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Interfacial bonding mechanism of linear friction welded dissimilar Ti2AlNb-Ti60 joint:

Grain intergrowth induced by combined effects of dynamic recrystallization, phase
transformation and elemental diffusion

Zhenguo Guo, Tiejun Ma, Xi Chen, Xiawei Yang, Jun Tao, Ju Li, Wenya Li, Achilles
Vairis
PII: S2238-7854(23)00879-7
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.04.184
Reference: JMRTEC 7160

To appear in: Journal of Materials Research and Technology

Received Date: 3 April 2023

Revised Date: 14 April 2023
Accepted Date: 19 April 2023

Please cite this article as: Guo Z, Ma T, Chen X, Yang X, Tao J, Li J, Li W, Vairis A, Interfacial bonding
mechanism of linear friction welded dissimilar Ti2AlNb-Ti60 joint: Grain intergrowth induced by combined
effects of dynamic recrystallization, phase transformation and elemental diffusion, Journal of Materials
Research and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.04.184.

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Interfacial bonding mechanism of linear friction welded
dissimilar Ti2AlNb-Ti60 joint: Grain intergrowth induced by
combined effects of dynamic recrystallization, phase
transformation and elemental diffusion
Zhenguo Guo a, Tiejun Ma a, Xi Chen a, *, Xiawei Yang a, *, Jun Tao b, Ju Li b, Wenya

Li a, Achilles Vairis a, c

a
State Key Laboratory of Solidification Processing, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of

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Friction Welding Technologies, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072,

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Shaanxi, PR China -p
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b
Aeronautical Key Laboratory for Welding and Joining Technologies, AVIC
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Manufacturing Technology Institute, Beijing 100024, PR China

c
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of West Attica, Athens, 12241,
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Greece
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* Corresponding author: Xi Chen (chenxb@nwpu.edu.cn); Xiawei Yang

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(yangxiawei@nwpu.edu.cn)

ABSTRACT The blisk composed of Ti2AlNb intermetallic alloy and Ti60 titanium

alloy with its dual properties is considered as the ideal high-performance component in

advanced aeroengines. There are incompatibilities at the interface during welding using

conventional fusion techniques like electron beam. In this work, this dissimilar alloy

joint was successfully produced employing linear friction welding, and a joint whose

strength over that of Ti60 base metal was obtained. The intergrowth bonding

mechanism at the interface was promoted by the combined effects of dynamic

recrystallization, phase transformation and solute element diffusion. Studies showed

that during heating of welding, there were total α2→B2 and O→B2 transformations on

the Ti2AlNb side of the interface and α→β transformation at the Ti60 side of the

interface, while continuous dynamic recrystallizations of B2 and β phases were taking

place. Solute elements, Ti, Al and Nb, diffused at the interface, resulting in

recrystallized grains on both sides of the interface achieving intergrowth. During rapid

cooling, β→αˊ transformation occurred at the Ti60 side, while B2 phase remained intact

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on the Ti2AlNb side due its high Nb content, which makes B2/αˊ phase interface

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develop in intergrowth grain after welding. Due to the strong interfacial bonding
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strength as a result of intergrowth grains, this joint shows significant advantages
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compared to other welding techniques, and allows to expand its industrial use.

Keywords: linear friction welding, Ti2AlNb, Ti60, welding interface, bonding

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mechanism
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1. Introduction
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One of the new titanium intermetallic alloys, the Ti2AlNb, is being investigated for

its potential to be used in the production of aeroengine blades due to its advantages of

high operating temperatures (650-750 ℃), excellent specific strength and fatigue

performance [1-3]. The Ti60, a promising near-α titanium alloy developed in China,

has good fracture toughness and creep resistance at high temperatures, allowing it to be

used in discs of aeroengines [4, 5]. So, these two alloys can theoretically be used in

integrally bladed discs (blisks) for high push-weight ratio aeroengines.

At present, three welding techniques have been reported to be able to weld them,
which include electron beam welding, brazing, and forge welding. Electron beam

welding belongs to fusion welding, hence, molten pool is forming at the interface during

welding, resulting in solidification defects (e.g., hot cracking, pores, segregation, etc.).

The mechanical properties of such electron beam welded joints are lower than those of

the two base metals, whereas during tensile testing they fracture at the interface due to

solidification defects [6]. The two alloys have been also successfully joined with

brazing with Cu75 Pt as filler metal [7], but the Ti3Pt brittle phase developed at the

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interface, where brittle cracks initiated at and propagated through during shear loading.

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A sound joint whose strength and elongation were better than those of Ti60 was
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produced with forge welding [8]. However, workpiece positioning issues together with
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poor material utilization of this technique have limited its use. Linear friction welding

(LFW) is a relatively recent solid-state welding process which emerged in the mid-
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1980s, where components join together through relative reciprocating movement under
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controlled axial pressure, oscillating amplitude and frequency [9, 10]. As there is no
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weld pool of molten material formed during welding in solid state welding methods

such as diffusion bonding, solidification defects do not develop [11-15]. In addition,

there is also no requirement for gas shielding or filler metals [16, 17]; and the process

can reduce scrap and improve material utilization [18-20]. All of these advantages make

the LFW process more suitable for welding Ti2AlNb and Ti60 alloys, when compared

to electron beam welding, brazing, and forge welding.

To date, Chen et al. [21-25] have investigated in-depth the LFWed Ti2AlNb alloy

joint, including microstructural evolution, mechanical properties and hot corrosion

behavior and the effects of post-weld solution and aging treatment. Guo et al. [26] have

performed numerical modeling of temperature field of LFWed Ti60 alloy joint and

studied its phase transformation, dynamic recrystallization and texture evolution

behaviors. However, there have been no published publications on LFW of Ti2AlNb

and Ti60 alloys. Qin et al. [27] studied the bonding mechanism and mechanical

properties of electron beam welded TC11 titanium alloy to Ti2AlNb alloy joint, to find

complex metallurgical reactions at the welding interface where a zone of weakness did

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form. The joint showed decreased tensile strength and elongation compared to the two

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base materials because of this zone of weakness. Similar zone of weakness at the
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interface has also been identified in the vacuum diffusion bonded Ti2AlNb alloy to TC4
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titanium alloy joint, in which there developed three diffusion reaction layers: a B2/β

layer, an α2 layer on the TC4 side, and an α2+B2/β layer on the Ti2AlNb side [28]. So,
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during welding of intermetallic alloys and titanium alloys, complex interfacial

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microstructural evolution may develop, which may weaken the mechanical properties
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of joint. In this study, the Ti2AlNb and Ti60 alloys were successfully joined with linear

friction welding, and the interfacial bonding behavior and mechanical properties of this

joint were studied in order to assist the industrial application of such a dual-alloy blisk.

2. Experimental procedure

The nominal chemical composition of Ti2AlNb alloy used in this study is 10.7 % Al,

42.7 % Nb, and Ti balance; the nominal chemical composition of Ti60 alloy is 5.9 %

Al, 4.1 % Sn, 4.0 % Zr, 0.7 % Nb, 1.5 % Ta, 0.4 % Si and balanced by Ti. The

microstructure of them when studied under a scanning electron microscope (SEM) is

shown in Figs. 1a and b, respectively. It can be seen in Fig. 1a that Ti2AlNb shows a

typical α2+B2+O three phase microstructure: the granular phase is α2, the fine acicular

phase is O and the matrix is B2. The Ti60 near-α alloy is composed of equiaxed α,

elongated α and β, with β presents at the boundaries of α phase, as shown in Fig. 1b.

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Fig. 1. SEM micrographs of microstructure of: (a) Ti2AlNb and (b) Ti60.
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The welding experiment was carried out using the LFW machine developed at the
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Northwestern Polytechnical University, P. R. China. The machine and its operating

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mode are shown in Figs. 2a and b [29], respectively. During welding, Ti2AlNb was put
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at the oscillation side and Ti60 at the horizontal movement side under friction pressure.
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The dimensions of welding specimens were 12 mm × 22 mm × 65 mm, and the welding

interface was 12 mm × 22 mm, with oscillation direction being along the 22 mm

direction. The welding parameters selected were 70 MPa of friction pressure, 25 Hz of

oscillation frequency and 2 mm of oscillation amplitude. The selected parameters in

this study were referenced from the literature about linear friction welding of Ti60

titanium alloy [26].

 Fig. 2. Custom made LFW machine: (a) side view and (b) operation mode.

Following welding, metallographic and tensile samples were cut from the joint, and

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their relative position is shown in Fig. 3a. The polished metallographic sample was

etched with a solution of 3 ml HF, 30 ml HNO3 and 67 ml H2O. Then, the optical

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microscope and SEM microscope with electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) were
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used to study the interface microstructure evolution of the joint. In order to investigate
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the bonding mechanism a specimen was cut using the focused ion beam (FIB) lift-out
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technique, and studied under a high-resolution transmission electron microscope

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(TEM).
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The tensile strength property of the joint was also measured with samples cut off

from the joint following the ASTM E8 04 (see Fig. 3b) [29], and tensile strength was

performed in a universal testing machine at a rate of 2 mm/ min. Following tensile

testing, the fracture surface of the broken sample was observed under SEM.
 Fig. 3. Sample details: (a) relative position of metallographic sample and tensile

samples and (b) dimensions of tensile sample (unit: mm).

3. Results

3.1 Interface microstructure

The appearance of the joint is exhibited in Fig. 4a, it can be seen that the welding

interface is completely wrapped by extruded flash. The axial shortening of the joint is

about 13.5 mm. The interface microstructure characteristics of the joint are shown in

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Figs. 4b and c, where welding defects (e.g., oxide, inclusions or voids) can be not

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observed, illustrating that the welding parameters used in this study are reasonable, the
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axial shortening is enough and the self-cleaning process [9, 10] of the joint is sufficient.
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It can be seen from Fig. 4b that equiaxed grains form at both sides of the interface. The

size of equiaxed grains on the Ti2AlNb side is about 10 μm, while the size of equiaxed
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grains on the Ti60 side is smaller than that. This relates to the dynamic recrystallization
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at the interface due to high temperatures and large strain rates experienced by the
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interface material during welding [30], which produce fine equiaxed recrystallized

grains. Fig. 4c is the high magnification detail of the SEM micrograph of the interface,

where α2 and O phases have completely dissolved in the B2 matrix on the Ti2AlNb side

and acicular microstructure has precipitated from the recrystallized grains on the Ti60

side. So, in addition to dynamic recrystallization, there are phase transformations which

are related to temperature changes during welding also occur at the interface. Previously

published work [26] on LFW of Ti60 titanium alloy has measured the temperature

history, as shown in Fig. 5, which can be associated with phase transformations at the
interface of the Ti2AlNb/Ti60 joint. As the temperature at the interface exceeds 1150℃

at the quasi-steady friction state, the β-transus temperatures of both Ti2AlNb (1100 ℃

[31]) and Ti60 (1050 ℃ [32]) are exceeded. So, this measurement confirms that a

complete α2→B2 and O→B2 transformation occurs on the Ti2AlNb side and α→β

transformation on the Ti60 side during welding, which results in having a single B2

phase and high-temperature β phase on both sides of the interface, respectively. From

Fig. 5b, it can also be seen that the cooling rate of interface exceeds 300 ℃/s when

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cooling down begins. Under this cooling rate, a β→αˊ martensitic transformation will

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begin on the Ti60 side, as has been reported previously [31], and αˊ phase precipitated
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from recrystallized β grains. Hence, the acicular microstructure in Fig. 4c is αˊ
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martensite. But on the Ti2AlNb side, B2 phase is still reserved without precipitated

phase after welding because of the high content of Nb element [22]. So, the interface
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after welding is composed of B2+αˊ phases.

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 Fig. 4. Appearance and interface microstructure of the joint: (a) appearance of joint,

(b) low magnification SEM micrograph of interface and (c) high magnification SEM

micrograph of interface.

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Fig. 5. Calculated temperature history of two-dimensional numerical model of LFWed
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Ti60 joint [26]: (a) interface temperature at quasi-steady friction stage and (b)

temperature history of interface (black point in (a)).

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Fig. 6 shows the EBSD measurements of the interface. The inverse pole figure (IPF)
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(Fig. 6a) shows that grains on both sides of the interface are diverse, with no clear
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preferred orientation, which is consistent with recrystallized grains of random

orientation. Figs. 6c and d are the pole figures (PF) of the body-centered cubic (bcc) B2

phase of Ti2AlNb and hexagonal close-packed (hcp) αˊ phase of Ti60. In PFs, the X0

direction is along the oscillating direction, while the Y0 direction represents the

direction normal to the welding interface where friction pressure is applied. The texture

evolution is described by the density of PFs given as multiples of uniform distribution

(mud). It can be seen that the maximum texture densities of B2 phase and αˊ phase at

the interface are 9.03 mud and 7.42 mud, respectively, because of random recrystallized
grain orientations. Fig. 6b is the grain boundary map of the interface, where fine red

lines represent low-angle grain boundaries (LAGBs) with an orientation angle

difference of 2°-15°, and the thick black lines represent high-angle grain boundaries

(HAGBs) with an orientation angle difference over 15°. It can be seen in Fig. 6b that

there exist a large number of LAGBs on both sides of interface. Both Ti2AlNb and Ti60

have a high stacking fault energy (＞300 mJ/m2 [26, 32]) structure, so under the intense

temperature working conditions of LFW, the development of large numbers of LAGBs

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is the result of continuous dynamic recrystallization (CDRX) [33]. The detailed

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mechanism of CDRX is as follow [26]: under high temperature and large strain rate,
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the material at the interface deforms intensely, producing increased dislocations
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multiplication and tangle; as dislocation density increases, dislocations begin to

counteract and rearrange, producing sub-grains composed of LAGBs; then, the LAGBs
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of these sub-grains continue to absorb dislocations, and sub-grains transform into

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recrystallized grains at the end. In addition, the relatively large B2 grains on the
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Ti2AlNb side are connected to the fine grains on the Ti60 side to form intergrowth grains

without new grain boundaries between the two types of grains. This important feature

allows for the elimination of the initial weldline, as identified with black arrows in Figs.

6a and b. These intergrowth grains along the interface have been not found in dissimilar

Ti2AlNb/Ti60 joints produced with other welding techniques. The forming mechanism

of this type intergrowth grains will be discussed further in Section 4.

 Ti2AlNb Ti2AlNb
(a) (b)

Intergrowth grains Intergrowth grains

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10 μm 10 μm

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Ti60 -p Ti60
(c)
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(d)
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Fig. 6. EBSD measurements of the interface: (a) IPF, (b) grain boundary distribution,

(c) PF of bcc B2 phase on the Ti2AlNb side in (a) and (d) PF of hcp αˊ phase on the

Ti60 side in (a).

3.2 Tensile strength

The room temperature tensile test results of the samples extracted from the joint are

summarized in Table 1. It can be seen that their average yield and tensile strengths (884
MPa and 939 MPa) are higher than those of the base material (858 MPa and 914 MPa),

as the strength of the interface is higher than that of the Ti60 base material. So, it can

be concluded that a sound Ti2AlNb/Ti60 joint with tensile strength not lower than that

of Ti60 base material can be produced with linear friction welding, an improvement

over other welding techniques such as electron beam welding [6] and brazing [7]. In

addition, due to the higher yield and fracture strengths of welding interface zone, its

elongation is lower than that of Ti60 base material during tensile loading, resulting in

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slightly decreased elongation of whole joint (10.0 %) compared to Ti60 base material

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(14.0 %). The stress-strain curve of the sample is given in Fig. 7a. Its fracture surface
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is shown in Figs. 7b and c, which is located at the Ti60 base material, where a large
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number of dimples with various sizes and depths can be seen in the crack propagation

zone, typical of a ductile fracture mode.

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Table 1. Tensile property of joint. Sample 1#, 2# and 3# are the tensile samples of the
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joint, which are all fracturing in the Ti60 base material during tensile testing.
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Yield strength Tensile strength/

Sample no. Elongation/ % Fracture position
/ MPa MPa
1# 897 949 10.4 Ti60 base metal
2# 909 941 9.9 Ti60 base metal
3# 846 928 9.7 Ti60 base metal
Ti60 base metal 858 914 14.0 -
Ti2AlNb base metal 1117 1203 5.8 -
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Fig. 7. Stress-strain curve and fractured surface of tensile sample: (a) stress strain

curve, (b) low magnification SEM micrograph of fracture surface and (c) high
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magnification detail of SEM micrograph of fracture surface.

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4. Discussion of interface bond mechanism

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It was shown in Section 3.1 that intergrowth grains form at the interface and eliminate

the original weldline. The interface bond strength measured in Section 3.2 is higher

than that of the Ti60 base material. The high-angle annular dark field (HAADF) image

of the interface in the TEM is shown in Fig. 8a, where clear B2 recrystallized grain

boundaries can be identified in the Ti2AlNb side, as intergrowth grains form because of

dynamic recrystallization. The high magnification detail of the interface in Fig. 8a is

shown in Fig. 8b, where acicular microstructure in the Ti60 side grows into Ti2AlNb.

The selected area electron diffraction (SAED) results of areas A (Fig. 8c) and B (Fig.
8d) show that the acicular microstructure is hcp αˊmartensite and the matrix of area B

is of bcc B2 phase. So, the development of intergrowth grains while the initial welding

interface disappears are also related to phase transformations on both sides of the

welding interface. In addition, the energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS) measurements

of the interface taken during TEM are shown in Figs. 8e, f and g, which incorporate the

search for Ti, Al and Nb. It can be seen that these three solute elements are diffused at

the interface, while transition zone for these elements forms, as element diffusion

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contributes as well, to the removal of the initial welding interface and formation of

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intergrowth grains. Therefore, it can be concluded that dynamic recrystallization, phase
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transformation and solute element diffusion are all contributing to a sound joint.
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Fig. 8 TEM of interface: (a) HADDF image, (b) high magnification detail of red

outline in (a), SAED of area A in (b), SAED of area B in (b), (e) EDS intensity map of

Ti in (a), (f) EDS intensity map of Al in (a) and (g) EDS intensity map of Nb in (a).

From the above, Fig. 9 shows the proposed interface bond mechanism between

Ti2AlNb and Ti60 alloys during LFW:

(I) Prior to welding, there is a gap between the two alloys at the interface, due to

surface asperities.

(II) During the quasi-steady friction stage of welding, temperature at the interface

is higher than the β-transus temperatures of the two allloys. The O and α2

phases on the Ti2AlNb side dissolve totally into the B2 matrix and the α phase

dissolves at the Ti60 side, producing a high-temperature B2 phase and high-

temperature β phase on the two sides of the interface, respectively (as

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described in Section 3.1). Under the prevalent high temperature and large

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strain rates, dynamic recrystallization of B2 and β phases develops as well,
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producing recrystallized grains of two different size on the two sides of the
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interface (see Figs 6a and b). At the same time, there is diffusion of solute

elements at the interface (see Fig. 8), especially Ti, Al and Nb, which removes
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the initial welding interface, for it to become the phase interface between B2
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and β phases, without grain boundaries.

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(III) During rapid cooling at the end of the oscillatory movement, the B2 phase

remains at the Ti2AlNb side because of the large content of Nb; the αˊ phase

precipitates from recrystallized β grains and grows into B2 phase (see Fig.

8b). Therefore, the interface becomes in effect a B2/αˊ phase interface after

welding. The initial welding interface disappears totally and interface grains

are intergrowing, all of which increase the strength of interface over that of

the Ti60 base metal.

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Fig. 9. Proposed interface bond mechanism.

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5. Conclusions
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In this study, Ti2AlNb alloy and Ti60 alloy were successfully joined with linear

friction welding. The interface microstructure evolution and tensile strength of the joint

were characterized. The interface bond mechanism was investigated thoroughly and a

relevant physical model was established. The main conclusions obtained from the

present work are as follows:

(1) During welding heating stage, CDRX occurs on both sides of the interface,

producing equiaxed dynamic recrystallized grains of two different sizes. Also,

α2→B2 and O→B2 transformations occur on the Ti2AlNb side and α→β

transformation occurs on the Ti60 side, which produce the two interface sides
 with single B2 phase and β phase, respectively. Solute elements diffuse at the

interface, especially Ti, Al and Nb, and eliminate the initial welding interface.

(2) During rapid cooling which occurs after welding, β→αˊ transformation takes

place on the Ti60 side interface, where acicular martensite precipitates from

recrystallized grains. As there is high content of Nb, the B2 phase remains on the

Ti2AlNb side interface.

(3) The grains at the interface achieve intergrowth because of the combined effect of

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dynamic recrystallization, phase transformation and element diffusion. The

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interface transforms into a B2/αˊ phase interface after welding. Because of this,
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the average yield and tensile strengths of the joint reach 884 MPa and 939 MPa,
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higher than those of the Ti60 base material (858 MPa and 914 MPa). The

Ti2AlNb/Ti60 joint fractures in the Ti60 base material during tensile testing,
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showing significant advantages compared to other techniques such as EBW and

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BW.
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Data availability

The processed data required to reproduce these findings cannot be shared at this time

as data belong to a greater ongoing study.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that there are no competing financial interests or personal

relationships that could influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant
no. 52105400), and the National Science and Technology Major Project (grant no.

2017-Ⅶ-0005-0098). This work was also sponsored by Innovation Foundation for

Doctor Dissertation of Northwestern Polytechnical University.

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https://doi.org/10.1016/S1003-6326(22)66121-1

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1. The Ti2AlNb intermetallic alloy and Ti60 titanium alloy are successfully joined by

linear friction welding, and the interfacial bonding strength of the joint exceeds the

strength of Ti60 base metal.

2. The interfacial bonding mechanism of the joint can be regarded as the grain

intergrowth induced by combined effects of dynamic recrystallization, phase

transformation and elemental diffusion.

3. Comparing to other techniques for welding Ti2AlNb and Ti60 such as electron

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beam welding and brazing, linear friction welding has significant advantages.

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Declaration of interests

☒ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships
that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

☐ The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered
as potential competing interests:

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