Quantitative research

The Use of Theory

• Reviewing the literature is to determine what theories might be used-the theories can be
mentioned in research part, separately or right after hypothesis. Literature gives us idea about
what kind of theory was used.

• In quantitative research, researchers often test hypotheses stemming from theories.

• Hypothesis are the assumptions regarding the research study. These are tentative statement to
be proved. For example the training has an impact on employee productivity weather positive or
negative so to know if it is positive or negative there is no proven fact. Therefore we can refer to
it as a statement however to prove a hypothesis we need a proper theory to support our
research statement.

• Theories can be used in quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods studies. In quantitative
theory is required to form conceptual framework to specify the relationship between variables
of different types.

Testing Causal Claims in Quantitative Research

Concept of causality

 Leading Writer Blalock (1991) explained causality. For quantitative it is important to know
whether relationship among variables is based on causality that do one occur because of
others effect or mutual relationship.
 Causality means that we would expect variable X to cause variable Y.
 The causal relation differs from correlation. Causal tells what will be the consequence as
result when one variable changes in form of other variable.
 Correlation when one variable increases or decreases because of other variable. It has inverse
relation too.
Example: Tea consumption cause to have reduced risk for a heart attack. Tea consumption
here is the independent variable whereas heart attack is dependent. It can be that more tea
consumption increases the risk of heart attack however it is not a proven statement. If heavily
raining there will be traffic jam. But if we see it inversely traffic jam can be because of any
factor not only rain.
 Confounding Variable; a third variable that can affect the independent variable of the
research like heart attack may be because of other factors or variables too. It is a variable
other than the dependent variable. It may also be a controlled cofounding variable or
moderator or mediator

Variables in Quantitative Research

• A variable refers to a characteristic or attribute of an individual or an organization that
can be measured or observed and that varies among the people or organization being
studied.
 Variables are distinguished by two characteristics:
• (a) Temporal order- move from left to right. Keep independent on left hand side while
dependent on RHS in a conceptual frame work
• (b) Their measurement (or observation) positive or negative relation. Training and
productivity are positively related. Employee productivity is dependent and training is
independent.

Types of variables
• Independent- is manipulative
• Dependent
• Predictor variables (also called antecedent variables) - a variable that explains the
reason behind the change in dependent variable. In employee training and productivity
example training is the predictor variable. It is required where it is necessary to explain
the reason behind the objective of research. Also it is not compulsory for every research
to have this predictor variable.
• Outcome variables (also called criterion or response variables) - the outcome or cause of
any effect.
• Intervening or mediating variables (Intervening or mediating variables) - that creates a
bridge between the independent and dependent. In training and productivity example
the knowledge enhancement or employee creativity can be mediator.
 Moderating variables – strengthens or weakens the relationship between the dependent or
independent variable. Empowerment can be introduced as a moderator in previous
example.
 Examples of all variables: healthy heart dependent and exercise is independent.
Immunity is mediator, cost of raw materials to supply as mediator and prices go up as
dependent variable.
 Increase in crime rate to increase in unemployment where increase in poverty is
moderator. Stress and depression has a positive relationship where depression is
dependent and stress is independent. If we introduce social support as moderator it will
weaken the positive relation between both.
• variables are related to answer a research question
• e.g., “How does self-esteem influence the formation of friendships among
adolescents?”- Self-esteem is independent whereas adolescents are dependent and the
target market.
 • “Does number of overtime hours worked cause higher burnout among nurses?
• Research statement includes a target market
• Also use to generate hypothesis

• To specify the research statement it must be supported by an existing theory however

statement is not a fact it is a gap that exists in the study.

Theory in Quantitative Research

• In quantitative research, some historical precedent exists for viewing a theory as a scientific
prediction or explanation for what the researcher expects to find.
• A theory is “a set of interrelated constructs (variables), definitions, and propositions that
presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the
purpose of explaining natural phenomena”, Kerlinger’s (1979)
• A theory might appear in a research study as an argument, a discussion, a figure, a rationale
(a logical response), or a conceptual framework (the figure that explains the relationship
among variables), and it helps to explain (or predict) phenomena that occur in the world.
1. Theoretical Rationale-related to theory
2. Theoretical Perspective-explain the previous researches and describe how current
research is related to it. It is s a contribution to previous studies.
3. Conceptual framework
4. Separate Section theory base
5. Own creative writing other than those that are specified
• When researchers test hypotheses over and over in different settings and with different
populations (e.g., the Boy Scouts, a Presbyterian church, the Rotary Club, and a group of
high school students), a theory emerges, and someone gives it a name
• Theory develops as an explanation to advance knowledge in particular fields (Thomas,
1997).
• The theory is formed when researches are done on the specific statement over and over
again and it should have same findings though a little change that doesn’t change meaning
of whole study.
Three levels of research:
• (a) micro-level, (numbers of people)
• (b) meso-level, (Organizations, community, social moment) and
• (c) macro-level (whole culture, society)

Forms of Theories in Quantitative Research

• Different ways
• Series of hypotheses, if-then logic statements, or visual models.
• For example, Hopkins (1964) conveyed his theory of influence processes as a series of 15
hypotheses. His hypothesis included

Theory of interaction 1950 Hockman

Visual representation:

 Double headed arrow shows there exists no relationship

 Single headed arrow shows there is some relationship.
 The signs shows relationship is negative or positive
Research productivity among faculty in pharmacy schools
Placement of Quantitative Theories
• Deductive approach to research in the quantitative approach has implications for the placement
of a theory in a quantitative research 6

•  Deductive approach to research is  the one that people typically associate with scientific
investigation. The researcher studies what others have done, reads existing theories of
whatever phenomenon he or she is studying, and then tests hypotheses that emerge from those
theories

Testing the theory (deductive reasoning)

Options to for theory replacement:

Theoretical frame work and hypothesis development
1. This represents how a theory is developed or generated.
2. Observation means generation of idea that requires more in-depth investigation. Includes
broad area of research is identified like covid-19. However for research study one needs
to be more specific.
3. Preliminary data gathering: data gathering in general to select the research topic through
brief interviews and surveys. This requires interviewing people who are readily available
to gather information before final selection of topic. It does not require in-depth
information.
4. Literature review: To know what has been studied in past researches regarding research
topics and to find where gap exists or what is not known yet (Gap means past researches
exists to support research statement however further contributions can be made). It
provides insight for research problem and helps in the verification of research topic.
5. Problem definition: explain the research problem statement where it is highlighted why
research is needed.
6. Theoretical Framework: On the basis of all above statements the theoretical statement is
formed where variables are clearly identified and relationship among variables is
specified.
7. Generation of hypothesis: In qualitative research the theory is generated at end whereas
in quantitative the theory is required to support the research statement and then
hypothesis is generated. It is deductive approach.
8. Research design: The research design is selected based on the past researches to know
how we can contribute further and which design will be applicable to our research
statement.
9. Then the data is collected, analyzed and interpreted. Interpretation is required as we get
the data in numbers that has some meaning. On the basis of this interpretation we decide
whether the hypothesis is rejected or accepted.
10.
 11. After this hypothesis is deducted to know whether the hypothesis is rejected or accepted
and does research findings answer the question.
12. Then report writing is done, its presentation and managerial decisions. Managerial
decision is final step as these researches are usually conducted for specific sector and it is
based on applied research where recommendation are provided. It depends on top
management whether they consider research findings and its recommendation worthy to
be applicable.

 Specific General

General Specific
1. For the first one it is deductive approach where we move from specific to general. It is
generalizable over whole population.
2. In second we deduct from general theory and specify it to certain context, this is called
inductive approach and cannot be generalized. For example the findings cab be specified
to only banking sector no other organization.
3. In generalization the theory is applicable to other organization however the target
segment for research will remain same.

 Literature review:
A Literature Review Surveys scholarly articles, books, and other sources (e.g., dissertations,
conference proceedings) relevant to a topic. . . . Its purpose is to demonstrate that the writer
has insightfully and critically surveyed relevant literature on his or her topic in order to
convince an intended audience that the topic is worth addressing”

 Theoretical framework:
1. Explains relation among different variables whether positive or negative.
2. To design framework it is necessary to have background knowledge.
3. The framework is developed logically that clearly identifies the variables. For example
speed of light is not related to eating so variables are not logically designed.
4. It explains underlying theory
5. The schematic diagram is necessary in theoretical framework that is logically developed.
6. Components:
o Variables: dependent, independent, moderator, mediator
o Direction of arrows and relationship
o Schematic diagram
For example culture and behavior has +ve relation
No of books and reading ability has +ve relation.