General Physics 2 Page 1 of 12

Electric Current and Resistance

4.1 ELECTRIC CURRENT

Electric current is defined to be the rate at which charge flows. A large current, such as that used to
start a truck engine, moves a large amount of charge in a small time, whereas a small current, such as that
used to operate a handheld calculator, moves a small amount of charge over a long period of time. In equation
∆𝑄
form, electric current (I) is defined to be 𝐼 = , where ∆Q is the amount of charge passing through a given
∆𝑡
area in time ∆𝑡. (As in previous modules, initial time is often taken to be zero, in which case ∆𝑡 = 𝑡. The SI
unit for current is the ampere (A) named after the French physicist André-Marie Ampere (1775-1836). Fuses,
∆𝑄
circuit breakers, and many other electrical appliances are rated in amperes (amps), Since 𝐼 = , we see
∆𝑡
that an ampere is one coulomb per second: 1 𝐴 = 1 𝐶/𝑠.

Example 1. Calculating Currents: Current in a Truck Battery and a Handheld Calculator

(a) What is the current involved when a truck battery sets in motion 720 C of charge in 4.00 s while starting
an engine? b) How long does it take 1.00 C of charge to flow through a handheld calculator if a 0.300-mA
current is flowing?

∆𝑄
Strategy: We can use the definition of current in the equation 𝐼 = to find the current in part (a) since
∆𝑡
charge and time are given. In part (b), we rearrange the definition of current and use the given values of
charge and current to find the time required.

Solution for (a) Entering the given values for charge and time into the definition of current gives

∆𝑄 720 𝐶
𝐼= = 4.00 𝑠 = 180 𝐶/𝑠
∆𝑡
𝐼 = 180 𝐴

Discussion for (a): This large value for current illustrates the fact that a large charge is moved in a small
amount of time. The currents in these “starter motors” are fairly large because large frictional forces need to
be overcome when setting something in motion.

∆𝑄
Solution for (b): Solving the relationship 𝐼 = for time ∆𝑡, and entering the known values for charge and
∆𝑡
current gives
∆𝑄 1.00 𝐶
∆𝑡 = = 0.30x10−3𝐶/𝑠
𝐼
∆𝑡 = 3.33x103 𝑠

Discussion for (b): The time is slightly less than an hour. The small current used by the handheld calculator
takes a much longer time to move a smaller charge than the large current of the truck starter does. So why
can we operate our calculators only seconds after turning them on? It's because calculators require very little
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Electric Current and Resistance
energy. Such small current and energy demands allow handheld calculators to operate from solar cells or to
get many hours of use out of small batteries. Remember, calculators do not have moving parts in the same
way that a truck engine has with cylinders and pistons, so the technology requires smaller currents.

Schematics are very useful in visualizing the main features of a circuit. A single schematic can
represent a wide variety of situations. A schematic can represent anything from a truck battery connected to
a truck headlight to a small battery connected to a penlight. To apply various concepts and analysis, it is
necessary to understand a few schematics. "The direction of conventional current is the direction that positive
charges would flow. Depending on the situation, positive charges, negative charges, or both may move. In
metal wires, for example, current is carried by electrons-that is, negative charges move. In ionic solutions,
such as salt water, both positive and negative charges move.
It is important to realize that there is an electric field in conductors responsible for producing the
current. Unlike static electricity, where a conductor in equilibrium cannot have an electric field in it, conductors
carrying a current have an electric field and are not in static equilibrium. An electric field is needed to supply
energy to move the charges.

4.2 OHM'S LAW, RESISTANCE, AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS

There are various devices which drive current such as batteries, generators, wall outlets, and so on.
Such devices create a potential difference and are loosely referred to as voltage sources. When a voltage
source is connected to a conductor, it applies a potential difference V that creates an electric field. The electric
field in turn exerts force on charges, causing current.

Ohm's Law
The current that flows through most substances is directly proportional to the voltage applied to it.
German physicist Georg Simon Ohm (1789-1854) was the first to demonstrate experimentally that the current
in a metal wire is directly proportional to the voltage applied 𝐼 ∝ 𝑉. This important relationship is known as
Ohm's law. It can be viewed as a cause (voltage) and effect (current) relationship.

Resistance and Simple Circuits

The electric property that impedes current is called resistance, R. Collisions of moving charges with
atoms and molecules in a substance transfer energy to the substance and limit current Resistance is defined
1
as inversely proportional to current, or 𝐼 ∝ 𝑅. Thus, for example, current is cut in half if resistance doubles.
𝑉
Combining the relationships of current to voltage and current to resistance gives 𝐼 = 𝑅 .
This relationship is also called Ohm's law. Ohm's law in this form really defines resistance for certain
materials. Ohm's law is not universally valid. The many materials for which Ohm's law holds are called ohmic,
which include good conductors like copper and aluminum and some poor conductors under certain
circumstances.
Ohmic materials have a resistance that is independent of voltage and current. An object that has
simple resistance is called a resistor, even if its resistance is small. The unit for resistance is an ohm and is
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Electric Current and Resistance
𝑉 𝑉
given the symbol Ω (upper case Greek omega). Rearranging 𝐼 = 𝑅 gives 𝑅 = and so the units of
𝐼
𝑉
resistance are 1 ohm = 1 volt per ampere: 1Ω = 1 𝐴 .
The wires connecting the voltage source to the resistor can be assumed to have negligible
resistance, or their resistance can be included in R.
In figure below, a simple electric circuit in which closed path for current to flow is supplied by
conductors (usually metal wires) connecting a load in the terminals of a battery, represented by the parallel
lines. The zigzag symbol represents the single resistor and includes any resistance in the connections to the
voltage source.

Example 2. Calculating Resistance: An Automobile Headlight

What is the resistance of an automobile through which 2.50 A flows when 12.0 V is applied to it?

𝑉
Strategy: We can rearrange Ohm's law slated by 𝐼 = 𝑅 and use it to find the resistance.

𝑉
Solution: Rearranging 𝐼 = 𝑅 and substituting known values gives
𝑉 12.0 𝑉
𝑅= =
𝐼 2.50 𝐴
𝑅 = 4.80 Ω

Discussion: This is a relatively small resistance, but it is larger than the cold resistance of the headlight.
Resistance usually increases with temperature, and so the bulb has a lower resistance when it is first
switched on and will draw considerably more current during its brief warm-up period.

Ohmic Materials
Resistances range over many orders of magnitude. Some ceramic insulators, such as those used to
support power lines, have resistances of 1012 Ω or more. A dry person may have a hand-to-foot resistance
of 105 Ω, , while the human heart is about 103 Ω.
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Electric Current and Resistance
A meter-long piece of large diameter copper wire may have a resistance of 10−5 Ω, and
superconductors have no resistance at all (these materials are nonohmic). Resistance is related to the shape
of an object and the material of which it is composed.
𝑉
Additional insight is gained by using 𝐼 = 𝑅 to find V yielding 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅. This expression for V can be
interpreted as the voltage drop across a resistor produced by the flow of current. The phrase IR drop is often
used for this voltage. For instance, the headlight has an IR drop of 12.0 V. If voltage is measured at various
points in a circuit, it will be seen to increase at the voltage source and decrease at the resistor.
The figure below represents the voltage drop across a resistor in a simple circuit equals the voltage
output of the battery.

Voltage is similar to fluid pressure. The voltage source is like a pump, creating a pressure difference,
causing current-the flow of charge. The resistor is like a pipe that reduces pressure and limits flow because
of its resistance. Conservation of energy has important consequences here. The voltage source supplies
energy (causing an electric field and a current), and the resistor converts it to another form (such as thermal
energy).
In a simple circuit (one with a single simple resistor), the voltage supplied by the source equals the
voltage drop across the resistor since 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑞𝐴𝑉, and the same q flows through each. Therefore, the energy
supplied by the voltage source and the energy converted by the resistor are equal.
Likewise, knowing that a simple circuit is one by which there is a single source of voltage as well as
a single resistance, the sole resistor converts energy supplied by the source into another form. Conservation
of energy is evidenced here by the fact that all of the energy supplied by the source is converted to another
form by the resistor alone. We will find that conservation of energy has other important applications in circuits
and is a powerful tool in circuit analysis.
In summary, Ohm's law is the empirical relation stating that the current is proportional to the potential
difference V, 𝐼 ∝ 𝑉; it is often written as 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅, where R is the resistance. A material is considered ohmic
when the Ohm's law is valid and applicable to it.

4.3 RESISTANCE AND RESISTIVITY

The resistance of an object depends on its shape and the material of which it is composed. The
cylindrical resistor is easy to analyze, and by doing so, we can gain insight into the resistance of more
complicated shapes.
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Electric Current and Resistance

The figure above is a uniform cylinder of length L and cross-sectional area A. Its resistance to the
flow of current is similar to the resistance posed by a pipe to fluid flow. The longer the cylinder, the greater
its resistance. The larger its cross-sectional area A, the smaller its resistance.
As you might expect the cylinder's electric resistance R is directly proportional to its length L, similar
to the resistance of a pipe to fluid flow. The longer the cylinder, the more collision charges will make with its
atoms. The greater the diameter of the cylinder, the more current it can carry (again similar to the low of fluid
through a pipe). In fact, R is inversely proportional to the cylinder's cross-sectional area A.
For a given shape, the resistance depends on the material of which the object is composed. Different
materials offer different resistance to the flow of charge. We define the resistivity, p, of a substance so that
the R of an object is directly proportional to p.
Resistivity is an intrinsic property of a material, independent of its shape or size. The resistance of a
𝑝𝐿
uniform cylinder of length, of cross-sectional area, and made of a material with resistivity, is 𝑅 = .
𝐴
On matters of resistivity p, conductors like silver, gold, copper, aluminum, iron, and steel are
characterized by large free densities, thus have the smallest resistivity; semiconductors like carbon, silicon,
and germanium have intermediate resistivity with fewer free charges and insulators like glass, Teflon, rubber,
and wood have the largest resistivity, given that they are bound to atoms and are not free to move.

Resistivities ρ of Various materials at 20º C

Material Resistivity ρ ( Ω ⋅ m )
Conductors
Silver 1. 59 × 10−8
Copper 1. 72 × 10−8
Gold 2. 44 × 10−8
Aluminum 2. 65 × 10−8
Tungsten 5. 6 × 10−8
Iron 9. 71 × 10−8
Lead 22 × 10−8
Manganin (Cu, Mn, Ni alloy) 44 × 10−8
Mercury 96 × 10−8
Semiconductors
Carbon (pure) 3.5 × 10−5
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Electric Current and Resistance
Germanium (pure) 600 × 10−3
Silicon (pure) 2300