Study material

on
Inspection and Condition
monitoring

Prepared by Approved by
Mr. Mahesh Verma Mr. Suman Bhagat
Manager ( Maint. Training) Sr. Manager( Maint. Training)
 CONTENTS:
SL.NO. TOPIC PAGE
NUMBER
1 CONCEPT OF MAINTENANCE 3-8
2 OVERVIEW OF CONDITION MONITORING 9-13
3 INSPECTION AND INSPECTION TECH 14-29
4 VIBRATION 30-44
5 SHOCK PULSE METHOD 45-56
6 LASER ALIGNMENT 57-72
7 PARTICLE COUNTING 73-79
8 FERROGRAPHY 80-89
9 NDT 90-99
CONCEPT OF MAINTENANCE

The literal meaning of ‘maintenance’ is – to allow or support to perform

or keeping something in good condition. Hence, maintenance of any
equipment or facility means to keep it in the condition of performing.

Maintenance Objectives:
• To increase functional reliability of production
facilities.
• To maximize the useful life of the equipment.
• To maximize production capacity from the given
equipment.
• To minimize the total production cost.
• To minimize the frequency of interruption in
production by reducing breakdowns.
• To enhance the safety of the manpower.
Objectives of maintenance:
 As per the concept of input-process-output system there are three inputs and three
main outputs for maintenance process.
The inputs are-
• Manpower (skilled enough to perform the job),
• Material resources (tools & tackles, spare parts, consumables) and
• Machine downtime required to do the maintenance work).

The outputs are machine

• Availability (how much time equipment is ready to be used),
• Reliability (how confident you are about the equipment performance)
• Maintainability (how fast equipment can be put back into operation after
getting maintained. Since the inception of the concept of maintenance, people
are always striving for obtaining maximum output at minimum input cost.
Secondary
Material Availability purpose:
Resources Safety,
Man Power Maintenance Reliability Environment,
Maintainability Through put
Down time
rate,Life
enhancement,etc.
Different types of
maintenance
Types of Maintenance:
Over the years as the industries have grown up, there has been gradual
improvement in the maintenance system. The change in the technology has
compelled the maintenance crew to bring a change in the attitude as well as the
maintenance practices.
Broadly there are four types of maintenance strategies-

REACTIVE (BREAKDOWN) MAINTENANCE,

PREVENTIVE (TIME BASED) MAINTENANCE,
PREDICTIVE (CONDITION BASED) MAINTENANCE
PROACTIVE (DESIGN-OUT) MAINTENANCE.
BREAKDOWN MAINTENACE:
Break down maintenance comes into action only
when there is breakdown or unscheduled
stoppage of an operating plant. Other words it is a
“Reactionary Approach”. Breakdown in the system
causes not only production delays but it also
results into heavy amount of loss in terms of cost.
 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE:
Preventive maintenance is based on the fact that every equipment after certain
hours of running needs to be checked for any kind of abnormalities in order to
avoid the breakdown situations in the system. A planned shutdown is taken after
predetermined intervals and scheduled inspections are carried out with the help of
inspection check lists to detect abnormal situations. Such inspections help in
spares and other planning.
As the preventive maintenance
is based on regular fixed
interval, determination this fixed
interval is of prime importance.
This an extremely difficult task
since too large interval of
maintenance can lead to
frequent failure causing heavy
loss of production as well as
cost. At the same time, too less
interval may result into
unnecessary maintenance
implying low production.
PREDICTIVE (CONDITION BASED) MAINTENANCE:
Predictive maintenance is also known as condition based maintenance (CBM). The CBM
makes the use of condition monitoring techniques to asses the condition of an operating plant
or equipment and the maintenance is carried out only when the condition demands.

The need for this kind of maintenance has arisen due to the fact that the modern plants are
having more sophisticated and complex equipments based on state-of-the art technology.
Interface of Electrical, Electronics and Mechanical are widely used to improve the
performance of the equipments. As a result the equipments are very costly and we cannot
afford to have any kind of failure in the system at any point of time.

Today the maintenance crew requires high level of understanding, awareness of technology
and familiarity with the modern maintenance tools and techniques.
 CONDITION MONITORING
Condition Monitoring is the practice of obtaining measurement of basic parameters from an
operating plant for assessment of their state of health and prediction of reliability.

The objective of Condition monitoring of equipment are:

a) To provide knowledge of the health of machine with the help of a set of measurable
parameters and their meaningful interpretations.
b) To provide knowledge about the rate of change of health of machine.
c) Assess the changing trend of the measured parameters giving the indication of impending
failures.
The following techniques are widely popular for conditioning Monitoring:

Temperature measurement for all rotating machines. It is a good primary symptom of

anything going wrong in the equipment.

Vibration Measurement and Analysis for assessment of conditions of rotating machines.

Oil analysis for assessing the health condition of equipment through oil analysis.

Thermography, Ferrography and Shock Pulse method are some more advanced
techniques that are used for health assessment of equipments.
Condition Based Maintenance:
The CBM makes the use of condition monitoring
techniques to asses the condition of an operating
plant or equipment and the maintenance is
carried out only when the condition demands.

The need for this kind of maintenance has arisen

due to the fact that the modern plants are having
more sophisticated and complex equipments
based on state-of-the art technology. Interface of
Electrical, Electronics and Mechanical are widely
used to improve the performance of the
equipments. As a result the equipments are very
costly and we cannot afford to have any kind of
failure in the system at any point of time.

Today the maintenance crew requires high level

of understanding, awareness of technology and
familiarity with the modern maintenance tools
and techniques.
 ADVANTAGES OF C.B.M.
Proper implementation of Condition Based Maintenance
results in the following advantages :-

a) Accurate knowledge of health of the machine helps

in maximizing the time between overhauls. As the
exact problem is known, the duration of overhaul can
be reduced by proper planning of spares, manpower
and execution strategy.
b) Condition monitoring gives an indication and
correction of the same in time. This eliminates
catastrophic failures.
c) The initial signature of the newly installed machines
captured either in terms of vibration or temperature
or bearing condition as the case may be, will be the
base line data to be used as reference for
maintenance of these machines in future.
d) Continuous monitoring of certain parameter of any
machine will generate an useful information to be
used by designers to design a better machine which
can give trouble free performance.
PROACTIVE MAINTENANCE
PROACTIVE MAINTENANCE also known as Design-out maintenance,
is a combination of CBM and Root Cause Failure Analysis (RCFA).
While doing CBM if a problem is of recurring nature, the root cause of
the same is found out and eliminated so that the problem does not
recur in future. It leads to maintenance prevention.
Inspection is an assessment / measurement of symptoms of anticipated or
foreseeable abnormalities (distress) in equipment or process using our sense
organs, some hand hold gadgets and checklist before hand to avoid breakdown
of machine by certain timely and logical action.

An organised examination or formal evaluation exercise. Involving:

measurements, tests, and gauges applied to certain characteristics in regard to an
object or activity. The results are compared to specified requirements and
standards for determining its health .
Inspections are non-destructive.

Why inspection?
• To avoid breakdown maintenance
• To improve time based maintenance
• To assess the gradual deterioration in equipment
• To get the equipment’s designed life
• To run the machine efficiently
• To improve the reliability
• To improve the availability of machine for production
How to inspect?

• Instrument Based Inspection

• Visual Inspection
• Checklist & Inspection Schedule

EFFECTIVE INSPECTION
Answer the following questions in view of
effective inspection
1. WHO SHOULD INSPECT?
The responsibility of inspecting
various equipment should be clearly
defined. This can be designation
wise, with the name preferably of the
supervisor who will inspect the
equipment
3. WHAT TO INSPECT?
Each unit of an equipment is
divided into its components and
listed out in the inspection report or
check list
2. WHEN TO INSPECT?
The frequency of inspection is decided by the
importance of the equipment in the production
line, past experience and manufacturer’s
instructions. There are some units which require
more frequent inspection than others.
4. HOW TO INSPECT?
It is necessary to train the staff. The inspecting
personnel should also know what is the normal
condition of an equipment is and should be able
to differentiate an abnormal condition and report
matters accordingly
INSPECTION SCHEDULE:
For maintaining the health of a equipment in good condition, the following steps
to be followed and to be reviewed time to time:
The schedule of inspection during running
• The schedule of inspection during Shut down
• The schedule of Condition monitoring
• After opening inspection cover during MSD
• Strip down inspection after removing all internals
• The frequency schedule of oil sampling

VISUAL INSPECTION
The Principle of ‘visual inspection’ means inspection by means of eye-sight. In
practice it has broader meaning which uses one or more of the five senses.
Five sense organs:
• Skin – Touch & Feel vibration, Temperature
• Ear - Hear Noise
• Eye- See Looseness, Leakage Float, breathing etc
• Nose – Smell Gas leakage, leakage of some pressurized oil, burning
insulation etc.
• Tongue – Taste but not advisable for safety reason
“With Practical Experience the senses are put to better use”.
 BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR A GOOD INSPECTOR
• Imagination and
• Keep reference • Prepare check list
through understanding
of relevant degradation
processes

• Past experience • Knowledge & Skill • Know about Function of Machine

 Critical equipment/ Machine part to be inspected are:

Bearing Brakes Couplings

Hydraulic system Fans- External and Internal Compressor

 Critical equipment/ Machine part to be inspected are:

Gear box- External and internals Conveyor belts and idler

Belts and pulleys

Chain drives
WHAT TO INSPECT?
• Inspection of cleanliness
• Checking of corrosion and
deformity
• Checking for rupture crack and
Wear
• Monitoring of Manometers,
Pressure gauges and
temperatures gauges
• Monitoring of the oil level,
Greasing and greasing apparatus
• Monitoring of operational condition
of machines or system
• Checking of any looseness or any
abnormal behavior
• Looseness/Slackness of
Foundation or cap bolts
• Coupling bush and bolts
• Bearing clearance
• Vibration and noise
• Temperature
• Leakage / Seepage
• Any Missing parts
• Erosion / Wear in blades and vanes
etc.
• Condition of lubricant and level
• Visible misalignment
• Visible float
• Wobbling of rotating parts
1. Oil Tank 1.1 : Capacity- 90 m3 in each tank
1.2 : Oil Grade- Servo mesh 680
Previou Standa
S. Unit of
Check Point s Audit rd Observation Remarks
No Measure
Value value
1.1 Oil Temperature °C 52 38-42 46.7 High
6 in each
1.2 No of Breather 6 6 tank ( ok
strainer type)
Breather To be Condition is
1.3 Visual N.A. ok
condition check clean
Low Level
1.4 In cm 52 N.A. 50 ok
setting
Low-Low Level
1.5 In cm 15 N.A.
Setting Connection Connectio
to both the ns to be
High Level limit switches fixed for
1.6 120 N.A.
Setting are open proper
feedback
1.7 Working Level 75 N.A. 70 ok
Illumination of
1.8 Visual O.K. N.A. Well ok
Room
1.9 Oil Leakage Visual NIL N.A. Nil ok
1. Oil Tank 1.1 : Capacity- 90 m3 in each tank
1.2 : Oil Grade- Servo mesh 680
2. Main Pump Unit 2.1 No. of Pumps Installed : 2
2.2 Pump No. in service : Pump No. 1
Unit of Previous Standard
S. No Check Point Observation Remarks
Measure Audit Value value

Pump No. 2 Pump No. 1

2.2.1 Pump body temp. °C 65 38-42 70 High

2.2.2 Horizontal Vibration MM/Sec 1.1 0-5 1.4 OK

2.2.3 Vertical Vibration MM/Sec 1.2 0-5 1.2 OK

2.2.4 Axial Vibration MM/Sec 1.0 0-5 0.7 OK

2.2.5 Suction bellow Visual O.K. NA O.K. OK

Present NA Present OK
Suction valve limit
2.2.6 Visual
Switch

Nil NA Nil OK
Discharge valve
2.2.7 Visual
limit switch

2.2.8 Leakage Visual Nil NA Nil OK

3. Heat Exchanger

Unit of Previous Audit Standard

S. No Check Point Observation Remarks
Measure Value value

50 40-55 53 Temperature
3.1 Oil inlet temp. °C
difference
45 40-50 50.5 across H.E. is
very low. Take
3.2 Oil outlet temp. °C
corrective
action.
31 25-35 30 Both Temp
3.3 Water inlet temp °C
Gauges are
33 35-45 32 defective.
3.4 Water outlet temp °C

In let Water 4.0 NA 4.2 OK

3.5 Bar
Pressure
3. Heat Exchanger
4. On Line filter or pressure line filter
S. No. Check Point Unit of Previous Audit Standard Observation Remarks
Measure Value Value
4.1 Leakage Visual Nil NA Nil OK
4.2 Pressure before Bar 7.6 NA 7.8 OK
filter
4.3 Pressure after filter Bar 7.2 NA 7.5 OK
4.4 Diff. Pressure Bar 0.4 <1.5 0.3 OK
4.5 Temperature ⁰C 52 38-42 54 High
Checked by: Verified by:
Vibration is the periodic motion of a machine or machine part back and forth from its
position of rest as the response of a system to some internal or external excitation
(stimulus) or force applied to the system.

The characteristics of vibration

The cause of vibration, regardless of the type must be a force which is changing in
either its direction or its amount; and the resulting characteristics will be determined
by the manner in which forces are generated. This is why each cause of vibration
has its own individual characteristics.

A machine's condition and mechanical problems are determined by measuring its

vibration characteristics. The important characteristics of vibration are :-

1. Displacement :- Micron 2. Velocity:- mm/sec

3. Acceleration :- m/sec2 4. Frequency :- Hz/CPM

Referring to the weight suspended on a spring we can study the detailed
characteristics of vibration by plotting the movement of the weight against
time.
The motion of weight from its neutral position, to the top limit of travel back through
the neutral position to the bottom limit of travel and its return to the neutral position
represents one cycle or motion, and has all the characteristics needed to measure
the vibration. Continued motion of the weight will simply be repeating these
characteristics.
Vibration displacement- The total distance traveled by the vibrating part, from
one extreme limit of travel to the other extreme limit of travel is referred to as the
"Peak-to-Peak displacement". Peak-to-Peak vibration displacement is expressed in
microns.

Vibration velocity- Since the vibratory weight is moving, it must be moving at

some speed. However, the speed of the weight is constantly changing. At the top
limit of the motion the speed is zero since the weight must come to a stop before it
can go in the opposite direction. The speed or velocity is greatest as the weight
passes through the neutral position .The velocity of the motion is definitely a
characteristic of vibration, but since it is constantly changing throughout the cycle,
the highest "peak" velocity is selected. In terms of Metric units, vibration velocity is
expressed in millimeters per second peak.

.
Vibration acceleration-In discussing vibration velocity, we pointed out that the
velocity of the part approaches zero at the extreme limits of travel. Of course, each
time the part comes to a stop at the limit of travel, it must "accelerate" to pick up
speed as it travels towards the other extreme limit of travel. Vibration acceleration
is another important characteristic of vibration. Technically, acceleration is the rate
of change of velocity.

Vibration acceleration is normally expressed in "g s" peak, where one "g" is
acceleration produced by a force of gravity at the surface of the earth. By
international agreement, the value of 980.665 cm/sec/sec has been chosen as the
standard acceleration due to gravity
Vibration frequency-The amount of time required to complete one full cycle of a
vibration pattern is called the period of vibration. If a machine completes one full
cycle of vibration in 1/60th of a second, its period is 1/60 seconds or 60 cycles in one
second (60 Hz). The period of vibration is a simple and meaningful characteristic
that is often used in vibration detection and analysis. A characteristic of equal
simplicity and more meaningful is frequency:

The frequency of vibration is usually expressed as the number of cycles that occur
each minute. This is the origin of the term cycles per minute, or CPM.
A third way to specify it is in terms of the number of cycles per second, or hertz (Hz
named after Heinrich Hertz, the German scientist. Given a frequency specified in
Hz, one can convert it to CPM: Hertz = CPM /60 & CPM = Hertz X 60

Significance of different characteristics

Information provided by frequency:-When analyzing a machine's vibration to

pinpoint a particular problem, it is essential to know the vibration frequency.
Knowing the frequency helps identify the problem and which part is at fault.

Information provided by Amplitude (Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration):-

The displacement, velocity and acceleration characteristics of vibration are
measured in order to determine the severity of a vibration. These characteristics
are often referred to as the amplitude of vibration.

In terms of the operation of the machine, the vibration amplitude is a primary

indicator of a machine’s condition. The greater the amplitude, the more severe
the vibration
 SOURCES OF VIBRATION

Unbalance Misalignment
Bad Belt

Eccentricity Gear Problem Cavitation

 SOURCES OF VIBRATION

Aerodynamic / Hydraulic forces Bad bearing, journal Rolling element bearing

Resonance & Looseness( not the source of

Cracked shaft vibration but amplify the amplitude of
vibration)
 Displacement, Velocity OR Acceleration ?
Amplitude Vibration Frequency Ranges
Displacement 60 to 600 CPM
Velocity 600 to 60,000 CPM
Acceleration 60K and above CPM

VIBRATION When To Use Disp., Vel. & Acc.?

SENSITIVITY
DISPLACEMENT
10

1
VELOCITY

.1

.01 ACCELERATION

60 600 6000 60000 600 000 FREQUENCY

.001 CPM
Machinery classification as per ISO-10816
Class 1 : Upto 15 KW M/C, small size M/C
Class 2 : 15 to 75 KW M/C, medium size
M/C
Class 3 : > 75 KW M/C with rigid foundation
Class 4 : > 75 KW M/C with soft
foundation
 VIBRATION CHARACTERISTICS

BEARING DISPLACEMEN VELOCITY ACCELERATION REMARK

NO T (Micron) μ mm/sec m/sec2 S

V H A V H A V H A

Checked by: Verified by:

• Take permission from your Instructor/ faculty before starting the practical work
at vibration measuring rig.
• Keep safe distance during starting of electrical motor of the vibration
measuring rig.
• Do not touch the cable of the electrical motor during running of the vibration rig.
• Be sure that the vibration measuring rig running smoothly and check oil level of
gearbox, it should shows 50% in the level gauge of gearbox.
• Be sure that the cable of vibration measuring rig are laying properly.
• Do not over crowded around the vibration measuring rig during the
measurement of vibration or shock pulse.
• It is strict instruction to all the trainees to stand only one or two person during
whole process of measurement and use of hand gloves is mandatory during
vibration or shock pulse measurement.
• Keep safe distance during measurement and hold the cable and transducer of
Vibration meter as well as Shock pulse analyzer properly to avoid touching with
the rotating shaft.
• After completion of the measurement stop the Vibration measuring rig and cut
the power from main switch.
• Handle the vibration meter and shock pulse meter properly and after using
keep them in their respective location.
 Shock Pulse Method

SHOCK PULSE METER

Shock pulse method (SPM) is a technique for using signals from rotating
rolling bearings as the basis for efficient condition monitoring of machines.
From the innovation of the method in 1969 it has been further developed and
broadened and is a worldwide accepted philosophy for condition monitoring of
rolling bearings and machine maintenance.

SPM stands for shock pulse monitoring. The term “shock pulse” describes
what is produced when a ridge or asperity from one surface contacts a ridge or
asperity of another surface when the lubricant film, designed to separate those
surfaces, is lost.
The pulse is a high-frequency signal that is collected with a sensor tuned to
measure noise in the 32 kHz range. Research done by engineers within SPM
has led them to recommend sensors fixed to this specific frequency. High-
frequency signals are subject to damping from various influences, including
thickness of the lubricant film, the number of layers of machinery that the
signal must travel through, the thickness of the layers, bearing looseness,
bearing condition, sample location, sample collection repeatability, sensor
condition, etc. Consequently, precision in planning, data collection and
interpretation is needed.
 Shock Pulse Method

SHOCK PULSE METER: SHOCK PULSE ANALYZER A4011

FUNCTION :
• CONDITION MONITORING OF ROLLING CONTACT BEARING
• MACHINE VIBRATION
• ROTATIONAL SPEED (RPM)
• TEMPERATURE
• CURRENT
• VIBRATION AT 1X,2X AND 3X
• FACILITY TO HEAR BEARING SOUND
 Shock Pulse Method

SPM TECHNIQUE TO MONITOR RC BEARING

Pulsemagnitude is measured
,and vibration is filtered out
Shock waves converted to
electric pulse
 Shock Pulse Method
SPM TECHNIQUE TO MONITOR RC BEARING
1. Shock pulses are caused by impacts. An impact is a single event: one
body hitting another body once.It is not a constant force and can be
repeated at regular interval in time but is often not. In bearings, typically
the impacts occur at random intervals.
2. The impact sends a shock wave through the material of both bodies.And
vibration comes as a second stage. SPM transducer filters out the
vibration.
3. The shock pulse transducer reacts to the amlitude of wave front at its own
resonance frequency. This magnifies the low energy signal and only
wave front is measured causing one shock pulse from transducer.
4. Amplitude of the wave front is function of impact velocity. This means
higher the speed , the higher the shock wave. Since rotational speed of
bearing depends on both its size and the RPM,both are neede as input.
5. Shock pulses are transient signals. They lose their energy on the way
through the material of the machine. They severely dapened by interfaces
in the material.
6. All impacts cause shock pulses. We must make sure thatwe are
measuring a signal from bearing.
Shock Pulse Method
 Shock Pulse Method

The LR/HR method was developed from the original Shock Pulse Method for
condition diagnosis of rolling element bearings. It allows a precision analysis of oil
film condition in the rolling interface and contains calculation models for finding the
optimal lubricant. Poor lubrication is the root cause of most bearing failures
Signal and measurement
The shock pulse meter counts the rate of occurrence (incoming shock pulses per
second) and varies the gain until two amplitude levels are determined:
•HR= high rate of occurrence, quantifying the shock carpet (approx. 1000
incoming shocks per second).
•LR= low rate of occurrence, quantifying the strong shock pulses (approx. 40
incoming shocks per second).LR and HR are 'raw values', measured in dBsv
(decibel shock value).

Input data
The LR/HR method requires more precise data on the bearing, because bearing
geometry, as well as size and speed, affect the shock carpet and thus the analysis
of oil film condition in undamaged bearings. The rpm is needed, plus a definition of
the bearing type and size. This is best input by stating the ISO bearing number,
which links to the bearing catalogue in Cond master.
 Shock Pulse Method
SPM TECHNIQUE TO MONITOR RC BEARING

INPUTs:

Norm no.
RPM
Last three digits of ISO bearing desgnation
Mean Dia
Comp no.
Accumulation no.
SPM Bearing type code

1-D/G B/Bg Series-62,63,64

2-A/c B/Brg All series .
3-D/G B/B series- 60,160,618 and S/A
B/Brg
4-Thrust B/brg
5-CR Brg Single row
6-TR Brg
7-Sph/R Brg and D/R CR Brg
8-Thrust Roller Brg.
Shock Pulse Method
Shock Pulse Method
 Shock Pulse Method

A LUB no. of 0 means dry running, the value increases with oil film thickness. A
COND no. of around 30 indicates surface stress or early damage, the value
increases with damage severity. The general assessment is:
CODE A Good bearing
CODE B Poor lubrication
CODE C Dry bearing, risk of damage
CODE D Damage
A program part, LUBMASTER, uses
the shock values plus data on
lubricant type, viscosity, load and
operating temperature to calculate
the bearing's life expectancy under
present condition. It also calculates
the effect of changes in oil type and
viscosity.
Calibration
The accuracy of the LR/HR method is increased by a calibration factor (COMP no.)
used in case of bearings with minimal load or poor quality measuring points (in both
cases the signal strength is below normal). On the basis of the bearing's catalogue
data and the lubricant properties, SPM Machine calculates the normal shock level
for a good bearing and compensates for an abnormally low signal before returning
the evaluation results.
 Shock Pulse Method
SPM TECHNIQUE TO MONITOR RC BEARING

OUTPUTs:

Condition code(A ,B,C & D) followed by color code

Lubrication No.
Condition No.
LR and HR
 Shock Pulse Method
SPM TECHNIQUE TO MONITOR RC BEARING

The purpose of 'SPM Spectrum' is to verify the source of high shock pulse
readings. Shocks generated by damaged bearings will typically have an
occurrence pattern matching the ball pass frequency over the rotating race.
Shocks from e. g. damaged gears have different patterns, while random shocks
from disturbance sources have none.
Shaft alignment, often called “coupling alignment”, is a process to make two or more
rotating shafts co-linear, or in the same straight line, both vertically and horizontally.
Shaft alignment can be done utilizing several methods and tools, such as straight
edge, dial indicators, or laser systems. Of these, laser shaft alignment is the fastest
and most accurate. Generally misalignment can be following planes.
Straight edge Dial indicator
 Comparison between different methods of
Alignment
Straightedge Alignment Dial indicator Alignment LASER Alignment
The LASER alignment instrument has a low power semiconductor (typically silicon
crystal doped with phosphorus or boron) diode laser with collimating lenses
capable of detecting electromagnetic radiations. The laser is modulated in
order to avoid interference from other light source.
1.A high-voltage electric supply makes the tube flash on and off.
2.Every time the tube flashes, it "pumps" energy into the ruby crystal. The flashes it makes inject
energy into the crystal in the form of photons.
3.Atoms in the ruby crystal (large green blobs) soak up this energy in a process
called absorption. Atoms absorb energy when their electrons jump to a higher energy level. After
a few milliseconds, the electrons return to their original energy level (ground state) by giving off a
photon of light (small blue blobs). This is called spontaneous emission.
4.The photons that atoms give off zoom up and down inside the ruby crystal, traveling at the
speed of light.
5.Every so often, one of these photons stimulates an already excited atom. When this happens,
the excited atom gives off a photon and we get our original photon back as well. This is
called stimulated emission. Now one photon of light has produced two, so the light has been
amplified (increased in strength). In other words, "light amplification"(an increase in the amount of
light) has been caused by "stimulated emission of radiation" (hence the name "laser", because
that's exactly how a laser works!)
6.A mirror at one end of the laser tube keeps the photons bouncing back and forth inside the
crystal.
7.A partial mirror at the other end of the tube bounces some photons back into the crystal but lets
some escape.
8.The escaping photons form a very concentrated beam of powerful laser light.
The LASER

The Laser : Visible light (wavelength range 300 nm - 800 nm) having wavelength
around 670 nm.

LASER is the acronym for “Light Amplified by Stimulated Emission of

Radiation”.
 How Laser Alignment Tools Work
The goal of a laser alignment tool is to ensure the two coupled shafts are aligned; that is, their
center lines have a common axis (coaxial). Modern laser alignment tools have a big advantage
over traditional alignment tools like a straight edge, optics and dial indicators. They consist of two
sensors (a laser emitter and a receiver), brackets, rods, chains and a display unit. Let's break
down the different components of a laser alignment tool.

• Laser alignment sensors: The sensors should be mounted on the shaft, coupling hub, flywheel
or brake disc. You'll attach the stationary sensor (normally labeled "S") to the stationary machine
and the movable sensor (normally labeled "M") to the movable machine.
• Brackets: The brackets mount the sensors to the machine. They come in multiple designs and
various mounting options like magnetic and non-magnetic V-brackets, offset brackets and V-
brackets with sliding wheels for non-rotating shafts.

• Extension chains: Extension chains help secure the sensors to the shaft and can be adjusted
as needed for shafts that are larger in diameter.
• Extension rods: Extension rods are used to align shafts with large couplings, so laser paths
remain unobstructed. Sensors slide directly onto the rods.
• Display unit: The display unit shows alignment data in real time as the laser alignment tool
takes readings. Most display units have built-in software, LCD screens, rechargeable batteries,
memory storage, wireless connectivity and more. Many laser alignment tools come with mobile
apps that connect to the tool using Bluetooth and display data in real time on mobile devices.
Check your laser alignment kit and set up laser alignment system on your
machine. The setting up procedure is explained below.

LASER alignment kit

LASER Alignment
Setting up procedure:
Connect the V bracket, rods and sensors with the display unit using
wires
When it comes to mounting the sensors, six things matter to obtain an
accurate reading: measurement methods, distance, angular relationship
(inclinometers), bracket assemblies, mounting location and miscellaneous
looseness. Let's discuss a few in more detail.
• Measurement methods include the Express method, the Tripoint method and
the Clock method. Modern laser alignment tools come with inclinometers built
into the sensors, making the first two methods the best options. In
the Express method, alignment is calculated by recording three points while
rotating the shafts at least 60 degrees. Once you record the first point, the
other two points are automatically recorded when the shaft is rotated to a new
position and is held there for more than two seconds.
•The Clock method is more of a dated method and involves taking three
measurements at the 9, 12 and 3 o'clock points. The clock method is useful
when a machine base is not truly horizontal or vertical, such as when mounted
at an angle. It's also useful when a horizontal machine is mounted on a
vertical plane.
•Newer technology, now provides users with thousands of measurement
points. This multi-point feature takes hundreds of points at any degree; a
continous(SWEEP) mode automatically collects those points.
• Mounting distance is highly adjustable, ranging from the sensors nearly
touching to around 35 feet (10 meters) apart.
Now, rotate the shafts to 9 O’ clock, 12 O’ clock & 3 O’ clock positions and press
OK on the display unit to capture the respective readings.

9 O’ clock position 12 O’ clock position 3 O’ clock

position
Note: Clock position is based on the user standing behind the movable machine
facing the stationary machine.
 S M

GEARBOX MOTOR

D2

D1 D3 D4

Measure the distance from:

Stationary sensor(S) to movable sensor(M) i.e. D1
Stationary sensor to centre of the coupling i.e. D2
Movable sensor to front foot of movable machine i.e. D3
Front foot to rear foot of movable machine i.e. D4

Enter all these measurements in the display unit. Also, enter the RPM of the
motor.
 Parallel 5. Interpretation of data displayed
misalignment
VERTICAL PLANE

Angular
misalignment Shims to be inserted
or removed
according to the
algebraic sign

Shift movable
Parallel machine to the left or
misalignment right according to the
algebraic sign
Angular
misalignment
Note:
• Result always indicate the position of the movable machine.
HORIZONTAL PLANE
• Positive value at feet means movable machine is high or on the right
from reference.
• Negative value means movable machine is low or on the left from
reference.
• 1 mil = 0.001 inch/ 0.025mm
 Take readings again to ensure misalignment has been rectified and
readings are within the tolerance.

The tolerance table is displayed below:

Recommended tolerances for shaft alignment:
Tolerance (mm)
Flexible coupling RPM
Acceptable Excellent
750 0.19 0.09
1500 0.09 0.06
Parallel Misalignment
3000 0.06 0.03
6000 0.03 0.02

750 0.13 0.09

Angular Misalignment /100 mm Coupling
Diameter 1500 0.07 0.05
3000 0.04 0.03
6000 0.03 0.02
Soft foot All 0.06
Encoding method of the level of contamination based on the number of particles
per unit of volume divided into size classes. Standard NAS 1638 is still used, yet
due to the fact that by now it is considered obsolete, it has been replaced by
standard AS4059 / ISO 4406 that concerns the encoding of the level of
contamination of a fluid. In a hydraulic system, the fluid re-circulates and tends to
reach a stable level of contamination over time, that reflects the characteristics of
the type of filter used. The sizes of the particles of interest will be those
appropriate to the power of removal of the filter.
In standards NAS 1638 and AS4059E, the particles are grouped into intervals as
per size: between 5 and 15 µm, between 15 and 25 µm, between 25 and 50 µm,
between 50 and 100 µm and, finally, over 100 µm. A class identification is
attributed to each of these ranges of values, based on a numerical comparison of
the particles present with a standardised table.
The NAS class is identified with a single value. In this case, that however does
not represent a sufficiently exhaustive picture of the status of the oil, the maximum
value of the various sizes is taken into consideration.
Standards NAS 1638

Class 5 - 15 15 - 25 25 - 50 50 - 100 > 100

00 125 22 4 1 0
0 250 44 8 2 0
1 500 89 16 3 1
2 1.000 178 32 6 1
3 2.000 356 63 11 2
4 4.000 712 126 22 4
5 8.000 1.425 253 45 8
6 16.000 2.850 506 90 16
7 32.000 5.700 1.012 180 32
8 64.000 11.400 2.025 360 64
9 128.000 22.800 4.050 720 128
10 256.000 45.600 8.100 1.440 256
11 512.000 91.200 16.200 2.880 512
12 1.024.000 182.400 32.400 5.760 1.024
STANDARD ISO 4406
Alternatively, standard ISO 4406 uses automatic particle counters that consist of
three different scale levels that identify the differentiation of size and distribution of
particles. The code is expressed in three values, that identify in the following order:
Example:
/ /14

First Scale Second Scale Third Scale

Number/digit Number/digit Number/digit

1. The number (18 ) of the first scale represents the number of particles equal to
or exceeding 4 µm per millilitre of fluid

2. The number ( 16) of the second scale represents the number of particles equal
to or exceeding 6 µm per millilitre of fluid

3. The number (14) of the third scale represents the number of articles equal to or
exceeding 14 µm per millilitre of fluid
STANDARD ISO 4406
Suggested Acceptable Contamination
Codes
ISO code Typical components Sensitivity Remark
numbers
23 / 21 / 17 Ram pumps Low
20 / 18 / 15 Flow control valves, Cylinders Average
19 / 17 / 14 Gear pumps/ Hydro motors Important
18 / 16 / 13 Injector valve and high pressure pumps/ Critical
motors, Directional and pressure control
valves
17 / 15 / 12 Proportional valves Critical
16 / 14 / 11 Industrial servo valves Critical
15 / 13 / 09 High performance servo valves Super
Critical
Ferrography is a specialized type of oil analysis used to study particle wear on
machine components through analysis of contaminants in lubricating oil. It can be
used to predict and diagnose errors occurring on machinery. Ferrography is
related to tribology, which is the study of friction between interacting surfaces.
• It is fluid debris analysis is used for equipment health monitoring.
• Mainly works on contaminants generated due to interaction between various
components/parts of machine and carried away by lubricant to sumps etc.
• Also called as contaminant monitoring or wear debris analysis or wear particle
analysis.
Ferrography is a staple in failure prevention maintenance. Continuous monitoring
of the lubricating oil allows a change from expensive and often unnecessary
preplanned maintenance to the more cost-effective failure prevention. Ferrography
is unique because it can deliver information about enclosed parts as lubricating oil
circulates through these areas and is still accessible. Rinsing vital components with
particle free lubricant and analysing the output can offer a detailed report of
machine wear without disassembling anything.
 Distance in mm
Non-Ferrous Flux Lines w/Debris
Debris

N Magnet
EXIT END
Pole

Non-Magnetic
Barrier, 2.5mm
Non-Wetting
Barrier S Magnet
Pole

0.3x60mm ENTRY POINT

< 0.5 µ Ferrous < 5 µ >5µ
Glass Substrate Particles Ferrous Particles
LUBRICANT MONITORING
Tests/analysis of lubricant can be grouped into three categories:

• Fluid Properties Analysis-information on a lubricant’s physical and chemical

properties such as viscosity, acid number, additives.

• Fluid Contamination Analysis-Presence of contaminants such as dirt, glycol, soot,

fuel, water etc. in oil.

• Fluid Wear Debris Analysis- Concentration and characterization of wear metals

and other contaminants, suspended in used oil, mainly from machine components
through which oil interfaces and generates some wear metals and wear particles
and not about oil itself. Also called machine health analysis.
When two components in a lubricated system rub, wear particles are generated. Contrary to
what you might think, wear particles do not come in all sizes and shapes. There are, in fact,
only a handful of distinct types of wear particles, and these particles occur in only specific size
ranges. The most common wear particle in a lubricated system is the normal rubbing wear
particle. Rubbing wear particles are the normal wear particles generated as the result of sliding
between opposing surfaces in a lubricated system. It is the rubbing wear particle that
spectroscopic oil analysis measures in order to determine the wear condition of a lubricated
system. When a system is operating normally, the amount of rubbing wear particles generated
is fairly constant. When the system enters into an abnormal wear mode the quantity of rubbing
wear particles increases noticeably. By analysing the exact part per million quantity of wear
particles in the oil spectroscopy detects any increase in wear long before damage occurs to the
system.
For some abnormal wear modes an increase in rubbing wear particles is not observed. In these
situations spectroscopy is unable to detect the abnormal wear. Other methods must be used to
detect the wear situation. Ferrography is one technique that is used to monitor for wear modes
that are undetectable to spectroscopy.

Ferrography is "the study of ferrous metal wear", and comes from the Latin word ferrum, which
translates to ‘iron’. The two ferrographic techniques, direct-reading ferrography, and analytical
ferrography have been developed to monitor the levels of wear particles in lubricated systems.
Direct Reading Ferrography (DR-Ferr), gives a direct measure of the amount of
ferrous wear metals present in a sample of oil. The wear particles are divided into two
categories, large particles, denoted DL, and small particles, denoted DS. Small
particles less than 15 microns in size, and represent normal rubbing wear particles.
Large particles are greater than 15 microns in size, and represent abnormal wear
particles.
The particles are separated and measured by drawing a sample of diluted oil through
a collector tube which lies over a magnetic plate. Larger particles in the oil, being
strongly attracted to the magnet, accumulate at the entrance of the collector tube.
Smaller particles which are only weakly attracted by the magnet deposit equally along
the length of the collector tube. By measuring the blockage of light using fiber optics,
one at the entrance of the collector tube, and the other just further up the collector
tube, the quantities of large and small wear particles is determined.
Trending of the DL and DS readings reveals changes in the wear mode of the system.
For example, an increase in the DL value indicates that the system has entered into
an abnormal wear mode. In comparison, an increase in the DS value can indicate an
increase in system corrosion (corrosion wear particles are less than 3 microns in
size).
By trending DR-Ferr results the analyst accurately determines the wear condition of a
lubricated system. When an abnormal wear mode is detected analytical ferrography is
used for more detailed analysis.
Analytical Ferrography (A-Ferr) allows an analyst to visually examine the wear
particles present in an oil sample. To create a ferrogram a sample of used oil is
diluted, and passed over a glass slide. The slide rests on a magnetic plate that
attracts ferrous wear particles out of the oil, and onto the surface of the slide. The
ferrous particles line up with the largest wear particles, to the smallest wear
particles in rows along the length of the ferrogram. Nonferrous wear particles (such
as copper babbitt) can be easily distinguished from ferrous particles since they are
deposited randomly across the length of the slide.
The ferrogram contains a snapshot of the wear particles present in the system at
the time an oil sample is taken. Under high magnification the particles are readily
identified and classified according to their morphology (size, shape, color, surface
texture, etc.). A trained analyst can differentiate between cutting wear particles
(caused by abrasives in the oil), or rolling wear particles (caused when surfaces
roll in relation to each other, such as with a rolling element bearing), in addition to a
host of other wear particle types. In examining the ferrogram, the analyst
determines the type of wear occurring in the system, and the cause of such wear.
Used in conjunction with spectroscopic oil analysis, ferrography completes the
picture of a systems wear condition.
Components and Techniques of Lubricant Monitoring:

• Sources of wear debris

• Distinction between amount,
size, shape and chemical breakdown
• Numerical method monitoring
• Direct reader ferro-graphy
• Visual method monitoring
• Filter debris analysis
• Scanning electron microscope
• Magnetic plugs
• Used engine oil test and other oil test kits An analytical ferrogram at 200X
magnification reveals an abnormal
• Lab tests
quantity of combined rolling and
• Lubricant contamination control sliding wear particles indicating
• Types and Sources of Contaminants: abnormal gear wear in the system.
Can be classified as following
• Rubbing wear particles-normal wear, small flakes of metal etc
• Fatigue chunks-sub surface stressing in gears or shafts, large chunks of metal etc.
• Sliding wear particles-scuffing wear, metal to metal contact with no lubricant film,
gear teeth pistons, hydraulics, loose bearings, parallel striations on surface etc.
• Cutting wear- abrasive contact between two surfaces, 2 body wear softer
metal is cut,3 body wear , curls of metal like lathe swarf etc.
• Laminar wear-sub surface stressing in rolling element bearings, reworked
wear particles, flat, think flakes of metal
• Oxides and rust etc.
FERROGRAPHY TESTING
MACHINES
FM-III d Ferrogram Maker

•Makes slides to examine

with Ferroscope
•Particle sorting by size,
shape, concentration &
composition
•Ferrous particles align with
magnetic lines of flux
•Analyzed to determine root
cause of the particle
formation
To examine an object, material or system without impairing its
future usefulness

• To ensure customer satisfaction

• To avoid failures, prevent accidents and save human life
• To ensure product integrity
• To control manufacturing processes
• To lower manufacturing costs
• To maintain uniform quality level
Dye penetrant inspection (DP), also called liquid penetrate inspection (LPI)
or penetrant testing (PT), is a widely applied and low-cost inspection method
used to check surface-breaking defects in all non-porous materials (metals,
plastics, or ceramics). The penetrant may be applied to all non-ferrous materials
and ferrous materials, although for ferrous components magnetic particle
inspection is often used instead for its subsurface detection capability. LPI is
used to detect casting, forging and welding surface defects such as hairline
cracks, surface porosity, leaks in new products, and fatigue cracks on in service
components.
DPI is based upon capillary action, where
low surface tension fluid penetrates into clean and
dry surface-breaking discontinuities. Penetrant may
be applied to the test component by dipping,
spraying, or brushing. After adequate penetration
time has been allowed, the excess penetrant is
removed and a developer is applied. The developer
helps to draw penetrant out of the flaw so that an
invisible indication becomes visible to the inspector.
Inspection is performed under ultraviolet or white
light, depending on the type of dye used -
fluorescent or nonfluorescent (visible).
1. Pre-cleaning:
The test surface is cleaned to remove any dirt, paint, oil, grease or any loose scale
that could either keep penetrant out of a defect, or cause irrelevant or false
indications. Cleaning methods may include solvents, alkaline cleaning steps, vapor
degreasing, or media blasting. The end goal of this step is a clean surface where
any defects present are open to the surface, dry, and free of contamination. Note
that if media blasting is used, it may "work over" small treatment.
2. Application of Penetrant:
The penetrant is then applied to the surface of the
item being tested. The penetrant is usually a
brilliant coloured mobile fluid with high wetting
capability.[1] The penetrant is allowed "dwell time" to
soak into any flaws (generally 5 to 30 minutes). The
dwell time mainly depends upon the penetrant
being used, material being tested and the size of
flaws sought. As expected, smaller flaws require a
longer penetration time. Due to their incompatible
nature one must be careful not to apply solvent-
based penetrant to a surface which is to be Penetrant
inspected with a water-washable penetrant. application
3. Excess Penetrant Removal:
The excess penetrant is then removed from the surface. The removal method is
controlled by the type of penetrant used. Water-washable, solvent-
removable, lipophilic post-emulsifiable, or hydrophilic post-emulsifiable are the
common choices. Emulsifiers represent the highest sensitivity level, and chemically
interact with the oily penetrant to make it removable with a water spray. When
using solvent remover and lint-free cloth it is important to not spray the solvent on
the test surface directly, because this can remove the penetrant from the flaws. If
excess penetrant is not properly removed, once the developer is applied, it may
leave a background in the developed area that can mask indications or defects. In
addition, this may also produce false indications severely hindering the ability to do
a proper inspection. Also, the removal of excessive penetrant is done towards one
direction either vertically or horizontally as the case may be.
4. Application of Developer:
After excess penetrant has been removed, a white developer is applied to the
sample. Several developer types are available, including: non-aqueous wet
developer, dry powder, water-suspendable, and water-soluble. Choice of developer
is governed by penetrant compatibility (one can't use water-soluble or -suspendable
developer with water-washable penetrant), and by inspection conditions. When
using non-aqueous wet developer (NAWD) or dry powder, the sample must be
dried prior to application, while soluble and suspendable developers are applied
with the part still wet from the previous step
The developer draws penetrant from
defects out onto the surface to form a
visible indication, commonly known as
bleed-out. Any areas that bleed out can
indicate the location, orientation and
possible types of defects on the surface.
Interpreting the results and characterizing
defects from the indications found may
require some training and/or experience [the Developer application
indication size is not the actual size of the
defect].

5. Inspection:
The inspector will use visible light with adequate intensity (100 foot-candles or
1100 lux is typical) for visible dye penetrant. Ultraviolet (UV-A) radiation of adequate
intensity (1,000 micro-watts per centimeter squared is common), along with low
ambient light levels (less than 2 foot-candles) for fluorescent penetrant examinations.
Inspection of the test surface should take place after 10- to 30-minute
development time, and is dependent on the penetrant and developer used. This
time delay allows the blotting action to occur. The inspector may observe the
sample for indication formation when using visible dye. It is also good practice to
observe indications as they form because the characteristics of the bleed out are a
significant part of interpretation characterization of flaws
 is a non-destructive test (NDT) process for
detecting surface and shallow subsurface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials
such as iron,nickel,cobalt, and some of their alloys. The process puts a magnetic
field into the part. The piece can be magnetized by direct or indirect magnetization.
Direct magnetization occurs when the electric current is passed through the test
object and a magnetic field is formed in the material. Indirect magnetization occurs
when no electric current is passed through the test object, but a magnetic field is
applied from an outside source. The magnetic lines of force are perpendicular to the
direction of the electric current, which may be either alternating current(AC) or some
form of direct current (DC) (rectified AC).
The presence of a surface or subsurface discontinuity in the material allows the
magnetic flux to leak, since air cannot support as much magnetic field per unit
volume as metals.
To identify a leak, ferrous particles, either dry or in a wet suspension, are applied to a
part. These are attracted to an area of flux leakage and form what is known as an
indication, which is evaluated to determine its nature, cause, and course of action, if
any.
 is a family of non-destructive testing techniques
based on the propagation of ultrasonic waves in the object or material tested. In
most common UT applications, very short ultrasonic pulse-waves with center
frequencies ranging from 0.1-15 MHz, and occasionally up to 50 MHz, are
transmitted into materials to detect internal flaws or to characterize materials.
A common example is ultrasonic thickness measurement, which tests the
thickness of the test object, for example, to monitor pipework corrosion.
Ultrasonic testing is often
performed on steel and
other metals and alloys,
though it can also be
used on concrete, wood
and composites, albeit
with less resolution. It is
used in many industries
including steel and
aluminium construction,
metallurgy,
manufacturing, aerospac
e , automotive and
other transportation
 is a modality of non-
destructive test that uses ionizing radiation to
inspect materials and components with the
objective of locating and quantifying defects and
degradation in material properties that would
lead to the failure of engineering structures. It
plays an important role in the science and
technology needed to ensure product quality
and reliability.
Industrial Radiography uses either X-rays
produced with generators or gamma rays
generated by the natural radioactivity of
sealed radionuclide sources. After crossing the
specimen, photons are captured by a detector,
such as a silver halide film, a phosphor plate of
flat panel detector. The examination can be
performed in static 2D (named radiography), in
real time 2D, (fluoroscopy) or in 3D after image
reconstruction (computed tomography or CT). It
is also possible to perform tomography nearly in
real time ( 4- dimensional computed
tomography or 4DCT).
CdTe detectors can also be used to analyse the X-ray spectrum. Particular
techniques such as X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-ray diffractometry (XRD), and
several other ones complete the range of tools that can be used in industrial
radiography.
Inspection techniques can be portable or stationary. Industrial radiography is used
in welding, casting parts or composite pieces inspection, in food inspection and
luggage control, in sorting and recycling, in EOD and IED analysis, aircraft
maintenance,ballistics,turbine inspection, in surface characterization, coating
thickness measurement, in counterfeit drug control,