The Journal of Environmental Education

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Music and Environmental Studies

Kate Turner & Bill Freedman

To cite this article: Kate Turner & Bill Freedman (2004) Music and Environmental Studies, The
Journal of Environmental Education, 36:1, 45-52, DOI: 10.3200/JOEE.36.1.45-52

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 ESSAYS & ANALYSES

Music and Environmental Studies

Kate Turner and Bill Freedman

ABSTRACT: The use of music in environmental education (EE) can help to inform students through
ideas incorporated in musical lyrics, while also enhancing interest in environmental topics. Music can
also enhance perceptions of the value of the natural world, especially when nature itself is recognized
as being musical. This article discusses historical and contemporary connections between music and
nature, including musical sounds in nature, the fusion of natural sounds and anthropogenic music,
and anthropogenic music inspired by nature, with an overarching theme of harnessing these topics
to teach about the natural world and to inspire conservation values.

KEY WORDS: anthropogenic music, environmental education, music, natural music, nature

E nvironmental studies promotes interdisciplinary investigations of the natural and human

worlds through any or all of the sciences, arts, and humanities. Frequently, however, cur-
riculum materials emphasize a science-based understanding of issues, while other ways of
knowing are less often used (Orleans, 1988).
The role of music in environmental education (EE) has mostly been explored by emphasizing its
ability to capture the interest of students and to foster a sensitive attitude to issues (Burgess & Gold,
1985; Morgan, 2001; Lenton, 2002; Ramsey, 2002). Music can also serve as a point of connection
between humans and the natural world. In these ways, music can inspire environmental action and
advocacy while also helping to foster empathy for the natural world.
In this essay, we examine historical and contemporary connections between music and environ-
mental studies. We discuss natural sounds that may be considered musical, their fusion with anthro-
pogenic music, and themes and lyrics inspired by nature. These ideas can be used to teach about the
intrinsic connections between humans and nature, and to develop an understanding of the need to
value and conserve the natural world.

Music and Nature

Music is a universal cultural expression and it also exists in sounds of the natural world. Music can
be defined as:

Kate Turner is a volunteer teacher and fundraiser for a rural school for indigenous Mayan people in
Guatemala, and Bill Freedman is the Chair of Biology and a professor in the Department of Biology
at Dalhousie University in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.

FALL 2004, VOL. 36, NO. 1 45

 • “an agreeable sound,”
• “vocal, instrumental, or mechanical sounds having rhythm, melody, or harmony,” and
• “the science or art of ordering tones or sounds in succession, in combination, and in temporal
relationships to produce a composition having unity and continuity” (Merriam-Webster Dictionary,
2003a, p. 1).

In the Western context, music is often understood as an auditory art form that incorporates ele-
ments of melody, harmony, rhythm, tempo, and dynamics (or volume) (Machlis, 1970).
Nature may be understood as “the external world in its entirety” (Merriam-Webster Dictionary,
2003b, p. 1), including the cosmos, the biosphere, and parts thereof. The biosphere includes biodi-
versity at various levels (e.g., species, communities, and ecoscapes) as well as their environmental
influences. Although this context includes humans and their civilization, these anthropocentric ele-
ments are often seen as being, to some degree, apart from the natural world. Here, the term nature
is used in reference to the nonhuman world.

Music and Natural Philosophy

Academic study in ancient and medieval times (in the Western context) was divided into two
streams: the trivium encompassed studies of language and discourse whereas the quadrivium covered
astronomy, arithmetic, geometry, and music (Chua, 2001). Within this context, music was consid-
ered a mathematical pursuit dealing with truths about the universe, rather than a mode of artistic
expression.
An early, cosmic interpretation of music involved the Greek mathematician Pythagoras (circa
560–circa 480 BCE), who believed there was a “music of the spheres” caused by precise and harmo-
nious relationships among the planetary orbits (Henderson, 2000, p. 1; Keplerstern Verlag, 2001).
The Chinese philosopher, Confucius (551–479 BCE), thought that music was necessary to main-
tain order in both human society and the cosmos (Estrella, 2002). Similarly, Plato (427–347 BCE)
described music as something that establishes and perfects the inherent connection between the
human soul and that of the cosmos (Chua, 2001). Plato wrote that music helps to “bring order to
any orbit in our souls that has become unharmonized” (Zeyl, 2000, p. 36). Later, the astronomer
Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) theorized that spatial relationships among the Sun and its planets were
numerically paralleled by musical harmonic intervals. However, he maintained that “no sounds exist
in the heavens” (Aiton, Duncan, & Field, 1997, p. 423), and so his presumed associations between
musical harmonics and planetary relationships did not result in audible music, but rather involved a
more deeply philosophical linkage.
It appears that these prominent thinkers believed that music is a fundamental element of nature,
linked to the functioning of the cosmos, while also providing a connection between humans and the
natural world.
Some historians of science consider that, particularly during the 18th-century Enlightenment,
there was an increasing “disenchantment” of nature associated with the rise of “objective” scientific
study (Chua, 2001). This may have lessened the degree to which music was seen as a fundamental
part of nature. Also around this time, the critical interpretation of music shifted into divergent par-
adigms: (a) a subject to be scrutinized by scientific methods, and (b) an artistic form of expression
(Chua, 2001; Clark & Rehding, 2001). The philosophical solitudes between artistic and scientific
interpretations of music persist in modified form today.
The evolving interpretation of the reality of music can be compared to the general shift in attitude

46 THE JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

about the relationship between humans and the natural world. The Scientific Revolution (circa
1500–1800) is often considered a time of increasing disenchantment of humans with nature, one
result of which has been an intensification of exploitative relationships with the natural world
(Merchant, 1980). The plea by modern environmentalists to re-establish a deep connection between
humans and the natural world is echoed by some musicians, who seek a re-enchantment of music
and nature. For instance, Schafer (1991), a Canadian composer, is an advocate of deepening the spir-
itual connection between humans and the cosmos, facilitated by music.

Music (Agreeable Sound) Created By Nature

Can sounds in the natural environment be considered “musical”? Although there are no right or
wrong answers to such a question, it is clear that people of many cultures have considered some nat-
ural sounds to be musical, and this continues today. Indeed, if music is defined simply as “an agree-
able sound,” and if nature refers to “the external world,” then it can be deductively concluded that
nature creates music.
Various animals have aural displays that are rhythmic, melodious, integral to their behavior and
social system, and also pleasing to the human ear. Examples include:

• many birds, such as the familiar American robin

• some cetaceans, such as the humpback whale
• various primates, including gibbons and the howler monkey
• the howling of wolves and coyotes
• the croaks, trills, and rhythmic phrases of frogs and toads, and
• certain vociferous insects, such as crickets and cicadas.

The sounds of animals have been a source of inspiration for musical composers, as well as a direct
source of music (Clark & Rehding, 2001). As recently as the 1500s, some people believed that the
origin of music had ultimate roots in animal song and other natural sounds. In 1776, John Hawkins
(as cited in Head, 1997) stated that:

The voices of animals, the whistling of the winds, the fall of waters, the concussion of bodies of
various kinds, not to mention the melody of birds, as they contain in them the rudiments of har-
mony, may easily be supposed to have furnished the minds of intelligent creatures with such ideas
of sound, as time, and the accumulated observation of succeeding ages, could not fail to improve
into a system. (p. 12)

This generic view was modified in later interpretations to acknowledge the inherent musicality of
humans as a source of musical originality (see Head, 1997).
Other links between animals and music include the documentation of songs of various animals
in musical notation (e. g., Clark, 1879; Kircher, 1650, as cited in Clark & Rehding, 2001;
Mathews, 1910), and theories of the development of melodious bird songs from the harmonic
structure of single-note sounds (Clark, 1879). Discussions of the relationship between animals and
music range from debating “where music came from” to “how [human] music ought to go” (Clark
& Rehding, 2001, p. 5).
The music of animals has obvious functional and adaptive value, as when birds proclaim their ter-
ritory and sexuality using species-specific vocalizations. It is known that animals respond to the

FALL 2004, VOL. 36, NO. 1 47

 sounds and music of their own kind, and often to that of other species. People have also been inter-
ested in whether animals respond to anthropogenic music. In 1558, John Case spoke of music hav-
ing “God for a father” and “Nature for a mother,” and that it is “a physical and natural thing, by
which not only the ears of men, but the senses of all beings. . .are comforted in a way which is beyond
speech or thought [emphasis added]” (Austern, 2001, p. 30). One particular story attesting to ani-
mals responding to the music of humans involves Haida, a captive killer whale who suffered the
death of his mate and became despondent, inactive, and refused to eat. The renowned, new-age
flautist Paul Horn was invited to play for Haida, to see if music might invigorate him. After 30 min-
utes of lively music, Haida began to move around and even accepted food (in contrast, 2 days of
somber music did not have this beneficial influence; Wager, 2002).
Many nonbiotic sounds could also be considered musical, such as the rhythmic splashing of waves,
the pattering of rain, the thunder of lightning, and the rustling of wind in foliage. These agreeable
sounds can be considered musical, and like certain animal sounds, they are claimed to enhance relax-
ation and connection with nature and have inspired human musicians.
Consideration of the musical sounds of animate and inanimate nature can add a novel element of
appreciation for, and identification with, the natural world. Acknowledgement of nature as a musi-
cal entity helps to raise its standing, providing additional justification of its intrinsic value, and rea-
sons for its preservation.

The Fusion of Natural Sound and Anthropogenic Music

So-called “New Age” music involves a fusion of natural sound and the music of humans. One
genre is composed by Dan Gibson, who accompanies bird song and other natural sounds with clas-
sical and modern music. Gibson, initially a producer of nature documentaries, founded the
“Solitudes” label in 1981 in the hope that his music would enhance public appreciation and under-
standing of the natural world, with indirect benefits to the conservation of nature (Somerset
Entertainment, 1999). This popular style of music allows people to “interact” with nature while
enhancing relaxation and refreshment; it is often used during yoga, massage, or meditation. Such a
fusion of natural and anthropogenic music represents a connection between humans and nature, per-
haps making it more difficult for the former to justify exploiting the latter.
Another way to fuse natural sounds with anthropogenic music is to perform compositions in an
outdoor setting. Schafer (1991), for example, believes that music should not be considered mere
entertainment confined to constructed environments such as theatres:

We need to breathe clean air again; we need to touch the mysteries of the world, in the little places
and the great wide places; in sunrises, forests, mountains and caves and if need be snowfields or
tropical jungles. For too long the clement temperatures of our theatres have neutralized our ther-
mic sensibilities. Why not a concert under a waterfall or a dramatic presentation in a blizzard?
And why should we not feel the rain on our faces when we sing or [have] a distant mountain
throw back to us the voice we have just sent out to it? (p. 97)

Musical Themes and Lyrics Inspired by Nature and Environment

The life and music of Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827) occurred at the junction of the classi-
cal and romantic musical periods. His music incorporates key romantic themes of freedom, strug-
gle, self-transcendence (Machlis, 1997), and the beauty of the natural world and folk life, setting a

48 THE JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

precedent for other artists to follow. Beethoven’s music is interpreted here in the context of his rela-
tionship with nature. In a letter to a friend, he wrote:

How glad I am to be able to roam in wood and thicket, among the trees and flowers and rocks.
No one can love the country as I do. . .my bad hearing does not trouble me here. In the country,
every tree seems to speak to me, saying “Holy! Holy!” In the woods, there is enchantment which
expresses all things. (Boynick, 1996, p. 2)

Beethoven’s Symphony Number 6, the Pastoral, was partly inspired by walks in the countryside.
Its five movements relate to natural themes, including the “Scene by the Brook” (2nd movement)
and the “Thunderstorm” (4th movement). Both have melodies inspired by natural sound, including
birds, running water, raindrops, and thunder. Beethoven’s reproduction of natural sound in his music
reflects an appreciation of nature—imitation is a high form of flattery. The modeling of human
music after natural sound also acknowledges the inherent musicality of those sounds.
More recently, the Canadian R. Murray Schafer has composed music to be performed in nature
(outside) and some is based on natural elements or themes. His Patria is a collection of musical dra-
mas relating to natural and mythological themes; it celebrates aspects of the natural world, and sev-
eral pieces are intended for performance out-of-doors, in some cases for an extended time (Smith,
2003). The Enchanted Forest commences at sunset, at a forest edge, and contains themes relating to
mythological creatures and environmental damage by logging. Schafer’s intention is to instill and
simulate mythological elements of nature, and to heighten the human appreciation of natural places
and elements. He has also composed choral pieces based on natural elements, including titles such
as Snowforms, Fire, Miniwanka (or the Moments of Water), and Epitaph for Moonlight. These are
intended to remind people of the natural world that they often taken for granted, and if listened to
with closed eyes can provide a fresh, aesthetic glimpse of nature.
Lyrical themes of environmental problems and nature are common in folk and contemporary
music. Some examples include the following:

• Woody Guthrie’s Dust Bowl Blues: “I’ve seen the dust so black that I couldn’t see a thing. . .it
turned my farm into a pile of sand” (in reference to aeolian erosion of agricultural land during the
extended drought of the 1930s)
• Stan Rogers’ Make and Break Harbour: “In Make and Break Harbour the boats are so few. . . .
Too many are pulled up and rotten. . . . Most houses stand empty. Old nets hung to dry. . . . Are
blown away, lost, and forgotten” (speaking to the collapse of the inshore fishery for cod in the
northwest Atlantic).
• Joni Mitchell’s Big Yellow Taxi: “They paved paradise and put up a parking lot. . .” (referring to
the destruction of nature through urbanization).
• Randy Neuman’s Sail Away: “Burn on, big river, burn on. . .Now the Lord can make you tum-
ble. . .turn. . .and overflow. . .But the Lord can’t make you burn” (in reference to the Cuyahoga
River in Cleveland, on which oily residues caught fire in 1969).
• Midnight Oil’s Progress: “Got your last meal filled up with pesticide. . .” (speaking about nega-
tive effects of “progress” in a globalized industrial society).

A more comprehensive example is the Celtic Mass for the Sea by Scott Macmillan and Jennyfer
Brickenden, a composition inspired by the sea. This work fuses modern and Celtic musical styles, and
ancient Celtic text was adapted to develop the lyrics. The beginning of the Mass “is a joyful evocation

FALL 2004, VOL. 36, NO. 1 49

 of the sea and its creatures and of a power far older than humanity” (Scanlon, 2001, p. 1), the lyrics
telling of the inherent musicality of nature:

Now lay thine ear against this golden sand,

And thou shalt hear the music of the sea,
Those hollow tunes, it plays against the land
I have lain hours, and fancied in its tone
I have heard the languages of ages gone. (MacMillan & Brickenden, 1993a, p. 3)

This section combines themes of music in nature, the beauty and liveliness of the natural world,
and its precarious balance with human use. Indeed, the composers feel they can use their music to
“offer the listener a sense of empowerment and connection to the inherent beauty of the natural
world around us, and of our place in it” (J. Brickenden, personal communication, 2003). The broad-
er environmental theme is summarized by MacMillan & Brickenden (1993b) as:

“Celtic Mass for the Sea” celebrates the reverence of the ancient peoples for the sea’s majesty, feroc-
ity and vitality. More than at any other time in human history we need to learn from this long
ago vision. Our oceans are depleted, our planet is in crisis. It is [Macmillan and Brickenden’s]
belief that only through empowerment of the human spirit will we find the collective will to make
the sacrifices that will restore balance and harmony to our global home. (pp. 1–2)

Music and EE
Clearly, music offers an inherent connection between humans and the natural world, and it is a
potentially useful tool in EE. Music can be readily engaged through its integration in multimedia
presentations, by focused musical performances, and by enjoying natural sound in an ambient set-
ting. Music can be used to emulate, praise, and enjoy nature, and to tell about issues associated
with environmental and social damage. This is a nonscientific, but valid approach that builds
empathy by providing an aesthetic understanding of the natural world and environmental issues.
Music can engage instructors and students, and help them to learn through ambience, melodies,
and lyrics.
It is important to understand, however, that the educational niche of music is one of helping stu-
dents to develop a sensitive attitude to environmental and related socioeconomic issues, and to there-
by foster environmentally responsible behavior, rather than as a means of conveying detailed knowl-
edge (Burgess & Gold, 1985; Hines, Hungerford, & Tomera 1986; Hwang, Kim, & Jeng, 2000).
Clearly, music is part of the comprehensive, longer-term milieu of influences on the development of
a sensitivity to environmental issues (Sia, Hungerford, & Tomera 1986; Hungerford & Volk, 1990;
Sirek & Hungerford, 1990; Negra & Manning, 1997). Nevertheless, such attitudes are most strong-
ly induced by epiphanies associated with significant life experiences, including exposure to charis-
matic environmentalists, key books, courses of study, and outdoor experiences (Chawla, 1998; Eagles
& Demore, 1999; Tanner, 1980).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are grateful for the critical comments of D. Lehoux, S. Snobelen, and G. McOuat, University of King’s College, and
G. Ewer, Dalhousie University. This is a publication of the Canadian Environmental Literacy Project (CELP), supported
by the Weston (Canada) Foundation and hosted by Dalhousie University, and involved in preparing educational modules
on environmental topics. One module, Music and Nature, is an interactive, multimedia, PowerPoint presentation.

50 THE JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

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