Running Head: GLOBAL HEALTH POLICY 1

GLOBAL HEALTH POLICY 104

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Question 1

The global policy framework considers the entire globe to be a process, and it creates

networks at the transcontinental and interregional levels of interactions and activities. It

encompasses a number of public as well as private actors that are involved in the multi-level

policy-making process, which surpasses national, transnational, and international policy regimes.

The third component of the global policy framework focuses on ‘different and competing

conceptions of what constitutes global order and relevant policies.’ In prevailing times,

normative theories pertaining to global governance are undergoing dramatic change and rapid

development. For instance, the interplays between networks, markets, and democracies have

changed in the globalised era. Several emerging powers that exist on the global stage, such as

Brazil, China, and India, have conflicting and diverse conceptions relating to what constitutes

global laws and suitable policies. This has led to the creation of new concepts, theories and

themes relating to global governance. When it comes to the formation of policies relating to

sexual and reproductive health (SRH), a number of actors have played an instrumental role to

minimise the burden of the health complexities at the global level.

World Health Organization (WHO) –

One of the chief actors that have played an instrumental role in shaping the policies

relating to sexual and reproductive health at the global level is the World Health Organization. It

has created an integrated action plan that can be adopted throughout Europe for progressing

towards sustainable development in the continent (Action plan for sexual and reproductive

health. WHO, 2016). The action plan basically serves as a blueprint, and it has been directed at

policy-makers who are responsible for setting up policies and developing suitable plans for that
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focus on sexual health and rights. In order to ensure that a proper order and structure are in place,

some of the key elements that have been taken into consideration by WHO include vision, goals,

objectives, key action, and implementation. The other elements that have also been integrated

into the plan are strategic direction and monitoring and evaluation components. Since the WHO

European Region encompasses individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds, gender, age,

gender identity, sexual orientation, ethnicity and socioeconomic conditions, high emphasis is laid

on the human rights aspect so that the fundamental human rights relating to reproductive and

sexual health can be respected fulfilled and protected. Furthermore, a region is established where

nations at the individual and joint levels can work together in order to minimise the inequalities

that exist relating to sexual health aspects (Action plan for sexual and reproductive health. WHO,

2016, p . 12).

Some of the key actions that have been integrated into the action plan include recognising

the rights of every individual throughout their life course so that they can receive, seek and

impact gender-responsive information that is related to human sexuality. It also emphasises

safeguarding the fundamental rights of individuals relating to privacy, confidentiality, and

informed decision-making while they receive services relating to their sexual and reproductive

health. In order to device effective policies in place, a high focus is laid on establishing and

upgrading formal as well as informal evidence-based, comprehensive sexuality education so that

young individuals can broaden their insight on sexual heath aspects and make well-informed

decisions relating to their reproductive health.

World Bank –
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The World Bank is another vital actor that plays an integral role when it comes to the

formulation of policies relating to the sexual and reproductive health of individuals. The main

focus of the organisation is on the sexual and reproductive health of young individuals,

especially adolescents. For instance, they encounter a diverse range of barriers which does not

enable them to have access to relevant and useful health care services that can positively

influence their reproductive health. Some of the key barriers that arise in their path include

discriminatory behavior from health care professionals because of their young age, the need to

ask for permission from parents, and the cost relating to health services. Such barriers are often

associated with the existence of restrictive policies and legislation as well as the existence of

conservative social and cultural norms (Smith-Estelle et al., 2017). The contribution of World

Bank is of high importance since it focuses on adopting a human rights-based approach (HRBA)

so that young individual’s sexual as well as reproductive health can be aligned with the 2030

Sustainable Development Agenda. High emphasis is laid on finding more effective approaches

so that it will be possible to move out of thematic silos and emphasise intersectional

interventions that can address diverse determinants relating to sexual and reproductive health.

Efforts are encouraged that focus on building capacity and ensuring that they are

available, accessible, and acceptable in nature. Furthermore, high emphasis is laid on the quality

aspects of the sexual and reproductive health aspects so that the users can derive value from such

services and they will be in a better position to access valuable information and make informed

decisions relating to their sexual health aspects. Some of the key health indicators that are taken

into consideration include the utilisation of health care services among the young population, the

total expenditure relating to sexual and reproductive health services, as well as the incidence of

sexually transmitted diseases (STD) among the young population.

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As sexual health is considered to be a vital dimension relating to the overall health and

well-being of a person, it is considered to be an important area that needs to be tackled by

introducing policies at the global level. Some of the key elements that have been integrated into

the policy aspects to minimise the burden of sexual and reproductive health complexities include

violence against women and gender violence, self-care interventions relating to sexual and

reproductive health, etc. (World Health Organization, 2021). In the globalised era since diverse

nations have different perceptions when it comes to sexual and reproductive health aspects,

emphasis is laid on respecting fundamental human rights of individuals from varying settings.

Similarly, high focus is also laid on individuals belonging to minority communities such as

LGBT groups so that their needs can be met as well, and their vulnerability relating to sexual and

reproductive health can be managed in a better way at the global level (Reproductive Health

Policies 2017 - United Nations. un.org, 2017).

Question 2

In contemporary times, global environmental change is considered to be a serious issue

that has been affecting mankind, diverse living species, and the entire environment. This issue is

evident from extreme weather events that have been arising in diverse regions of the world.

Some of the most pressing global environmental concerns that have the potential to threaten the

existence of human beings include global warming, rise in temperature, etc. The global

environmental change (GEC) has a significant impact on emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) as

well as the consequences for population health. In the 21 st century, the burden of emerging health

diseases has magnified to a significant extent. The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious

Disease (NIAID) has defined emerging infectious diseases as the infectious medical conditions

that have newly come into existence in a population setting or have existed but are currently
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rapidly expanding in geographical range of incidence (U.S. Department of Health and Human

Services, 2021). Such kinds of infections may be caused due to pathogens such as bacillium

anthracis, yesrinia pestis, ricin toxin, epsilon toxin, rabis virus, prions, etc.

In the current times, when climate all across the globe is undergoing dramatic change, the

severity and seriousness relating to emerging infectious diseases have intensified. According to

Tong, climatic change is one of the key factors that has been influencing human health. Changes

in the climate have been altering patterns of infectious diseases. For instance, climate change

plays an integral role in influencing the transmission of dengue. It increased the transmission rate

by15.0 % for Aedes albopictus and 8.9 % for Aedes aegypti (Tong et al., 2021). Similarly, due to

climate change, the transmission of malaria in highland regions was 38.7 % more as compared to

regions in Africa. A broad range of factors has come into play that has contributed to not only

climate change but also the health consequences of the human population. For example, some of

the major activities that have contributed to climate change include deforestation, high land use,

and urbanisation. In contemporary times, the impact of these factors is not only restricted to

climate change. These elements have also contributed to the insurgence of the Covid 19

pandemic all across the globe (Tong et al., 2021).

Climate change has played a critical role in influencing the health landscape by

influencing how emerging infectious diseases affect the human population. The cycle relating to

an epidemiological disease involves a host, a pathogen, and other factors. For example, a

complex fusion of diverse environmental conditions such as humidity and temperature can come

into play and influence whether a suitable habitat exists for a pathogen to disseminate or not (El-

Sayed & Kamel, 2020). For example, the rise in temperature, wind direction and intensity, the

volume of rainfall, etc. increase the geographical expansion of mosquitoes, and the chances of
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malaria among the population groups magnify for the population that resides in the specific

regions. Some of the key environmental factors that trigger the evolution of emerging infectious

diseases include humidity, drought and wind, and change in temperature (El-Sayed & Kamel,

2020).

Change in humidity also has a significant impact on the pathogens of infectious diseases.

Studies show that the pathogens of different air-borne infectious diseases like influenza are likely

to be more responsive to the humidity conditions. For instance, absolute temperature, as well as

humidity, can affect the survival and transmission of the influenza virus (Wu et al., 2016).  The

low relative humidity and cold temperatures seem to be favorable for the spreading of the

influenza virus. 

Global climate change also has a significant impact on emerging infectious diseases such

as the coronavirus. Covid-19 refers to the infectious disease that is caused by the SARS-CoV-2

infection (National Institutes of Health, 2020).  SARS-CoV-2 is commonly transmitted through

the infectious droplets that are expelled from the infectious persons. It ultimately results in the

infection of the respiratory tract. The change in climate has significantly contributed to this

transmission in a number of ways. Climatic conditions such as violent weather and increased

rainfall have resulted in the assembling of people together, thereby resulting in the transmission

of infectious disease (Gupta et al., 2021).  Another way in which the change in climate has

affected the transmission efficacy of the SARS-CoV-2 is the increase in the relative humidity

and temperature. The rise in humidity and temperature has created favorable conditions for the

survival of infectious particles in the natural environment. Studies show that humidity and

temperature have a significant impact on the duration for which the particulate matter remains

suspended in the air and ultimately influences the transmission of the virus. For instance, the
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increase in the humidity condition increases the percentage of toxic chemical agents present in

the air. It creates a stable environment for the viral organisms like coronavirus to spread and

cause respiratory issues among the people (Gupta et al., 2021). 

Apart from humidity and temperature, the rise of anthropogenic activities has led to an

increase in the frequency of particulate matter and aerosols in the atmosphere. The particulate

matter as well as aerosols have an impact on the global climate and result in the alteration of the

radioactive properties of the atmosphere (Gupta et al., 2021).  They even act as effective carriers

of SARS-CoV-2. 

In order to reduce the impact of the global environmental change on the emerging

infectious diseases and limits its consequences on population health, the appropriate measure

needs to be taken. Proper adaptation strategies may help in reducing the potential vulnerabilities

of emerging infectious diseases (Wu et al., 2016).  For instance, in order to minimize the climate

change impacts, reforestation, better drainage, and desalinization are some of the strategies that

can help. A number of public health programs can be initiated to lower the mortality and

morbidity rate resulting due to malaria. Through better weather forecasts, more proactive

adaptation techniques can be leveraged. Through an early warning system on the basis of

accurate weather forecast reports, people and the society at large can be in a better position to

prepare for the health risks associated with climate change. For instance, during the development

of El Nino, people were well informed by the government. As a result, a number of awareness as

well as public education campaigns were launched, thereby reducing the risk of vector-borne and

diarrheal diseases (Wu et al., 2016). 

Question 3
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The principles of good governance as described by the OECD can be applied in order to

improve the governance of global health problems. Good governance can be defined as the

system of policies, values, as well as institutions via which the community manages its politics,

social issues, and economics through private, government, and civil sectors (Jafari et al., 2019). 

Welfare of the community and health governance are important components of good

governance. 

One of the important principles of good governance is the protect the right of the

stakeholders. The stakeholders must be provided with the right to participate in the decision-

making process and be informed about the changes in the existing statutes (OECD, 2004).  In the

healthcare setting, the important stakeholders include the healthcare organizations, the healthcare

service providers, and the patients. All the stakeholders must be provided with an opportunity to

participate in the policy-making and decision-making process. The involvement of all the

stakeholders would ensure that they are well aware of the diverse health problems existing in the

healthcare landscape. The involvement of the stakeholders in the decision-making process would

also help in finding better solutions to deal with the different health problems in an effective

manner.

Another important principle of good governance as per OECD is the equitable treatment

of all the stakeholders. Studies show that inequity exists at different levels of the healthcare

setting. It has not only affected the quality of healthcare services but also resulted in an increase

in healthcare costs (Jafari et al., 2019).  While there have been a number of achievements such as

reduction in poverty as well as diseases, there still exists inequality in the delivery of healthcare

services. The people in the rural areas are the most vulnerable due to the lack of access to proper

healthcare facilities and services. Therefore, ensuring equal treatment to all the stakeholders can
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help in resolving the global health problems among financially weak individuals. It is the

responsibility of the healthcare institutions, governments, as well as society to safeguard the

health and safety of the public. More attention needs to be paid to the marginalized and

vulnerable group of people in society.  In order to address the health problems and improve

health conditions among the low-income groups, government subsidies need to be provided.

Health, as well as treatment resources, need to be assigned on the basis of the different healthcare

needs of the stakeholders. Equal access to different healthcare services must be provided to all

the groups present in the community. The ministry of health must promote justice in the

treatment and prevention fields. Social services must be provided to all the elderly people in

society. The share of the government should be increased in the cost of medical services in the

healthcare setting (Jafari et al., 2019). 

A significant principle of good governance is the recognition of the role and rights of the

stakeholders. In the healthcare setting, this principle can be implemented by identifying the

specific role and responsibilities of different government departments in order to improve the

health of the public and address health problems (Jafari et al., 2019).  It can provide the different

government departments with better clarity relating to their specific roles in the health landscape

and promote better collaborations and ultimately improve the healthcare outcomes. 

Another important principle of good governance, as mentioned by OECD, is transparency

and disclosure. All the materials and matters involved must be accurately and timely disclosed to

the stakeholders (OECD, 2004).  Promoting transparency can help in addressing a number of

health problems and enhancing the delivery of quality care to the patients. Access to healthcare

information can result in the discovery of potential abuses of healthcare service providers. It can

also provide information relating to the quality of care delivered and the unpredictable side
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effects. Making the healthcare information easily accessible can allow the public to make better

informed choices relating to healthcare services (Jafari et al., 2019).  order to promote

transparency in the healthcare setting, the use of electronic health record systems has been

emphasized. The establishment of a compliant system can help in reporting potential medical

errors committed by healthcare providers. To ensure greater transparency, the audit reports of the

different medical as well as healthcare centers, must be made accessible to the public. Moreover,

the accreditation indices of the private and public medical and healthcare centers must be made

accessible to the public. It can help in providing the public with the information important in

order to make good decisions relating to the availing of different medical and healthcare

services.

In order to improve the quality of care in the healthcare setting, it is important to establish

a number of quality improvement committees within the healthcare system. It is important to

ensure that set quality standards are being met at different levels of treatment. The quality of

social, medical, as well as health services provided by the healthcare organizations must be

monitored by the ministry of health. The different health information technologies employed in

the different healthcare settings need to be improved. The spending in the healthcare sector also

needs to be monitored (Jafari et al., 2019).  The ministry of health must show a commitment to

fighting corruption existing in the healthcare system. All these can help in improving the quality

as well as the effectiveness of healthcare services delivered to the patients. 

In order to reduce the health problems existing in the present day setting, it is important

to be more responsive to the problems. One of the effective ways of promoting responsiveness in

the healthcare setting is to establish a clinical governance system for the different providers of

healthcare services. The rights of the patients must also be monitored in terms of the delivery of
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different healthcare services. The budget of the health system also needs to be increased at

different levels in order to improve the quality of healthcare services as well as prevent the

different health problems. 

References

Action plan for sexual and reproductive health. WHO. (2016). Retrieved June 13, 2022, from

https://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/322275/Action-plan-sexual-

reproductive-health.pdf

El-Sayed, A., & Kamel, M. (2020). Climatic changes and their role in emergence and re-

emergence of diseases. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27(18), 22336-

22352.

Gupta, S., Rouse, B. T., & Sarangi, P. P. (2021). Did Climate Change Influence the Emergence,
Transmission, and Expression of the COVID-19 Pandemic?. Frontiers in Medicine, 8.

Jafari, F., HajiNabi, K., Jahangiri, K., & Riahi, L. (2019). Good governance in the health system:
a qualitative study. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, &
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National Institutes of Health. (2020). Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) treatment

guidelines.

OECD, O. (2004). The OECD principles of corporate governance. Contaduría y Administración,

(216).
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Reproductive Health Policies 2017 - United Nations. un.org. (2017). Retrieved June 13, 2022,

from https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/policy/

reproductive_health_policies_2017_data_booklet.pdf

Smith-Estelle, A., Cortez, R., & Quinlan-Davidson, M. (2017). Addressing The Sexual And

Reproductive Health Rights Of Young People. worldbank.org. Retrieved June 13, 2022,

from https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/993371585947965984/pdf/World-

COVID-19-Strategic-Preparedness-and-Response-Project.pdf

Tong, S., Ebi, K., & Olsen, J. (2021). Infectious disease, the climate, and the

future. Environmental Epidemiology, 5(2).

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2021). Niaid Emerging Infectious diseases/

pathogens. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. Retrieved June 13, 2022,

from https://www.niaid.nih.gov/research/emerging-infectious-diseases-pathogens

World Health Organization. (2021). Sexual and reproductive health and rights national policies.

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https://platform.who.int/data/sexual-and-reproductive-health-and-rights/national-policies

Wu, X., Lu, Y., Zhou, S., Chen, L., & Xu, B. (2016). Impact of climate change on human
infectious diseases: Empirical evidence and human adaptation. Environment
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