Dept.

of ME
VIBRATION

Vibration may be considered as an oscillating motion of a particle or body

about its mean position.

A motion which repeats itself after a certain interval of time may be called
as vibration.

When vibration occurs, there are actually four forces involved that determine
the characteristics of vibration. These forces are:

(i) the exciting force, such as unbalance or misalignment

(ii) the mass of the vibrating system
(iii) the stiffness of the vibrating system
(iv) the damping characteristics of the vibrating system.

The exciting force is trying to cause vibration, whereas the

stiffness, mass and damping forces are trying to oppose the
exciting force and control or minimize the vibration. Perhaps
the simplest and easiest way to demonstrate and explain
vibration and its measurable characteristics is to follow the motion of a
weight suspended by a spring. This is a valid analogy since all machines
and their components have weight (mass), spring-like properties (stiffness)
and damping.

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Root Causes Of Vibration

Some of the more common problems which are known to produce

vibrations are as follows:

 unbalance of rotating parts

 Misalignment of couplings and bearings
 Eccentric components
 Bent shafts
 Component looseness
 Worn or damaged gears
 Bad drive belts and drive chains
 Bad anti-friction bearings
 Torque variations
 Aerodynamic forces
 Hydraulic forces
 Rubbing

Unbalance
This is basically in reference to the rotating bodies. Unbalancing means the
unequal forces in parts of a machine due to uneven distribution of masses.
This kind of force generated from the rotary motion of the machine parts
is the cause for vibration.
An unbalance in a rotor denotes that the center of gravity and the
geometric center of a disk are not at the same location. These two points
can never be same even for a perfectly made disk, since no material is
homogenous. Most of the disks are made to carry attachments like blades;
all the blades mounted cannot be exactly identical. Generator rotors are
made with several windings and they cannot be manufactured to be
perfectly symmetrical in all respects.
There are three types of unbalances depending on how the mass is
distributed on the rotor and how it will affect the position of the principal
axis of inertia with respect to the axis of rotation: static, couple and
dynamic unbalance
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Frequency of vibration is directly proportional to rpm of the machine
(amplitude proportional to amount of unbalance). Speed dependent on
centrifugal force; Vibration increase as the square of the speed
Misalignment
Misalignment is another of the common faults of rotating machinery. It is
the result of incorrect alignment of machine. Coupling misalignment means
shafts of the driver and the driven machine are not on the same
centerline (parallel or angular) For Example. Misalignment in centrifugal
pump may due to motors and pumps of different suppliers are mated
together. Flexible couplings are used to take up misalignment
(but could strain the couplings, bearings and seals).

Misalignment is temperature dependent (vibration changes on warm up)and it

is less sensitive to speed changes. Forces due to misalignment remain
constant with speed

The characteristics required to define vibration are

 Amplitude
 Frequency
 Phase

Amplitude
Vibration amplitude is measured in three main engineering units
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1. Displacement

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2. Velocity
3. Acceleration
The maximum displacement of a vibrating body from its mean position is
called amplitude. Velocity is defined as the distance in unit time.
Acceleration is the measure of the rate of change of velocity.

Frequency
Vibration frequency is the measure of the number of complete cycles that
occurred in a specified time period such as cycles per second (CPS) or
cycles per minute(CPM)
Frequency=1/period of time

Vibration frequency of CPS would actually be expressed as Hz. Expressing

vibration frequency in terms of CPM makes it much easier to relate the
indicated frequencies to the rotational speed of machine components.

For example if a machine operates at 3000 rpm, it is more meaningful to

know that a vibration occurs at 3000 CPM rather than 50Hz

Phase
Phase describes the relative timing between two signals. Phase is the
angle difference between a measured point and a reference point. In
practical sense, phase measurements provide a convenient way to determine
the relative motion between two or more parts of a machine moving at
the same frequency.

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For example the two weights shown in fig. are vibrating at the same
frequency and displacement; however weight A is at the upper limit of
travel at the instant weight B is at the lower limit. The points of peak
displacement are thus separated by one half cycle or 1800, therefore the
two weights are vibrating 1800 out of phase with each other.

VIBRATION SIGNATURE

It is the pattern of vibration generated during operation and plotted in the

form of amplitude v/s frequency.

Vibration signature provides a clear, accurate snapshot of the unique

frequency components generated by or acting on a machine-train. Such a
signature is obtained by converting time-domain data into its unique
frequency components using a fast Fourier transform(FFT). Such a vibration
signature referred to as frequency-domain data is used in signature analysis
to evaluate the dynamics of the machine.

Types Of Vibration Signature Analysis

 Automatic trending analysis

It is a predictive maintenance program utilizing a microprocessor
based vibration analyser and a properly configured database
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automatically trends vibration data on each a machine

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 Comparative analysis
FFT signatures that are collected on a regular schedule provide a
means of trending that can help the analyst identify changes in
machine condition. Changes in the operating parameters, such as
load, will directly affect the signature generated by a machine.
Displaying the signature in a waterfall or multiple spectra display
allows the analyst to easily see the relationship of each frequency
component generated by the machine.

 Multiple plots
Two or more signature can be shown on a single display. This
method permits the analyst to directly compare the actual signature
generated at each measurement point on both the suspect and a
reference machine train.

 Ratio analysis
With this technique, the signature from the suspect machine is divided
by the signature of the reference machine frequency by frequency.
The resultant display shows the relative amplitude, both positive and
negative of each frequency component in the suspect machine train.

MACHINE VIBRATION STANDARD, SEVERITY CHART

Machinery vibration standards are intended for the following purposes

1. To set up criteria for rating or classifying the performance of

equipment or material
2. To provide a basis for comparison of the maintenance qualities of
pieces of equipment of the same type
3. To test equipment whose continuous operation in necessary for
industrial or public safety
4. To provide a basis for the selection of equipment or material
5. To setup a procedure for the calibration of equipment.

ISO 2372 Standards provide guidance for evaluating vibration severity in

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machines operating in the 10 to 200Hz (600 to 12,000 RPM) frequency

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range. Examples of these types of machines are small, direct coupled,
electric motors and pumps, production motors, medium motors, generators,
steam and gas turbines, turbo compressors, turbo-pumps and fans. Some of
these machines can be coupled rigidly or flexibly, or connected though
shaft may be horizontal, vertical or inclined at any angle. The Table can
be used to judge the overall Vibration severity of the equipment.

For conventional vibration overall measurements, there exist a number of

general machinery vibration severity charts developed through years.
However, it is almost impossible to develop a universal overall level spike
energy severity chart for general machinery applications. This is due to the
fact that too many variables involved such as different machine types,
operating conditions, accelerometers, mounting methods and ambient
conditions. On the other hand, it is possible to develop an overall spike
energy severity chart based upon empirical data for certain type of
machines. General machinery vibration severity chart is used by vibration
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analyst for setting alarm level at different points of machine.

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Figure shows vibration severity chart which is used to determine
acceptability of vibration levels measured. Values shown are for filtered
readings taken on the machine structure or bearing cap

When using this vibration severity chart, the following factors must be taken
into consideration:

(a) When using displacement measurements only filtered displacement

readings (for a specific frequency) should be applied to the chart. Unfiltered
or overall velocity readings can be applied since the lines which divide the
severity regions are, in fact, constant velocity lines.

(b) The chart applies only to measurements taken on the bearings or

structure of the machine. The chart does not apply to measurements of
shaft Vibration.

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(c) The chart applies-primarily to machines which are rigidly mounted or
bolted to a fairly rigid foundation. Machines mounted on resilient vibration
isolators such as coil springs or rubber pads will generally have higher
amplitudes of vibration than those rigidly mounted. A general rule is to
allow twice as much Vibration for a machine mounted on isolators.

Machinery Vibration Troubleshooting and Diagnostic Analysis

A flow chart for vibration troubleshooting and diagnostic analysis is shown
in figure. Benign vibrations are characteristic of a machines operation and
will not cause any long term degradation or reduction in reliability. The
task for the analyst is to quickly identify a vibration as benign or serious
and then proceed accordingly. A very strong indication of serious vibration
is almost anything significant (greater than 1 X RPM) at rotational speed.
Other supporting information for serious vibrations are component failures
and cracks.
As soon as it is decided that the vibration is serious, the analyst needs
to identify whether the vibration is forced or natural resonance vibration.
The solutions for the two types are very different. This is why it is
important to identify the nature of the problem quickly.

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Forced vibration problems will solve by changing the bad parts, balancing
or alignment. The vibration measured at a point is a direct response to
some defect. Correct the defect will reduce the vibration at the
measurement location.
Resonance is a mechanical amplifier. It is non-linear and behaves in
unpredictable manner. That is a change in weight or a change in
alignment does not produce a proportional change in response at the
measurement point. Solution to resonance problems is very different than
forced vibration problems. Some of the methods to fix the resonance are

 Change the speed

 Add damping
 Find the source vibration and reduce it
 Use dynamic absorber

Vibration isolation is a process of reducing the vibrations of machines and

hence reducing the transmitted force to the foundation using vibration
isolating materials. Vibration isolation systems are used to reduce
transmission of vibration to surrounding structures. The Vibration isolation
may be obtained by placing materials, called vibration isolators such as
isolation pads, Springs etc. in between the vibrating body and the
supporting foundation or structure. The other type of isolation, known as
electronic force cancellation, employs electric power, sensors, actuators, and
control systems for vibration isolation.

Vibration troubleshooting is commonly applied to rotating reciprocating

machineries to evaluate health of the machines. Vibrations resulting from
bearings, electric motors, gearbox, belt and chain drives, and foundation
problems can be easily identified before it becomes severe operational
problem. The root cause of the vibration can be identified using vibration
analysis and corrective actions can be taken to avoid such problems.
Vibration analysis is, therefore, a powerful diagnostic tool, and
troubleshooting of major process machinery would be unthinkable without
modern vibration analysis.
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Methods for Vibration Measurement

Vibration Meter - It is the simplest instrument with which can measure the
vibration trends of displacement.by connecting the probe to the meter using
connecting cable, readings can be taken on the bearing caps of machine
under study. The data can be evaluated by using a standard or
comparison with vibration severity chart. of velocity or acceleration

Vibration Monitor - It is similar to vibration meter. But the monitor is

permanently or semi permanently installed to provide continuous protection
from excessive vibration. Vibration monitor normally incorporates alarm relays
in conjunction with preset vibration levels to warn when the vibration has
increased beyond the set level.

Vibration Analyser - It consists of a vibration meter together with a tunable

filter for separating the individual frequencies of complex vibrations

Proximity Probes - Eddy current based non-contact proximity probes are

used to measure displacement. These probes are commonly used to
monitor shaft vibration in journal bearings

VIBRATION ANALYSIS

Vibration Analysis is an effective method for detecting machine faults and

diagnosing the nature and Severity of the fault. There are hundreds of
specific mechanical and operational problems that can cause a machine to
exhibit excessive vibration. When a vibration problem exists In a detailed
analysis of the vibration should be performed to identify or pinpoint the
specific cause. Therefore, knowing the frequency of vibration is most
important. Vibration frequency is used as an analysis or diagnostic tool.

The major cause of vibration is the force generated from the rotary
motion of the machine parts. Most of the vibration problems will have
frequencies that are directly related to rpm of the machine because the
forces change in direction or amplitude according to the rotational speed.
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For example, consider a machinery consisting of a fan operating at 2400
rpm and belt (460 rpm) driven by a motor operating at 2980 rpm is
vibrating excessively at a measured frequency of 2400 CPM (1 X fan
RPM), it clearly indicates the fan being source of vibration and not the
motor or belt.

Now-a-days, vibration analyzers are available. Those analyzers can measure

and indicate the amplitude, frequency and phase of vibration. Normally, they
are recorders that may give printout of vibration characteristics from their
own inbuilt printer or the data stored can be downloaded to a computer
for further analysis.

The vibration measurements are to be made at different points and in

different directions. These measurements are properly studied to understand
the complex waveforms. The most preferred locations for vibration
measurement are bearings where the forces and loads are applied. For a
complete vibration signature of a machine, three-dimensional measurements
should be made at each location as the different malfunctions cause
vibrations at different discrete frequencies.
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In spectrum analysis, recordings are made at regular time intervals and
compared with previous recordings or original recordings which are used as
a standard.

The following procedures are generally adopted for vibration analysis.

 List the critical machines to be included for the analysis

 Establish the acceptable level of machine vibration
 Determine the normal vibration characteristics for each machine
 Select, identify the periodic check points for all the machines under
the analysis
 Estimate the periodicity of vibration checks for the selected check
points
 Design a simple data recording and storing system
 Develop an adequate data analysis procedure
 Train the personnel to carry out the vibration monitoring and analysis.

VIBRATION TRANSDUCERS

Vibration transducers convert vibration input of the machine to electrical

signal outputs in various forms giving required information

1. Based on Parameter being measured

 Proximity probes are sensitive to displacement (Displacement
Transducers)
 Velocity probes sensitive to velocity (Velocity Transducers)
 Acceleration probes are sensitive to acceleration (Acceleration
Transducers)
2. Based on electrical output
 Passive transducers
 Active transducers
3. Type of output produced
 Relative transducers
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 Absolute transducers

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4. Proximity of the transducer to the vibrating object
 Contact transducers
 Non-contact transducers

Based on Parameter being measured

Displacement Transducers
Displacement transducers which are also known as eddy current probes or
proximity probes are non-contact transducers used to measure relative
movement between the shaft and tip of sensor. They are typically drilled
into journal bearing or sleeve bearing. Hence they are difficult and
expensive to install. Displacement transducers are suitable for low frequency
measurement such as turbine and compressor applications

Velocity Transducer
Velocity transducers are contact transducers used to measure velocity.
They are usually mounted on bearing. Mostly used in condition monitoring
such as industrial fans, pumps etc. They are suitable for mid-range
frequency. It consists of a coil of wire and a magnet. This permanent
magnet is attached to the vibrating object to measure its velocity.

A permanent magnet moving back and forth within a coil winding induces
a voltage signal in the winding. This voltage signal is directly proportional
to the vibration is generated
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Acceleration Transducers
Accelerometer or acceleration transducers are contact type transducers and
are mounted on bearing housing. They are suitable for high frequency
measurement. Piezoelectric transducers accelerometer is the one of the
commonly used accelerometer. They use a mass that is attached to a
piezoelectric crystal material that varies its charge in response to
mechanical stress.

If the mass is accelerated the crystal provides a signal proportional to

acceleration. The piezoelectric crystals are usually preloaded so that either
an increase or decrease in acceleration causes a change in the charge
produced by them

Based on Electrical Output

Active transducer is used in any known physical principle for converting
non electrical energy into electrical. Passive transducer measures electrical
signal not in terms of voltage or current. They may be excitation voltage
or modulation of an AC carrier signal. Examples are strain gauges, LVDT
and capacitance pickups.

Based on Type Of Output Produced

In absolute measuring instruments, one terminal of the instrument is
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attached to a point which is fixed in space and the other terminal is

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attached to the vibrating object. The measurements are made with respect
to fixed frame in relative measuring instruments

Based on Proximity of the Transducer to the Vibrating Object

Contact type transducers are used to conduct vibration tests in heavy
specimens and the measuring probe is made to contact with the vibrating
object. Non-contact type transducers are used for measuring the same
parameters but the measuring probe is not made to contact with the
vibrating object.

VIBRATION MONITORING TECHNIQUES

Vibration is the motion of a machine or a machine part which is back

and forth from position of rest. Vibration is essentially the heartbeat of all
mechanical equipment. The analysis of vibration signals produced during the
operation of machineries provides important information about the condition
of the machinery. Vibration analysis can identify the machine problems such
as imbalance, misalignment, mechanical looseness, bent shaft, bad bearings,
gear damage, electrical trouble or faulty aerodynamic behavior. Since
excessive Vibration in machinery can cause serious problems, it is essential
to detect vibration well in advance to make a suitable repair or adjustment
scheme.

There are number of vibration monitoring techniques are available today for
condition monitoring. The various methods are
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TIME DOMAIN ANALYSIS
It refers to a display or analysis of the vibration data as a function of
time. In time domain analysis, the time history of event is recorded for
further analysis. The principal advantage of this format is that little or no
data lost prior to inspection.

Waveform Analysis
Waveform analysis consists of visual inspection of the time history of
vibration signal and recording the time history of the event on a storage
oscilloscope or a real time analyser. By using this method, discrete damage
occurring in gears such as broken teeth on gears and cracks in the
inner and outer races of the bearings can be identified relatively easily.

Indices
A time waveform index is a single number calculated in some way based
on raw distribution signal. These indices significantly reduce the amount of
data presented for inspection but highlight the difference between samples.
The peak level and Root Mean Square (RMS) level are often used to
quantify the time signal

Synchronous Averaging
Synchronous averaging is the time signal averaged over a large number of
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cycles and synchronous with the running speed of the machine. If taken

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over many cycles this technique removes background noise and non -
synchronous events from the vibrating signal

Orbit Analysis
The orbit analysis used in monitoring journal bearing wear, here 2
transducers are used to take the vibration measurement. Certain patterns
known as Lissajous figures can be obtained by displacing time waveforms
obtained from two transducers whose outputs are phase shifted by 90
degree in phase. Any change in pattern of these figures or orbits are
used to identify faults such as mis alignment in shafts, unbalance in
shafts, wear in bearings etc. The enlarged orbit diameter in the vertical
direction indicate that it has more bearing clearance in vertical direction.

Statistical Analysis
Statistical analysis can also be carried out on time domain data. This
method follows the probability density technique. The probability density is
the probability of finding instantaneous values within a certain amplitude
interval divided by the size of the interval. Fault conditions will have
different characteristics shapes. These curves if derived from machinery
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vibration signals can subsequently be used in monitoring machine condition.

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These are probability density moments (single number indices) based on

probability density moments. Mean and Skewness reflect the probability
density function peak position relative to the mean. The most useful indices
is kurtosis. Kurtosis proportional to the spread of distribution. It is sensitive
to the impulsiveness in vibration signal and therefore sensitive to type of
vibration signal generated in early stages of rolling element bearing fault.

FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS

In frequency domain analysis, the vibration data is displayed or analysed

as a function of frequency.

The time domain vibration signal is processed into frequency domain by

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applying a fast Fourier transform algorithm.

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Signature Spectrum Analysis

Signature spectrum analysis takes the incoming signal and breaks it into its
individual frequencies by using either an analogue filter or a software
process called Fourier analysis

The frequency domain signal or frequency spectrum is a plot of the

amplitude of vibration response versus the frequency and can be derived
by using digital fast Fourier analysis of the time waveform. The frequency
spectrum provides valuable information about the condition of machine

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Enveloped Spectrum Analysis

Enveloped spectrum analysis technique is applied in condition monitoring
when background vibrations have to be suppressed. Thus, it limits the
monitoring to the appropriate frequency range. This technique involves first,
a high-pass filtering operation to remove dominating low-frequency
components in the spectrum. The resulting signal is then rectified partially
or fully. This technique is effectively applied to detecting and diagnosing
rolling element bearings

Band Pass Analysis

Band pass analysis involves filtering the vibration signal above or below
specific frequencies in order to reduce the amount of information presented
in the spectrum to set band of frequencies. They are classified into
 Broad band
 Narrow band

Broad band technique acquires overall or broad band vibration readings

from select points on a machine. Overall readings are obtained by taking
the raw signals from transducer and obtaining peak, peak-to-peak or RMS
values of the signal. They can then be recorded. These data are
compared with either a baseline reading from a new machine or vibration
severity charts to determine the relative condition of machine.

Narrowband trending monitors the total energy for a specific bandwidth of

vibration frequencies. Unlike broadband, narrowband analysis uses vibration
frequencies that represent specific machine components or failure modes.
This method provides the means to quickly monitor the mechanical condition
of critical machine equipment not just the overall machine condition

QUEFRENCY ANALYSIS
A Quefrency domain plot results when a Fourier transform of frequency
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spectra is generated. As a frequency spectra highlight the periodicities in

time waveform, so the Quefrency Cepstra highlights periodicities in a

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frequency spectrum. Quefrency serves as the abscissa for a parameter
known as Cepstrum. The cepstrum is useful in machine condition monitoring
and diagnosis since it can detect any periodicity in the spectrum caused
by the failure of components such as blade in turbine and gear tooth in a
gear box.

WEAR DEBRIS ANALYIS

Fault detection using vibration analysis is difficult in very low speed – high
load noisy machines. In the case of slow speed bearing the vibration
generated by damaged components is very low, usually close to the floor
noise and difficult to identify. In these situations, Wear Debris Analysis has
proven useful in providing supporting evidence on the bearing or gear
status. It also provides information on the wear mechanism, which is
involved.
Wear debris analysis (WDA) is related to oil analysis only in which the
particles to be studied are collected through drawing a sample of
lubricating oil. Wear debris analysis provides direct information about the
wearing condition of the machine train, whereas the lubricating oil analysis
determines the actual condition of the oil sample.

Particles in the lubricant of a machine can provide significant information

about the condition of the machine. This information is obtained from the
study of particle shape, composition, size and quantity. Wear debris analysis
is normally conducted in two stages.

The first method is routine monitoring and trending of the solid content of
the machine lubricant. The continuous trending of wear rate monitors the
performance of machine and provides early warning and diagnosis. In
simple terms, the quantity, composition, and size of particulate matter in the
lubricating oil are indicative of the mechanical condition of the machine.

The second method involves analysis of the particulate matter in each

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lubricating oil sample. In this test, the lubricant sample is run through a

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particle counter. The counter passes the lubricant stream through a beam
that measures the number and sizes of the solid particle contained in the
fluid. If the wear debris concentration indicates that are too many particles
in a given size range, then further investigation is required. The solid
components are then inspected under a microscope. The results of this test
include particle identification, possible sources.

Separation and study of wear particles can provide a powerful basis for
condition monitoring of machinery.

Five basic types of wear that can be identified according to the

classification of particles are Rubbing Wear, Cutting wear, Rolling fatigue
wear, Combined rolling and sliding wear and severe sliding wear.

Rubbing wear (Abrasive wear) – particle size less than <20 micron. Rubbing
wear is the result of normal sliding wear in a machine.

Cutting Wear - Swarf such as chips of fine wire coils. This abnormal wear
is produced when one surface penetrate another surface.

Rolling Fatigue - Chunky, several micron thick form. 20-50 micron chord
width, primary result of rolling contact bearing failure.

Combined rolling and sliding wear – typically ferrous, 1>10 micron diameter
generated when micro cracks occur under rolling contact fatigue condition

Severe sliding wear – >50 micron chord width, several microns width.
Surfaces heavily striate with long straight edges. Typically it is found in
gear wear. It is caused by excessive loads or heat in the gear system.

The wear particle shape gives an indication as to the damage mechanism

by which that particle was removed. The wear shape characterization being
used is shown in Fig

Platelets: Two dimensional particles produced by metal to metal sliding.

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Spherical: Produced by bearing fatigue or by lubrication failure resulting in
local overheating.

Spirals: Similar in appearance to machining swarf, and are produced by

a harder surface abrading into a softer

Chunky: Produced by a fatigue mechanism

WEAR DEBRIS METHODS

Optical methods – This technique uses the light intensity which occurs when
particle debris pass through a light beam. The intensity change is detected
using photodiode and output is calibrated to give particle size for the flow
conditions

Filter blockage - This technique depends upon the change in the

pressure/flow characteristic which occur an orifice is blocked by debris
within the liquid passing through orifice.

Magnetic attraction - This technique uses the magnetic susceptibility of

ferrous contaminants to separate the debris from carrying fluid. The
separation is brought about by a variety of method such as the use of a
permanent magnet or a magnetic filter.

Electrical conductance – A technique depends upon the electrical conductivity

of debris within a non-conducting fluid.
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Image analysis- Basically a technique involving the computer analysis of
video camera images of dried and cleaned particles extracted from a
carrier fluid.

CONDITION MONITORING OF BALL AND ROLLER BEARINGS

Ball and roller bearings are among the most common and important
elements in rotating machinery. Every rolling element or anti-friction bearing
has a limited life which is strongly influenced by installation, operating
condition and the maintenance it receives. Machine reliability, efficiency and
safety depend on bearings functioning properly. Eventually, metal fatigue
causes every bearing to wear out and fail. Bearings fail prematurely due to
operating condition, lubrication and usage problems. The best solution then is
to systematically monitor bearing condition and schedule replacement at
times least influencing production efficiency.

Several methods are currently used to monitor bearing condition. The

most common is vibration analysis. This can be as simple as listening to
or feeling for roughness using human senses or using sophisticated
spectrum analysis. Temperature, sonic and ultrasonic noise and acoustic
emission measurement techniques, among others, are also used. All of
these methods can be influenced by outside factors other than bearing
condition.

A change of speed, mass or alignment of any machine part will

cause some changes in it vibration spectrum. Detecting and measuring that
a change has occurred is quite straight forward using reliable vibration
analysers interpreting and predicting the reasons for this change are not so
easy. In many cases, failure detection is performed in the 20Hz to 20
KHz frequency range. However, quite often the bearing can reach an
advanced stage of damage before the vibration signature at the frequencies
related to the speed of rotation increase above that of the background
noise level. By the time the bearing vibration signal is large enough to be
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reliably detected, in many case the bearing is close to failure, providing
very little warning time.

A method based on monitoring the mechanical impacts caused by bearing

damage and operating condition problems is now available and widely used.
This technique allows a bearing’s condition to be tested over its entire life.
It is not influenced by design, size, or background vibration of the
machine. This technique is called the Shock Pulse Method (SPM).

SHOCK PULSE METHOD (SPM)

SPM used to analyse the vibration of bearing. SPM Method detects

development of a mechanical shock wave caused by the impact between
two masses. At the instantaneous moment of impact, molecular contact
occurs and a compression (shock) wave develops in each mass. The SPM
Method is based on the events occurring in the mass during the extremely
short time period after the first particles of the colliding bodies come in
contact. This time period is so short that no detectable deformation of the
material has yet occurred. The molecular contact produces vastly increased
particle acceleration at the impact point. SPM Instrument uses a piezo-
electric accelerometer to measure the mechanical impact or shock pulse,
without being influenced by other factors such as background vibration and
noise.
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TEMPERATURE MONITORING
Temperature is defined as the measure of velocity of fluid particles. It
is a property which is used to determine the degree of hotness or
coldness or the level of heat intensity of body. Instruments for measuring
ordinary temperature are known as thermometer and those measuring high
temperature are known as pyrometer.
Most equipment operates on ambient temperature. Often, the defects
occur because of wear, friction, slippage, impact or other tribological
reasons in part of energy getting wasted and converted into heat energy
which heats the connected components. The difference between ambient
temperature and equipment operating under load is the temperature rise
and this temperature rise is monitored to detect any faults. On large
engines, air handlers, boilers, turbines, etc., temperature transducers are
included for all major bearings to monitor the temperature during operation.
Some packages include shut-down circuits and alarms when temperature
goes above certain limits. The hardware for infrared is becoming more and
more powerful. An infrared gun takes spot temperatures without imaging
capability.

The techniques used in such monitoring may be one or more of the

followings
1. Temperature crayons and tapes
2. Thermometer and optical pyrometer
3. Bimetallic strips
4. Thermistors
5. Infrared thermography

Temperature Crayons and Tapes

Temperature monitoring by feel of hand or by simple measuring
items/instruments like thermometers, temperature crayons and tapes etc. is
an age-old practice of finding out defects or defective components. The
subjective of temperature monitoring is touching the motor etc. and
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assessing if overheated. Also, temperature sensitive stickers are the most
common and cost effective.
A sticker having four of five 20 mm diameter dots of special paints,
each of which changes its colour at a particular temperature is stuck to
the heat prone parts of the equipment. The operators or supervisor can
identify its temperature range by looking at the stickers from a distance
itself during their periodic patrol rounds.

Thermometer and Pyrometers

Thermometers are used to measure the temperature of smaller ranges. The
range of thermometers is increased to certain limits by using infrared
thermometers.

(i) Pistol Thermometers

Pistol thermometer is a non -contact, pistol-grip thermometer enables the
capture of a simultaneous, time-stamped digital photographic image as a
temperature reading is taken. The logged results and images from up to
100 locations can be uploaded via a USB connection to a PC using the
windows-based software that comes with the thermometer.

Thus, the temperatures can be stored, presented graphically and analysed.

The photographic images can be displayed on screen for improved
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documentation and maintenance follow-up.

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(ii) Infrared thermometer

Infrared thermometers or spot radiometers are designed to provide the
actual surface temperature at a single, relatively small point on a machine
surface. Within a predictive maintenance program, infrared thermometer can
be used in conjunction with many of the micro-processor-based vibration
instruments to monitor the temperature at critical points on plant machinery
or equipment. This technique is typically used to monitoring bearing cap
temperatures, motor winding temperature, spot checks of process piping
temperatures and similar applications. It is limited that the temperature
represents a single point on the machine structure.

iii) Pyrometers
When very high temperature is to be measured and where physical contact
of probe cannot be made with place being measured, pyrometers are used
Commonly used pyrometers are

1.Total radiation pyrometers

These pyrometers receive all the radiation from a particular area of the hot
body. This in turn is focused on a temperature sensitive transducer like
thermocouple. These consist of a radiation receiving element and a
measuring device to indicate the temperature directly

2.Infrared pyrometers
Infrared pyrometers-at some high temperature, a surface starts emitting
infrared rays in addition to visible light energy. These infrared rays are
used with a detector and electronic circuit to measure the temperature.

3. Optical radiation pyrometers

Within the visible region of electronic spectrum a given wavelength has a
fixed colour. The energy of radiation is interpreted as intensity of
brightness. So measurement of brightness of a given colour is an indication
of temperature. If an optical pyrometer, the wavelength of radiation accepted
is restricted by a colour filter and the brightness is measured by comparing
with a standard lamp.
BIMETALLIC STRIP
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The bimetallic strip temperature measurement is based on change in
dimension of the metal. A very widely used method of temperature
measurement is the bimetallic strip. As already discussed, the basic
principle in bimetallic temperature measurement is based on the change in
dimension of metals i.e., expand or contract when there is a change in
temperature. The expansion or contraction is based on the thermal
expansion coefficient. It changes from metal to metal.

Two pieces of metal with different coefficients of thermal expansion are

bonded together to form the bimetallic strip as shown in figure. It is in
the form of a cantilever beam. When the strip is subjected to a
temperature higher than the bonding temperature, it will be bent in one
direction. Suppose, it is subjected to a temperature lower than the bonding
temperature, it will be bent in the other direction.

Advantages
1. The cost is low when compared to other temperature measuring
instruments.
2. It has negligible maintenance expense.
3. Stable operation over extended periods of time.

Disadvantages
1. It is not suitable for more than 400°C.
2. The permanent deformation of metallic strip may occur.

THERMISTORS
Thermistor is a temperature sensitive variable resistor made of ceramic like
semi conducting material. They are made of metal oxides and they are
made up Cobalt, Copper, Nickel etc. Unlike metals, thermistors respond
negatively to temperature. They behave as resistors with a high negative
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temperature coefficient of resistance. Typically for each 10C rise in

temperature, the resistance of thermistor decreases by about 5%.This high

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sensitivity to temperature changes makes the thermistor useful in precision
temperature measurements.

THERMOGRPHY
A Thermography technique uses the distribution of
surface temperatures to assess the structure or behavior of what is under
the surface.
Infrared thermography is equipment or method, which detects infrared
energy emitted from object, converts it to temperature, and displays image
of temperature distribution. Infrared Thermography as its name implies, is a
non-contact; sensing method concerned with the measurement of
radiated electromagnetic energy. An infrared camera is in fact a spectral
radiometer measuring this energy and proper calibration (based on the
Planck’s law) allows retrieving the temperature distribution on the surface of
interest.
Figure represents a schematic diagram of an active infrared
thermography station. Because the infrared (IR) camera is the central piece,
if surface emissivity is sufficiently high, relevant temperature differences on
the surface being tested can be measured. IR images (Thermograms) are
preferably recorded by direct digital transfer or on videotape

Advantages
1. Quick problem detection is possible without interrupting service
2. Prevention of premature failure and extension of equipment life are
identified
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3. Potential dangerous or hazardous equipment are identified.

4. Temperature profile can be recorded and displayed easily.

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PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

October-2017

1. Define vibration signature

2. Explain unbalance caused for vibration
3. Explain the method for vibration analysis
4. What are the common problems which produce vibration
5. Explain shock pulse method for condition monitoring
6. Explain 3 methods for condition monitoring
7. Explain the vibration phenomenon with a simple spring mass system

April-2017

1. What is the use of equipment records

2. Explain bi metallic strip method of temperature measurement
3. Explain wear debris analysis
4. Explain the various levels of condition monitoring
5. Explain temperature sensitive tapes

October-2016

1. Explain the different types of transducers used in vibration analysis

2. Explain wear debris analysis
3. Give the advantages and disadvantages of condition monitoring
4. Explain the fundamental steps in condition monitoring
5. List any four methods of corrosion monitoring

April-2016

1. Explain vibration signature

2. Explain the principle of wear debris analysis
3. List the main causes of vibration
4. Explain the principle of temperature monitoring? List the methods used in temperature
monitoring
5. Explain the principle of condition monitoring. Give the advantages and disadvantages of
condition monitoring
6. Explain the principle and procedure for vibration monitoring
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October-2015

1. What is mean by vibration signature?

2. Explain phase characteristic of vibration
3. Explain the following characteristic of vibration a) displacement b) velocity c)acceleration
d) frequency
4. List the vibration monitoring techniques. Explain frequency domain analysis
5. What are the procedural steps in vibration analysis
6. List the common failures occurring to a bearing
7. What are the basic requirements of bearing materials

March-2015

1. What is condition monitoring

2. Explain wear debris analysis
3. Define vibration. What are the factors involved that determine the characteristic of vibration
4. What are the common problems which produce vibration
5. Explain pistol thermometers
October-2014

1. Briefly explain vibration signature analysis

2. List the different methods for condition monitoring
3. Explain the principle of working of vibration transducer? List different types of vibration
transducers
4. Define condition monitoring? Explain offline and online methods for condition monitoring
5. Explain vibration monitoring .list the elements of vibration monitoring
6. Explain the temperature monitoring technique used for condition monitoring

March-2014

1. List the methods for condition monitoring

2. List the causes and effects of unwanted vibration
3. Explain wear debris analysis
4. Explain the benefits of condition monitoring
5. Explain vibration analysis. List the common vibration measuring techniques.What are the
common vibration measuring used.
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