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Chem
Chem
SOLUTIONS
A solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of
two or more substance. In such a mixture, a solute
is a substance dissolved in another substance
known as solvent.
Concentration of a Solution
Types of Solution
1.1
Sample Problem:
Calculate the concentration (ppm) of a solution
that has 30.75 mg Pb(NO3)2 in a 1.5 L solution
Sample Problem:
A salt solution contains 3.45g salt in 250g solution.
What is the mass percent of the solution?
Molarity
Sample Problem: - Molarity (M) is expressed as moles of solute
Calculate the percent by volume of a solution if the per volume of solution
volume of antifreeze required to make a 10 L - Unit: mol/L or molar
solution is 4 L.
Sample Problem:
Determine the molarity of 0.000889 g of
glycerine (C2H5NO2) in 1.05 mL solution.
1.2.
Sample Problem:
Determine the molarity of 0.000889 g of
glycerine (C2H5NO2) in 1.05 mL solution.
Sample Problem:
1.3 Parts Per Million
Determine the molarity of 1.457 mol KCl in
- Part per million is the concentration unit
1.500 L of solution.
that is used if the solute is too minute in
the solution.
- This is usually used to describe the
concentration of metals or any organic
Molality
- Molality (m) is expressed as moles of solute
per kilogram of solvent
- Unit: molal (m)
Sample Problem:
A solution is prepared by dissolving 32.0 g of
methanol (CH3OH) in 72.0 g of water. Calculate
Sample Problem: the mole fraction of methanol in the solution.
Calculate the molal concentration of a solution
that contains 18 g Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in
100 mL of water. (Molar mass of NaOH is
40g/mol)
Note: ( 1 g = 1 mL )
Solution Stoichiometry
Steps:
1. Express the given amount of substance
in mole
Sample Problem: 2. Convert the moles of the given substance
Calculate the molal concentration of a solution to the moles of the desired substance using a
that contains 3.0 moles of NaCl dissolved in stoichiometric factor derived from the balanced
2000 g of water. chemical equation.
3. Convert the moles of the sought
substance to any other desired units or
expression.
Sample Problem:
Calculate the mass (g) of Calcium nitrate
[Ca(NO3)2] that can be produced by reacting
Mole Fraction
136mL of 4.00 M nitric acid (HNO3) with excess
- the ratio of the number of moles of a given
calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2]. (Molar mass of
component to the total number of moles of the
Ca(NO3)2 is 164.1 g/mol)
solution
- Represented by XA or XB ( XA for solute, XB
2 HNO3 + Ca(OH)2 2 H2O + Ca(NO3)2
for solvents)
Sample Problem:
A solution is prepared by dissolving 32.0 g of
methanol (CH3OH) in 72.0 g of water. Calculate
the mole fraction of methanol in the solution. Sample Problem:
Calculate the mass (g) of Calcium nitrate
[Ca(NO3)2] that can be produced by reacting
136mL of 4.00 M nitric acid (HNO3) with excess
calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2]. (Molar mass of
Ca(NO3)2 is 164.1 g/mol) Where:
Where:
∏ = osmotic pressure
M = molarity of the solution
302 g of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) is added to 698 R = rate of ideal gas law (0.08206 L – atm/mol – K)
g of water. Calculate the boiling point of the T = temperature ( in Kelvin = Celsius + 273.15)
solution.
(Kb = 0.51⁰C/m) (BP of water is 100 ⁰C) When placed in a concentrated salt solution, certain
yeasts are able to produce high internal
concentrations of glycerol to counteract the osmotic
pressure of the surrounding medium. Suppose that
the yeast cells are placed in an aqueous solution
Freezing Poinit Depression containing 4.0% NaCl by mass; the solution density
- Freezing point is a colligative property is 1 g/mL at 25 ⁰C, calculate the osmotic pressure.
observed in solutions that results from
the introduction of solute molecules to a
solvent.
- Addition of solute will decrease the
vapor pressure and so will decrease the
Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions
freezing point.
- The following equations for the boiling
- The freezing point depression is
point elevation and freezing point
proportional to the cryoscopic constant
depression for solutions with electrolyte
of the pure solvent multiplied by the
solutes are as follows: ( i = van’t Hoff
molality of the solution.
factor)
Where:
∆Tf = freezing point depression
kf = cryoscopic constant / freezing point depression
constant
THERMOCHEMISTRY endothermic reaction (absorbs heat) has a positive
∆U.
- the study of heat change in chemical reactions.
+ q = heat is absorbed on the system
- q = heat is released by the system
Terms Related to Thermochemistry
+ w = work is done on the system
1. System – the set of substance being studied.
- W = work is done by the system
1.1 Open System – a system wherein heat
and matter (mass) can transfer from the
Sample Problems:
system to surroundings or vice-versa.
Calculate the change in energy in the following
1.2 Closed System – a system wherein only
processes. Identify if the process is endothermic or
heat can transfer from the system to the
exothermic.
surroundings, and vice-versa
1. A gas releases 35 J of heat as 84 J of work was
1.3 Isolated System – a system that DOES
done to compress it.
NOT interact with its surroundings
2. Surroundings – the part of space that is
outside our focus (system). For example, if
the system is everything inside a jar of a
solution, the surroundings is anything
outside the jar.
2. A system absorbs 50 J of heat during a
3. Universe – the part of space wherein system and
transformation. Determine the change in internal
surroundings exist.
energy if the system performs 15 J of work on the
4. Heat (q) – energy transferred between a system surrounding.
to surroundings because of the difference between
temperature. Heat always flow from higher
temperature to lower temperature.
5. Temperature (T) – average kinetic energy of an
object.
6. Thermal energy – kinetic energy that is
associated with random molecular motion. Enthalpy of Chemical Reaction
7. Work – force acted upon a distance.
8. Endothermic reaction – a type of reaction if the - Consider the hypothetical equation, where the
small letters are the coefficients and big letter are
system absorbs heat from its surroundings.
the chemical elements/compounds.
9. Exothermic reaction – a type of reaction if the
system gives off heat to the surroundings.
Sample Problem:
Calculate the standard heat of reaction
Internal Energy (U) is the total energy content of (∆H⁰reaction) for the reaction of nitrogen monoxide
the system. An exothermic reaction (releases heat) gas with oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide gas.
is characterized by negative ∆U, while an
Given:
∆H⁰f NO2 = 34.019 KJ/mol
∆H⁰f NO = 90.25 KJ/mol
∆H⁰f O2 = 0 KJ/mol
∆H⁰reaction = ?