The atom is composed of

° negatively charged
(-) electrons

° positively charged
(+) protons and

° uncharged
neutrons
° 1803 ð Dalton’s Atomic Theory

° 1910 ð Thomson Model

° 1911 ð Rutherford Model

° 1913 ð Bohr Model

° Composition
Particle Mass in g Mass in amu Charge
Proton 1.67252 x 10-24 1.00727646 +
Neutron 1.67482 x 10-24 1.00866492 0

° Protons and neutrons together form the nucleus of the atom.

° Proton and neutrons have essentially the same mass but only the proton is
charged while the neutron has no charge.
° Mass of the nucleus is 99.95% of the total mass of the atom
° Nuclear radius is of the order 10 -12 cm or about 1/10,000 of an atomic radius
° The nucleus determines the identity of the element and its atomic mass.
All nuclei contain
protons and
neutrons
(except
hydrogen 11H)
The atomic mass of the proton and the neutron is
approximately:

Proton = 1.6726 x 10-24 grams = 1.0073 amu

Neutron = 1.6749 x 10-24 grams = 1.0087 amu

Thus, the neutron is just a little heavier than the

proton.
The atomic mass of the electron is approximately:

Electron = 9.1094 x 10-28 grams = 0.00055 amu

Thus, the electron has a much smaller mass than

either the proton or the neutron, 1837 times smaller or
about 2000 times smaller.
 The difference in the mass of the neutron
and the proton can be understood if we
assume that the neutron is merely a proton
combined with an electron forming a neutral
particle slightly more massive than a proton
alone.
 The number of protons in an atom
dictate the element.

For an uncharged atom, the number of electrons

equals the number of protons.
° The number of
protons determines Atoms of an element that have a different
the element. number of neutrons in the nucleus are called
isotopes of each other.

° Elements with the

same number of
protons but different
numbers of neutrons
are called isotopes.

° Some isotopes are

radioactive.
 The number of
protons and
electrons remain
the same.

But the number of

neutrons varies.
A , mass number
A=p+n
A=Z+N

Symbol of
element

Z , atomic number N , neutron number

Z=p N=n
Equal number of protons and neutrons

There are many

isotopes. Most
have more neutrons
than protons. Some
are stable but most
are unstable
(radioactive).
 Too many
neutrons
for stability

Too many
protons
for stability

Nuclides Chart
 E = mc 2

ðIf you convert some mass to energy,

you will know how much energy you get.

In any nucleus there is some binding energy – the energy you

need to put in to split the nucleus into individual protons and
neutrons.
 Particle Mass in g Mass in amu Mass of Carbon-12 =
Proton 1.67252 x 10-24 1.00727646 12.000 amu, yet it contains
6 p and 6 n that each has a
Neutron 1.67482 x 10-24 1.00866492 mass greater than 1.000
amu. Something is odd here!!

° Fact is, these 6 p’s and 6 n’s have a larger mass when they are
separated than when they’re bound together into carbon-12
nucleus.

° True for all nuclei :

mass of nucleus < sum of masses of individual n’s and p’s

° … the missing mass is known as the MASS DEFECT, and is

essentially the equivalent mass of the NUCLEAR BINDING
ENERGY.
To find the binding energy, BE:

1. compute for MASS DEFECT, ∆m

∆m = (total mass of individual nucleons) – (mass of
nucleus)
= [ Z Mp + N Mn - M ]

where Z = atomic number (# of protons)

Mp = mass of the proton
N = neutron number (# of neutrons)
Mn = mass of the neutron
M = mass of the nucleus (from nuclide chart)
2. Use Einstein’s famous equation
BE = ∆mc2

c 2 = 931.502 MeV/u

Average binding energy per nucleon:

BE = BE total /A
 Helium isotope: 4 ð composed of 2 p’s and 2 n’s
2He2

p: 2 x 1.00727646 amu = 2.01455292 amu

N N n: 2 x 1.00866492 amu = 2.01732984 amu

------------------------
total mass of parts = 4.03188276 amu
N
4
2He2 Mass of 4 2He2 from nuclide chart = 4.00260324 amu
N
Mass defect , Dm = total mass of p’s and n’s - mass of nucleus
Dm = 4.03188276 amu - 4.00260324 amu = 0.02927952 amu

BE = ∆m c 2 = 0.02927952 (931.502) = 27.3 MeV

 Status of Nuclear Energy Generation Worldwide
As of January 2009
¤ There are 436 nuclear power reactors in operation in 30
countries with almost 372,000 MW(e) capacity.
¤ They supply about 15 % of the world’s electricity
requirement.
¤ Other 43 nuclear power plants are under construction
in 12 countries, with about 38,000 MW(e) capacity.
¤ About 106 NPPs are planned by 24 countries , with
about 118,000 MW(e) capacity.
¤ About 266 NPPs are proposed by 37 countries with
about 262,000 MW(e) by 2030
 Nuclear Power Development in Asia
Power Reactors
Power Reactors in Power Reactors
Under
Operation Planned/Proposed
Construction
Australia - - -
Bangladesh - - 0/2
China 11 11 26/72
India 17 6 10/15
Indonesia - - 2/4
Japan 53 2 11/1
S. Korea 20 5 3/2
N. Korea - - 1/0
Malaysia - - -
Pakistan 2 1 2/2
Philippines - - -
Thailand - - 2/4
Vietnam - - 2/8
TOTAL 109 * 27* 59/110
* Includes Taiwan’s 6 2

*as of 2009
 Nuclear Power Development Outside of Asia

Power Power Power Reactors

Reactors in Reactors Planned/Proposed
Operation Under
Construction
North America 122 2 15/26
Latin America 6 1 2/5
Western 130 1 0/21
Europe
Eastern
67 10 19/64
Europe
Africa 2 0 6/26
Middle East 0 1 5/13
TOTAL 327 15 47/155

*as of 2009
 Nuclear Power Plants Worldwide

Note: In the World Total there are also 6 reactors in operation in Taiwan, China.
Nuclear share of electricity
(2009)

*as of 2007
Taken from: http://www.hiroshima-remembered.com/history/index_nagasaki.html. Date accessed: 12102010
Taken from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Japan Date accessed: 12102010