity, formality,
precision, objectivity, explicitness, accuracy, hedging, responsibility,
organization and planning.
What are the 4 key features of academic writing?
Four key features of academic style
Objectivity.
Formality.
Precision.
Hedging.
What are the examples of academic texts?
There are four general types of academic texts.
Examples of academic paper genres include:
Book reviews.
Critique papers.
Essays.
Movie analysis.
Reports.
Research papers.
etc.
What is the purpose of academic text?
The most common role in academic writing is to explain some idea or
research finding and to persuade readers that your explanation or
theory is the correct one.
Why is there a need to learn the features of academic writing?
Academic writing serves as a tool of communication that conveys
acquired knowledge in a specific field of study. Writing academically
will help students analyse, convey understanding, think critically and
focus on technique and style.
What is the most common type of academic text?
Academic writing is a formal style of writing used in universities and
scholarly publications.
Types of academic writing.
Type of academic
Definition
text

A write-up of the aims, methods, results and conclusions of

Lab report
experiment.

To assist learners in doing this more effectively, this second chapter

next aims to outline and exemplify the seven language structures
which are most commonly used in academic English (EAP).
What are cohesive devices?
Cohesive devices are words that connect ideas together. These devices help us understand the
relationships between the parts of sentences. They may be nouns, verbs, prepositions,
conjunctions, adverbs, or adjectives. Cohesive devices help you build sentences smoothly and
correctly.

Cohesion can be described as a way to connect and hold together two or more different sentences
into a single and whole sentence. It is something that allows us to understand sentences better.
Cohesion is one of the three major parts of the English language. The other two parts are
grammar and vocabulary.

The conjunctions, connectives, and pronouns used to connect the sections of a piece of writing
are referred to as “cohesive devices.” These words or phrases show the relationship between
paragraphs or sections of a text or speech.
Types of Cohesive Devices
Cohesive devices are divided into three categories:
Pronouns Cohesive devices include pronouns that refer back to a previously specified noun. This,
that, these, those, he, she, it, they, and we are pronouns that can refer back to anything that has already
been addressed. Make certain, though, that you are referring to something specific.
Example: Sandra went out to the playground. She played with her friends.
2. Synonyms are words that have nearly identical meanings. They add variety to your word selections,
allowing the reader to focus on the topic.
Example: There was a lot of food in the pantry, but she only ate the apple for breakfast.
Transitional Words
Many words in English serve as cues to our readers about the relationships between phrases and how to
join sentences together. Transition words and inter-clausal connectors are essential as cohesive devices.
Example: I like autumn, and yet autumn is a sad time of the year, too.
There are several types of transitional words used for different situations.
A. Comparison and Contrast
Also Likewise Equally
Similarly by Compared with Meanwhile
In contrast on the other hand however
But Nevertheless Whereas
Although Yet Instead
B. Addition
And Again Also
Then Too Next
Moreover Farther(more) Besides
C. Exemplification
For example Such as For instance
To illustrate Specifically To demonstrate
In this case In this situation As an illustration
D. Time and Sequence
First, second, third Firstly, Secondly After, afterwards
Then Next At first, at last
Finally Before Previously
Soon Subsequently Consequently
Simultaneously In the end So forth
E. Conclusion and Result
Therefore In conclusion In brief
Hence To sum up In all
Thus Accordingly On the whole
F. Emphasize
Extremely Definitely Especially
Particularly Indeed Absolutely
Certainly Unquestionably Mainly
G. Transition
Turning to With regard to As fas as
With reference to Concerned Identically
H. Reformulation
In other words Rather Briefly
In simple terms Basically To put it more simply
Hedging, or 'being cautious', is an important component of academic style. This
section explains what hedging is, then looks at different ways to hedge, namely
using introductory verbs, modal verbs, adverbs, adjectives, nouns, and
some other ways such as adverbs of frequency and introductory phrases.

Introductory verbs

Check out the hedging infographic »

There are various introductory verbs which allow the writer to express caution rather than
certainty in their writing. The following is a list of some of the most common ones. Some
of these are linked to cautious nouns, adverbs or adjectives, in which case these are also
given.
tend to ➞ tendency (n)
assume ➞ assumption (n)
indicate ➞ indication (n)
estimate ➞ estimate (n)
seem to ➞ seemingly (adv)
appear to be ➞ apparently (adv)
doubt ➞ doubtful (adj)
believe
suggest
think
Modal verbs
Another way of being cautious is to use the modal verbs expressing uncertainty, in place
of stronger, more certain modals such as will or would. The following are modals which
express uncertainty.
may
might
can
could
Adverbs
There are many adverbs which can be used to express caution. Some of these are
associated with cautious adjectives or nouns, in which case these are also given. The
adverbs can be divided into two types: modal adverbs, which are related to the possibility
of something happening, and adverbs of frequency, which give information on how often
something happens.
probably ➞ probable (adj), probability (n)
possibly ➞ possible (adj), possibility (n)
seemingly ➞ seem to (v)
apparently ➞ appear to be (v)
arguably
perhaps
maybe
presumably
conceivably
Adjectives
The following adjectives can be used to express caution. Again, some of these are
associated with other word forms, in which case these are also given.
probable ➞ probably (adv), probability (n)
possible ➞ possibly (adv), possibility (n)
likely ➞ likelihood (n)
doubtful ➞ doubt (v)
unlikely
uncertain
Nouns
The following nouns can be used to express caution. Some of these are associated with
other word forms, in which case these are also given.
probability ➞ probably (adv), probable (adj)
possibility ➞ possibly (adv), possible (adj)
likelihood ➞ likely (adj)
assumption ➞ assume (v)
tendency ➞ tend to (v)
indication ➞ indicate (v)
estimate ➞ estimate (v)
evidence
trend
claim
Other phrases
There are three other ways to express caution. The first is to use words or phrases to show
frequency, degree, quantity and time.
sometimes
often
generally
usually
commonly
frequently
occasionally
in general
as a rule
approximately
roughly
about
reasonably
somehow
somewhat

The second way is to use introductory phrases, such as the following.

It is generally agreed that
In our opinion
In our view
It is our view that
We feel that
We believe that
I believe that
To our knowledge
One would expect that

The final way is to use if clauses.

if true
if anything

Here are some real-life examples of noun phrases as subjects, objects, and complements:
This man has a nice smile, but he's got iron teeth. (Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko on Mikhail
Gorbachev)
("This man" is the subject of the verb "has." The phrase "a nice smile" is the direct object of "has." The
noun phrase "iron teeth" is the direct object of the verb "got." Here's the "pronoun test": He has one, but
he's got them.)
I never learned from a man who agreed with me. (Science-fiction writer Robert Heinlein)
(The noun phrase "a man who agreed with me" is the object of the preposition "from." Here's the
"pronoun test": I never learned from him.)
Every man of courage is a man of his word. (French dramatist Pierre Corneille)
("Every man of courage" is the subject of the verb "is." The noun phrase "a man of his word" is a subject
complement following the linking verb "is." Here's the "pronoun test": He is one.)

Download: This blog post is available as a convenient and portable PDF that you can take
anywhere. Click here to get a copy. (Download)
What you will learn: 
What are reporting verbs?
Reporting verbs list
How do I use them?
Reporting verbs in academic writing
Test your knowledge: exercises
 
What are reporting verbs?
Reporting verbs (or referring verbs) are words used to report about (or refer to) what another person has
said, written or done. These verbs are used in reported speech, which can be direct or indirect.
The first reporting verbs that English students learn are usually say and tell. For example compare i) and
ii) below:
“It’s my birthday next weekend. Please, make a birthday cake for me!” Charlotte said to her mum
(direct speech)
Charlotte told her mum to make a birthday cake for her. (indirect speech)
There are many other reporting verbs in English. These can be particularly useful in formal and academic
writing.
Reporting verbs list
General reporting verbs
In this table, we have listed out some common reporting verbs that are used in everyday English.
To help you understand how to correctly place them in a sentence, we have put them into
approximate categories based on their most common usage. However, you should remember that
some of these reporting verbs can be used in difference contexts and sometimes with different
grammar structures.
+ infinitive + somebody + + verb + ing + particle + vb +
(to + vb) infinitive ing

Refuse Remind Deny Insist (on)

Decide Ask Suggest Think (about)
Promise Beg Recommend Blame (smbd for)
Demand Warn Admit Accuse (smbd of)
Agree Order Apologise (to smbd
Threaten Encourage for)
Hope Persuade Complain (to smbd
Advise about)
Urge Confess (to)
Forbid (smbd from)
Academic reporting verbs
In the table below, we’ve listed out the reporting verbs in groups based on their general
meanings. We have also indicated the relative “strength” of each verb. For example, if
I imply (suggest/hint, weak) that you are wrong, this is very different from if I assert (state/say,
strong) that you are wrong. Remember that English is seldom “black vs. white” – there are often
several degrees of meaning.
 General meaning Strong verbs  Neutral verbs  Weak verbs

Say Assert that Mention smth/that Note smth/that

State that Comment on
Point out smth/that smth/that
Add smth/that
Outline smth/that
Describe smth/how

Suggest Warn that Propose smth/that Imply that

Affirm that Hypothesise that Put forward  smth
Theorise that
 Prove smth/that Demonstrate Hint at smth
Show Reveal smth/that smth/that Allude to smth
Show smth/that Establish smth/that

Persuade Convince smbd

Explain Identify smth

Illustrate smth/how
Clarify smth

Examine Scrutinise smth Investigate smth Inquire into

Study smth smth/whether

Support smth Acknowledge Concede smth

Agree Concur that smth/that
Recognise smth/that
Echo smth

Disagree Challenge smth Doubt smth/whether Question

Refute smth smth/whether
Reject smth
Oppose smth
Object to smth
Deny smth
Rebuff smth

Believe Insist on smth/that Hold smth/that Assume that

Maintain that Profess that
Subscribe to smth

Published on June 6, 2019 by Shona McCombes. Revised on January 24, 2023.

The passive voice occurs when the person or thing that performs an action is not the
grammatical subject of the sentence. Instead, the person or thing that receives the action is
placed before the verb. Passive sentences are formed using the verb to be combined with a past
participle.
Active voice

The dog bites the bone.

Passive voice

The bone is bitten by the dog.

In a passive construction, the actor does not have to be named at all.
 Passive construction

The bone is bitten.

Writers are often advised to avoid the passive voice, but it is not a grammatical error.
In academic writing, this type of sentence structure is sometimes useful or necessary. However,
overusing it can make your writing unclear or convoluted.

Using the passive voice

Some types of academic writing do not permit the use of first-person pronouns. In these
cases, the passive voice can be used for referring to your own actions.

Active voice with first-person pronouns Passive voice to avoid first-person pronouns

I gathered data through an online survey. Data was gathered through an online survey.

We recorded the measurements at 9am every day for three The measurements were recorded at 9am every day for three
weeks. weeks.

If you use the passive voice in more complex sentences, make sure to avoid dangling
modifiers.

The passive voice is often also appropriate when the subject of an action is unknown or
unimportant to the meaning of the sentence.

Thirty votes were counted in favour of the amendment.

In this case, the object of the action – the votes – is more important than who did the
counting. Specifying the actor wouldn’t add any useful information to the sentence.

More research is required to understand this phenomenon.

With verbs like require, there is often no particular actor who does the requiring, so the
passive voice is used to state a general sense of necessity or obligation.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this
Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, January 24). Active vs. Passive Constructions | When to Use the Passive
Voice. Scribbr. Retrieved February 14, 2023, from
https://www.scribbr.com/academic-writing/passive-voice/

What is subject-specific vocabulary?

Each subject has words which are either used specifically in that
subject area (and not in general English), or common words which are
used with special meaning in that subject area. Such words are known
as technical, domain-specific or subject-specific words. The following
are two examples of non-general words used in the subject area
of genetics:
 haploid: an organism or cell having only one complete set of
chromosomes;
 diploid: an organism or cell having two sets of chromosomes or twice the
haploid number.

Words such as these can be difficult even for native speakers to learn,
though native speakers may have some advantage in being able to
recognise prefixes, suffixes or roots which give the word meaning, e.g.
'di-' in diploid, meaning 'two'.

The second type of subject-specific vocabulary, i.e. common words

used with special meaning, are similar to the type of academic
vocabulary in which general words have a special meaning in
academic contexts. In this case, though, such words take on a special
meaning according to the subject they are being used in, as shown in
the following examples.

class
 general:  a group of students who are taught together
 biology:  taxonomic group containing one or more orders

family
 general:  a social unit living together
 biology:  a taxonomic group containing one or more genera, e.g. 'sharks
belong to the fish family'

bug
 general:  an insect or similar creeping or crawling invertebrate
 computer science:  an error or flaw in a computer program or hardware
system
cohesion
 general:  the state of cohering or sticking together
 botany:  the process in some plants of parts growing together that are
usually separate (e.g. petals)
 physics:  the intermolecular force that holds together the molecules in a
solid or liquid
 language:  how parts of a text are connected together (see the writing
section on cohesion for more details)

bug
 general:  an insect or similar creeping or crawling invertebrate
 computer science:  an error or flaw in a computer program or hardware
system

Technical vocabulary lists

There are two types of list which include technical words. One of these
is subject-specific (also called field-specific) academic lists. These
lists, however, are not specifically technical in nature, since their
purpose is to include academic words which occur frequently in
specific academic disciplines, providing better coverage for those
disciplines than general academic lists such as the AWL (Academic
Word List) or AVL (Academic Vocabulary List). The following are some
examples.
 The Medical Academic Word List (MAWL), a list of 623 word families that
occur frequently in medical research articles.
 The Medical Academic Vocabulary List (MAVL), a list of 819 words which
occur frequently in medical academic English articles and textbooks.
 The Chemistry Academic Word List (CAWL), which contains 1400 word
families which occur frequently in Chemistry research articles.
 The Economics Academic Word List (EAWL), 887 words which frequently
appear in Economics texts.
 The Computer Science Academic Vocabulary List (CSAVL), a list of
academic words which occur frequently in textbooks and journal articles
used by Computer Science undergraduates.
The other type of list is purely technical in nature. These lists are often
derived using the same principles as the academic lists given above.
Examples of such lists, containing single words, are the following.
 The Secondary School Vocabulary Lists (SVL), a series of lists for eight
secondary school subjects.
 The Middle School Vocabulary Lists (MSVL), a series of lists for five
middle school subjects.

The above are both single-word lists, though there also multi-word
technical word lists. These include the following.
 The Secondary Phrase Lists (SPL), which contain two word collocations
for the same eight secondary school subjects as the SVL.
 The Nursing Collocation List (NCL), which contains 488 noun and
noun and noun and adjective collocations which occur frequently in
nursing articles
VARIED VOCABULARIES

In addition to the previous six constructions, students using academic English

should also remember to maintain variety in the vocabulary they select. If you’re
going to use cohesive devices, hedging language or reporting verbs for
example, then make sure that you use a variety of those words – trying not to
overuse any one word in particular. However, while such variety is of course
important, it should not become the primary focus at the loss of accuracy. An
overuse of academic language such as conjunctions might, for example,
negatively affect the cohesion and coherence of your writing, while the incorrect
use of subject-specific terms will certainly lower your grades or chance of
publication. Ultimately, a successful writer will carefully edit and proofread,
checking firstly for accurate meaning and second for any words that can be
replaced with clearer or more concise alternatives.
LESSON 2

The Structure of an Academic Paper

www.communicate.gse.harvard.edu

Academic papers are like hourglasses. The paper opens at its widest
point; the introduction makes broad connections to the reader's
interests, hoping they will be persuaded to follow along, then gradually
narrows to a tight, focused, thesis statement. The argument stays
relatively narrow and focused on the thesis throughout the body, or the
middle paragraphs. Like an hourglass, the conclusion broadens once
more, reinforcing connections to the larger context.

Use a ‘hook’ to capture readers’ interest.

The hook refers to the first sentence of your introduction, which is

what you'll use to spark curiosity and entice readers to carry on. It
should be concise and relatively simple. For example:

The prevalence of suicide thoughts and attempts among transgender

adults is significantly higher than that of the U.S. general population"
(Herman, Brown, & Hass, 2019).

These are some examples of a hook…

• An eye-catching, startling fact or statistic.

• An interesting or provocative question

• A definition of a key term or concept

• An overview of a debate, the positions on both sides

Thesis statement: A thesis statement is a one-sentence statement

that aims to express the essay’s main idea to the reader. It makes a
claim that directly answers the question. The thesis is generally the
narrowest part and last sentence of the introduction, and conveys your
position, the essence of your argument or idea. Example of thesis
statement

Writing the body The body is the bulk of the paper, where the
‘convincing’ takes place. Ultimately, the body should fully persuade
your reader that your thesis (which you have already provided) is
substantiated by evidence and sound reasoning.

Most paragraphs have four components:

• Topic sentence

• Evidence
• Analysis

• Transition
Topic sentence The topic sentence is usually the first in the paragraph. As the name implies, it tells the
reader your main point, and should connect to the thesis stated in your introduction. Subsequent
sentences in the paragraph should relate back to this topic. Both thesis statements and topic
sentences help your audience understand the structure and main ideas of your essay.
1) The thesis statement belongs in the introductory paragraph, while topic sentences belong
at the beginning of body paragraphs. An essay will have just one thesis statement, but the
number of topic sentences depends on the number of body paragraphs.

2) A thesis statement provides an overview of your entire essay. It contains your claim and your
reasons.
Thesis statement = claim + "because" + reasons
Example: Capital punishment should be outlawed because it is immoral and does not deter
crime.
claim: Capital punishment should be outlawed
reason #1: it is immoral
reason #2: it does not deter crime

3) A topic sentence tells your reader what the paragraph is about. Each reason in your thesis
should correspond to a body paragraph.
Example: Capital punishment is immoral.
I know from reading this topic sentence that the paragraph will discuss how capital punishment
is immoral.

Evidence Ideas, facts, or information from external sources that support your claims – either
data you collect yourself, or the research and writing of others.
Analysis You should never present evidence without some form of analysis, or explaining the
meaning of what you have shown us. Even if the quote, idea, or statistic seems to speak for
itself, you must offer the reader your interpretation of how it supports your topic sentence.
Transition At the start of each paragraph, consider how it relates to the previous one. Also
consider how the last sentence sets up your next point. A short transition phrase like "In
contrast," or "Similarly," can guide the reader from one idea to the next. Too many transition
words make writing clunky and hard to read, but they are handy for shifting between
paragraphs
Writing the conclusion
The conclusion is the last section of your paper. It should briefly review the argument you've
built, but it's not a summary – it's your final pitch to the audience for your main idea.
A conclusion should:
• Remind the reader what you have just told them, clarifying the key ideas to ensure there is
no misunderstanding.
• Return to the hook used in the introduction
The Structure of Academic Texts
Structure is an important feature of academic writing. A well-structured text enables the reader to
follow the argument and navigate the text. In academic writing a clear structure and a logical flow are
imperative to a cohesive text
The structure of your writing depends on the type of assignment, but two common structures used in
academic writing are the three-part essay structure and the IMRaD structure.
The three-part essay structure
The three-part essay structure is a basic structure that consists of introduction, body and conclusion.
The introduction and the conclusion should be shorter than the body of the text. For shorter essays, one
or two paragraphs for each of these sections can be appropriate. For longer texts or theses, they may be
several pages long
The IMRaD structure
The sections of the IMRaD structure are Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion. Watch this short
film about the IMRaD structure:
Other parts of academic papers
Apart from the parts that are treated in the above sections about the three-part structure and the
IMRaD structure, academic papers also consist of other often quite formalized parts.
Title Reference list
Abstract Paragraphs
Table of contents
A paragraph is a collection of sentences that deal with one topic or idea. When a new paragraph begins
it signals to the reader that the focus shifts to a new idea or thought. At the same time, all paragraphs
should connect to the main topic.
Topic sentence and supporting sentences
Paragraph development
When writing the introduction, you will first have to provide a summary of the research that already
exists in that particular field. Then, you can provide your hypothesis that identifies or elaborates on a
‘gap’ in that field. This can be any kind of identifiable problem. After that, you must provide a solution to
the problem or gap that you identified.
METHOD
This section must show how you conducted your research. Rather than explaining your study, you have
to write about how you gathered and sorted through all the necessary data.
If you conducted a survey, you must include all the details about it. For instance, what was asked, why
you surveyed that specific segment of the population, what you were expecting, and so on.
Results
As the name implies, this section contains your research findings. You do not need to give an analysis
of your results here. Rather, you just need to state your findings in detail. You can do so by utilizing
graphs, charts, and diagrams, or by writing them in an organized manner. Usually, a substantial part of a
scientific paper is dedicated to Results, as this is the essence of your study.
DISCUSSION
This is the section where you discuss and analyze the results of your research. You cannot introduce new
ideas here. You have to write what your results imply and break down what the consequences can be.
THREE-PART ESSAY
Introduction
The main purpose of the introduction is to provide the reader with a
clear idea of the focus and aim of the text. The topic of the
essay/article is presented in the introduction, often accompanied by a
thesis statement (the claim that the writer wishes to make The
introduction is usually structured to start with a broad, or general,
description of the topic and then gradually narrow down to the specific
focus of the essay.
BODY- where the analysis and discussion will be carried out and
results are presented. What is brought up in this part of the text
relates back to what was presented in the introduction.
Conclusion
In the final part of the essay, the argument is summed up and
conclusions are drawn from what has been discussed. Generally, a
conclusion should not contain any new facts or ideas, but instead
provides a brief restatement of the main arguments that have been
presented in the essay.